Brain-Based Learning
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Brain-Based Learning
Graduation Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Department of English Language and Literature Notre Dame Seishin University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree Bachelor of Arts
by Akiha Inoue 2015
1 Contents Abstruct 1 Chapter One: Brain-based learning 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Traditional conceptualization of learning 1 1.2.1. Gagné’s 8 conditions of learning 1 1.2.2. Learning strategies 2 1.2.2.1. Rubin’s learning strategies 2 1.2.2.2. Vocabulary learning 2 1.3. Introduction of BBL 8 1.3.1. Definition of BBL 8 1.3.2. Crucial factors of BBL 9 1.3.2.1. Language processing 9 1.3.2.2. Emotions 10 1.3.2.3. Memory 11 1.3.2.3.1. Phonological working memory 13 1.4. Research into BBL 14 1.4.1. The case for BBL 14 1.4.2. Issues with the case for BBL 14 1.5. Research Question 14 1.6. Summary 15
Chapter Two: The Experiment 16 2.1. Introduction 16 2.2. The experiment 16 2.2.1. Introduction to the experiment 16 2.2.2. Experiment 16 2.2.3. Results 18 2.2.3.1. Introduction 18 2.2.3.2. Memorizing methods subjects often use 18 2.3. Summary 20
2 Chapter Three: Discussion 21 3.1. Introduction 21 3.2. Summary of the results 21 3.3. Discussion of the results 21 3.3.1. Discussion of the tests 21 3.4. Research questions 24 3.5. Implications 25 3.6. Limitations of the Experiment 26 3.7. Further research 26 3.8. Conclusion 27
3 Abstract
Nowadays, the number of people determined to acquire a foreign language has increased and that makes the number of learning methods rise for the needs of individuals. Therefore, we tend to choose the best method depending on the situation from a variety of methods some of which were proposed hundreds of years ago to today.
In Chapter One, we look at traditional learning methods and compares them. At the same time, we focus on the new way of learning system called Brain-based learning
(BBL) which briefly consists of three parts; processing language in our brain, emotions and memories. There is not so much BBL research but BBL can be expected as one of the learning methods enable learners to acquire language meaningfully.
In Chapter Two, we explained the process and the result of the experiment and questionnaire. To examine how useful BBL is for language learning, we compared the methods using a single element like written practice or reading practice to the method using phonological loop as a part of BBL.
In Chapter Three, we discussed the results from the experiment done in Chapter
Two. The results show that BBL can be effective for long term memory development of word knowledge. For example, the preference of our learning styles doesn’t match our best learning methods. In other words, the person can learn more effectively with a method which he or she doesn’t normally use than the method s/he does. In the experiment, the number of subjects who actually got higher score with the method they don’t usually use was 62%. As for BBL, the method using phonological memory which
4 can be considered as one of the elements of BBL allowed vocabulary stay in our memory longer than other methods like writing practice. It still remains a mystery whether BBL methods might be adopted for every learner, but it can be effective enough for vocabulary learning from the result of the experiment.
5 Chapter One1 Brain-based learning
1.1. Introduction
These days a lot of language learning styles and strategies to acquire second language (L2) have been proposed and we tend to choose the learning style which suits individuals. Some of them are focused on how learners connect their current knowledge with new knowledge, and others are dedicated to learners’ motivation. In other words, it is quite difficult to say only one method works for everybody. In this chapter, we are going to look at several learning styles and brain based learning (BBL), focusing on the structure of brain and how it works when we are learning.
1.2 Traditional conceptualizations of learning
In these sections we will look at traditional learning styles and compare each of them like the hierarchy of learning proposed by Gagné (1956) or learning strategies by
Rubin (1987).
1.2.1 Gagné’s 8 categories of learning
Gagné (1956) the American educational psychologist, suggested 8 conditions of learning in terms of the degree of complexity. These learning levels below show the hierarchy of learning and it gets complex from 1 to 8.
Stage 1. Signal Learning
6 This is the very first level of learning that learners just show the response to a signal. (e.g. Quick response like leaving the hand from the heat, or jumping by the startle)
Stage 2. Stimulus-response learning
This is also known as Operant conditioning proposed by Skinner (1948), and is mainly focused on the relation between ‘rewards’ and ’punishments’. Operant conditioning differs from Signal learning above because it doesn’t only see the response of learners after the signal but reinforcement is presented after the response. That is, learners learn to understand automatically what they have to do to get the desired response (here it should be rewards) but sometimes punishments will be given when they make mistakes.
Stage 3. Chaining
This is the level that subjects link previously-learned stimulus-responses together and try to do something new. (e.g. playing the violin or parallel parking)
Stage 4. Verbal association
This is a slightly higher level than these 3 learning stages above, at which subjects link the items together verbally. There is no doubt this is the key process in terms of developing language skills. (e.g. translating one language into another)
Stage 5. Discrimination learning
7 This is the form of learning in which the subjects are required to respond appropriately depending on the situation that they have not experienced but are similar to situations they already learned. (e.g. giving an appropriate equivalent in one language for another language)
Stage 6. Concept learning
This is the level developing the ability form the basis of generalizing and classifying. Here subjects tend to identify which groups objects belong to, and add them to categories.
Stage 7. Rule learning
This is the stage subjects learn relationships between concepts which they previously learned, and apply them in different situations. This is more practically done in our daily lives. (e.g. applying mathematical theorems)
Stage 8. Problem solving
This is considered the highest level in terms of cognitive process according to
Gagné. At this stage subjects create a new rule or procedure to solve particular problems using what they currently know at the stage 1-7 above. (e.g. finding an appropriate crue to solve one problem)
Summary
We looked at Gagné’s 8 conditions of learning and sorted out how learners develop their skills depending on situation and use the combination of these way of
8 learning together. It should be pretty clear that language learners go through the same stages from 1 to 8 introduced above. Even though this hierarchy of learning was suggested almost 60 years ago, it is thought that this helps us to know which level learners belong to by looking at the features of each stage of development.
1.2.2 Learning Strategies
It is said research into language learning strategies began in the 1960s, and there is no doubt the idea of focusing on strategies for acquiring languages faster is quite new way of approach for language learning. In this section, we are going to look strategies for language acquisition and several types of vocabulary learning.
1.2.2.1 Rubin’s learning strategies
Basically there are three types of strategies proposed by Rubin (1987); learning strategies, communication strategies, and social strategies. Learning strategies consist of cognitive learning strategies and metacognitive learning strategies. These are mainly focused on the language system developed by learners. As for cognitive learning strategies, they refer to the operations or the ways used in problem-solving which we have looked before. Rubin identified six main cognitive learning strategies such as clarification / verification, guessing / inductive inference, deductive reasoning, practice, memorization, and monitoring. On the other hand, metacognitive learning strategies are used to oversee, control or self-direct language learning, for instance, planning, prioritising, setting goals, and self-management.
1.2.2.2 Vocabulary learning strategies
9 Regarding language acquisition, it can be said that vocabulary is the core of our
language and the more we learn vocabulary the faster we will acquire languages. Thus,
we should make a special effort on vocabulary learning. Here are several methods in
terms of vocabulary learning and briefly classified into three groups; decontextualizing,
semi-contextualizing and fully contextualizing methods. Let us look through a variety of
methods of these four groups.
・Decontextualizing methods
Three methods can be considered as decontextualizing ones such as word lists,
flashcards, and conventional dictionary use.
1. word lists
This is the one of the most prevalent ways of learning vocabulary which uses
word lists and a technique is not necessary. In general, learners make a list of words in
their target languages and repeatedly memorize by matching the word and meaning in
their mother languages or others. Here is an example of a Spanish and English word
list:
1) encontar to find
2) tambien also
3) agua water
4) blanco white
5) donde where
2. flash cards
10 This method is very popular in schools and students may be familiar with
learning words by flash cards. The aim of this learning method is to memorize words
quickly. The types of flash cards are particularly words printed in both sides of a card or
pictures illustrated one side and the meaning matches to that written on the other side.
Accordingly, learners can learn a language with the specific image of the word on that
card.
3. conventional dictionary use
In this method, learners can learn how words can be used in the sentence by
looking up the word in a dictionary and checking the sentence and an example.
Therefore, it can be possible that learners use the word in appropriate situation and in
correct form. Here is an example when you look up the word ‘pursue’ in a dictionary.
pursue
▶verb (pursues, pursuing, pursued) [with obj. ]
1 follow or chase (someone or something)
the officer pursued the van
・Semi-Contextualizing methods
11 A number of techniques concerned with semi-contextualizing methods exist for
learning L2 vocabulary. For example, word grouping, word or concept association,
visual imagery, aural imagery, keyword and semantic mapping.
1. Word grouping
This is effective to learn the words which have connections with each other, for
example, the group of words like all nouns or irregular verbs of a certain kind. This aims
to learn a series of words at one time and understand the difference lies over groups of
words.
e.g. < words about weather >
・ sunny
・ snowy
・ foggy
・ gloomy
2. Word or concept association
This association task involves making connections between the words or
concepts which learners come across and those learners have already had in their
memory. So sometime this is known as “elaboration”. There are some different
classifications and let me show below as examples.
12 e.g. ・ semantic association
a needle and a thread, bread with butter
・multipart development
apple - red - rose - flower - nature - earth…
3. visual imagery
This method needs visual aids like a picture and helps learners to make
associations between a word and a picture. Basically, the visual imagery method is
almost the same as the word grouping method but here visual images mainly
encourage learners to understand the relations between words depending on the
situation.
4. Aural imagery
This method focuses on the sound words have and make a connection between
words in mother language and in a learner’s target language. Some languages were
derived from one language so that they have similarities of sounds.
e.g. English and Spanish
describe - escribir
paper - papel
13 5. Keyword
This is basically the combination of aural imagery and visual imagery above.
First learners are supposed to identify a familiar word in their own language (aural
imagery) and then imagine the situation as a picture that word is used. (e.g. To learn the
new French word potage (soup), the English speaker associates it with a pot and then
mentally pictures a pot full of potage) (Oxford & Crookall, 1990, p. 19)
6. Semantic mapping
This is a potentially valuable tool for L2 learners in that point they can acquire
vocabulary not only as a group of words but for understanding word associations and
visual imagery. Figure 1 shows the example of semantic mapping for Spanish and
English related to school.
Figure 1: Semantic Map for Spanish Words Concerning Classroom Objects and People
14 ・Fully Contextualizing methods
This method is all about the 4 language skills of reading, listening, speaking and writing. While practicing the combination of these 4 skills, learners can expect to acquire a large amount of vocabulary. However, “the difficulty with this notion is that practice alone is not sufficient for vocabulary growth” (Oxford & Crookall, 1990, pp.22). The methods are reading and listening practice, and speaking and writing practice.
Section summary
There have been a lot of learning methods proposed by linguists and they are still considered as traditional learning strategies good enough for learning a language.
Most of these traditional methods use one or at most two of these components such as writing practice or reading aloud. Thus, people tend to choose one favorite method depending on what they learn.
In addition to these traditional approaches, BBL was proposed as a new way of learning using the combination of four skills and other elements work well for language processing. We will look at what BBL is like in next section.
1.3. Introduction to BBL
BBL is one learning method focused on the structure of brain and how it works while we are learning. This learning method was developed because of the belief
15 learners and educators should understand how the brain learns and put that knowledge about the brain into the practice when they teach and learn.
1.3.1. Definition of BBL
Brain-based learning theory considers research depending on neural mechanisms that promote the learning process as a way to optimize presentation. That is, learning is due to the structures and functions of the brain (Alireza & Seyed, 2013).
Therefore, it can be said brain learns when it processes cognitive, affective, and psychomotor information simultaneously (Jensen, 2005). In this section we will look through 12 brain compatible principles for learners and educators below.
1. The brain is a parallel processor.
2. Learning engages the entire physiology.
3. The search for meaning is innate.
4. The search for meaning occurs through “pattering”.
5. Emotions are critical to pattering.
6. The brain processes parts and wholes simultaneously.
7. Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception.
8. Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes.
9. We have at least two different types of memory, a spatial memory system
and a set of systems for rote learning.
10. We understand and remember best when facts and skills are embedded
in natural, spatial memory.
11. Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat.
12. Each brain is unique. (Caine & Caine, 1991, pp. 80-87)
16 As you can see, these 12 principles are engaged in three main aspects of learning, how the brain works, emotions and memories. Thus, BBL can be considered a learning method using the combination of these three aspects working together when we learn.
1.3.2 Crucial factors of BBL
In this section, we are going to look through three crucial factors of BBL and understand how brain works when we learn.
1.3.2.1 Language processing
As for BBL, we should understand how language is processed in our brain.
Figure 2. Brain regions specialized for language of the left hemisphere.
There are following four4 specific areas of the brain restricted to language- relevant cortex, Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, and parts of the middle temporal gyrus and inferior parietal and angular gyrus in the parietal lobe. According to Brodmann
(1909) who first provided a cytoarchitectonic description of the human cortex, basically the brain is classified into a total of 52 areas and grouped into 11 histological areas.
17 Each of them is specialized for several functions of body. As you can see, in the picture of brain displayed above, there are areas colored green and red. Green area is called
Broca’s area (BA 44, 45) located in the posterior inferior frontal gyrus and works for speech production. On the other hand, red area is called Wernicke’s area (BA 22) located on the temporal lobe on the left side of the brain and which works for comprehension of speech (i.e., As an another role, here takes a role of discrimination of phoneme). Whereby auditory input (acoustic-phonological analysis) takes place in the temporal lobe. On the other hand, syntactic and semantic processes occurs in separable temporo-frontal networks lateralized to the left hemisphere.
Figure 3: Names of parts in the brain and what they work for.
1.3.2.2 Emotions
Attention is paid to how students feel when are learning a language. Thus, it can be said emotions play an important role in language acquisition. Therefore teachers
18 should understand how students feel and how their emotions influence on development of their language. “Emotions drive attention, create meaning, and have their own memory pathways” (Jensen, 2005). “The brain is biologically designed to serve first information that has strong emotional content. It is also made a schedule to remember this information longer” (Alireza & Seyed, 2013). The role of amygdala is to determine the incoming stimuli concerned with emotions. Subsequently emotional relevance is processed through the cortex to make sense of it and to decide what to do next as well.
The process stimuli go through from the thalamus to the amygdala takes a quarter of a second faster than that from the thalamus to the cortex (Wolfe, 2001). Therefore, emotions can be a critical part of learning language from the perspective of neuroscience.
1.3.2.3 Memory
Memory takes the biggest part of elements needed for language acquisition.
However, there are large variety of memory system of the brain depending on what kind of information we store as memory. In this section we are going to look at various types of memory systems and the difference between them.
・Sensory memory
Sensory memory is the short-term elemenatry memory to retain impression of sensory information after people get the stimuli through the 5 senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. This is the ultra-short memory so this memory degrades within
200-500 milliseconds after the perception of an item and less than a second. (i.e., the
19 ability to remember what something looked like by looking at it with just a second of observation).
・Working memory
Working memory is a limited capacity part of memory system of human beings and combines the temporary storage and manipulation for cognition. At the same time
“the term working memory is used most frequently to refer to a limited capacity system that is capable of briefly storing and manipulating information involved in the performance of complex cognitive tasks such as reasoning, comprehension and certain types of learning” (Baddeley and Hitch, 2010) This differs from long-term memory at the point that long-term memory which has a vast of capacity and stores information more stably than short-term memory like working memory. According to the multi-component model, this kind of memory involves executive controls of separate short-term stores for auditory-verbal and visual-spatial information. Therefore, working memory also differs from short-term memory (STM) simply because “STM assumes both the storage and manipulation information, and in the emphasis on its functional role in complex cognition” (Baddeley, 2010).
・Long-term memory
Basically long-term memory consists of two kinds of memory, procedural memory and declarative memory (otherwise known as implicit memory and explicit memory).
20 Procedural memory is an unconscious memory of skills needed particularly for the movement of the body or the use of objects, for instance, it is normally used when people play musical instruments or drive a car. So people gain the ability to do something without explicit and conscious awareness of the previous experiences. That is, this memory refers to the skills or tasks and works unconsciously.
On the other hand, declarative memory involves the ability for learning and consciously remembering everyday facts and events (Squire et al., 2004). For example, let’s say that you have some friends you often call, and you can recall their phone numbers. In other words, declarative memory allows people to consciously remember the date, facts or events based on their experiences. This memory also can be further sub-divided into episodic memory and semantic memory.
・Episodic and semantic memory
As we know that declarative memory consists of episodic memory and semantic memory, these two also differ depending on the situation that they help people to recall.
Regarding episodic memory, the crucial part of the processing and storage of episodic memories locates in the medial temporal lobe. And it stores our memories of specific personal experiences that happened at the particular place and time (Baddeley et al.,
2002). By way of illustration, you can recall the wedding of your relatives, the name of your second-grade teacher or the places you visited on a school trip. Therefore, episodic memory represents our own experiences or events in our life as a serial form.
On the other hand, semantic memory, other components of declarative memory, works to recall facts and concepts. In other words, this often refers to a common
21 knowledge. There are following examples; understanding the difference between fowls and mammals, recalling how to use a keyboard of a computer, or to be able to associate letters with their sounds.
Figure 4: Types of Human Memory Diagram by Luke Mastin
1.3.2.3.1 Phonological working memory
Recent research has revealed the strong connection between the phonological loop and language acquisition (Baddeley et al., 1998). According to the experiment conducted by Gathercole and Baddeley (1990), children’s abilities in terms of learning
22 unfamiliar words by phonological forms let us predict their vocabulary years later. The experiment was carried out on children at four years of age to see how the phonological loop exerts an influence on their language learning. Children were given unfamiliar words and asked to learn by repeating pronunciation for each word. As a result, it was clearly found that children who were relatively good at phonological short-term memory skills at that age were also better and faster at vocabulary learning in foreign language.
That is, skills for phonological terms in working memory encourage the language acquisition and also establish the association with foreign language vocabulary acquisition faster than with other aspects of foreign language learning (Service &
Kohonen, 1995).
1.4. Research into BBL
1.4.1 The case for BBL
Research on how people learn to speak a language or methods for language acquisition have been carried out by linguists or pedagogists. When it comes to learning, we tend to focus on the methods themselves which are considered effective enough to acquire languages. However, BBL integrates previous findings by specialists into one method which is regarded from several points of view like linguistics, neuroscience, or psychology. “Unlike previous learning theories, brain-based learning theory as new paradigm believes that learning takes place when two neurons communicate” (Alireza & Seyed, 2013). In addition to the brain-based learning theory,
23 currently there are findings discovered by the experiments performed on aphasiac or
language disordered children with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
1.4.2 Issues with the case for BBL
According to The Glossary of Education Reform, educational neuroscience like
BBL is still a relatively young field. Therefore, there can be a lot of possibilities left to
optimize neuroscience for language acquisition. On the other hand, the number of
“neuroscientific myths” which widespread misinterpretation of scientific evidence might
increase as the number of findings grow. At the same time, the methods named as BBL
which are not technically focused on brain, exist but should be discussed whether they
are really using the mechanism of neuroscience.
1.5 Research Questions
In the previous section we looked at the evidence for BBL and the case against.
This thesis will examine the truth of this case by asking the following research questions
1. Is using phonological working memory, or written practice more useful for acquiring
vocabulary? If so, how?
2. Is there a difference in scores depending on prefered methods people normally use
when they learn by other learning methods like using phonological term?
3. Does the phonological working memory take a big role of language learning as a
component of BBL? If so, how?
24 1.6. Summary
In Chapter One, we looked through various kinds of traditional learning methods and strategies for language acquisition. In addition to that, we learned there are so many learning styles depending on what we learn and we can choose one of them for that situation.
As a new way of learning style, on the other hand, BBL was proposed to enable learners to learn languages meaningfully by focusing on several terms needed for language acquisition at the same time.
25 Chapter Two: The Experiment
2.1. Introduction
In this chapter we are going to look at the experiments.
2.2. The Experiment
2.2.1. Introduction to the experiment
This experiment had four groups based on their learning style preferences tests with two methods of memorizing vocabulary and answering the meaning of words (read and write, and listen and write). The aim was to discover what kind of methods are efficient for language learning especially vocabulary. In Test A, subjects were given the list of 18 Spanish words and two minutes to memorize as many words as they could.
This time they were supposed not to memorize by pronouncing any words but to do by just looking the list of words or writing the spelling. After two minutes passed, subjects took the receptive Test A which has 18 Spanish words that they already memorized, in random order and they translate into Japanese.
Whereas Test B, subjects were given the list of 18 Spanish words, and first listen to the pronunciation for the Spanish word and repeat it with Japanese meaning.
Subjects did this process twice for each word to memorize. After this process, subjects took the receptive Test B which they listened to the pronunciation of 18 Spanish words that they already memorized, in random order and they translate into Japanese.
26 One or more weeks later, subjects took the same two tests to test their memory over time.
2.2.2 Experiment
The aim of this experiment was to find out whether people can learn language better by the method using phonological working memory or not, and if there is a difference in the result depending on learning methods which subjects usually use.
Method
a) Subjects
I had 33 female and 1 male subjects, aged from 18 to 63 and most of them belong to
Notre Dame Seishin University. 82% of the subjects major in English in the university but all of them have never taken a spanish class. All of them have learnt English at school more than 6 years.
b) Test design
Subjects were given the 18 Spanish words which are random level for learner but some of them have similar sounds to English pronunciation. Most of the words prepared for this test were taken from the web site (http://www. vistawide .com/spanish
/top_100_spanish_words.htm). The test is in Appendix A.
The first test, Test A, required the subjects to just write or look at the list of words to memorize them. Subjects memorized 18 Spanish words and answered the questions.
First they were given 2 minutes to memorize the list of Spanish words and the translation in Japanese for each by looking the list of words, writing repeatedly or any
27 kind of ways the subjects usually use for memorizing words except reading aloud. 2 minutes later, they were asked to write the Japanese meanings matching with Spanish words, displayed in random order that subjects already memorized, on the receptive test.
The second test, Test B, was by the method that you listen to the pronunciation for each Spanish word first, and repeat it and its Japanese meaning to memorize.
Subjects memorized 18 Spanish words, which are different from the words in Test A, and answered the questions. First they listened to the pronunciation of 18 Spanish words recorded by Spanish speaker living in Colombia, and repeated it and speak aloud the Japanese meaning right after repeating the pronunciation in Spanish. They repeated this process twice for each word. After that, they were asked to write the Japanese meanings matching with Spanish words, played the pronunciation in random order that subjects already memorized, on the receptive test. Meanwhile, there are no Spanish words written on the test paper and subjects were given 18 blanks to write down the
Japanese translations.
After subjects have done these two tests, they were asked to answer the questionnaire to figure out the methods they normally use to memorize new vocabulary in their target languages, their interests or consciousness about memorizing.
After one week or more have passed since they took two kinds of test, Test A and
B, they were asked to take Delay Test A and B which are to know how many words they still remembered and which methods were more effective in terms of memorizing. The test design and contents was completely the same as them in Test A and B, but subjects
28 were given only these test parts and were not allowed to review. After the tests, they were asked if they had a preference of these two methods or some comments.
c) Procedure
Subjects were given the 18 Spanish words and memorized as many words as possible for two minutes by looking the list of words, writing or any kind of ways that subjects usually use for memorizing words except reading aloud. Two minutes later, they took the Test A which 18 Spanish words were displayed in random order that subjects already memorized, and translate into Japanese as many as they could. After the experiment, all Test Books were collected. The data were entered into excel and analyzed.
2.2.3 Results
2.2.3.1. Introduction
In this section, we are going to look at the experiments. After Experiment A and
B, subjects were asked what kind of methods they use when they memorize new words as a questionnaire. First of all, we’d like to look at the result about their favorite methods for language learning.
2.2.3.2. Memorizing methods subjects often use
We are going to look at the result of memorizing methods which subjects often use when they come across a new word in target language.
29 Figure 5: Memorizing method subjects often use
Looking at Figure 5 you’ll find the most popular way to memorize new words is writing and reading 37% which 12 out of 34 subjects answered this method is the best for them, followed by writing and pronouncing method 24% which 8 out of 34 chose, and making a play on words or connecting the image and the meaning of words method
21% or 7 out of 34 agreed. Lastly only looking at the words was chosen by six subjects
30 and it’s 18% of all. I named these four groups Group A for people who choose the writing and reading method, Group B for people who like writing and pronouncing method, Group C for people who like making a play on words or connecting the image and the meaning of words, and Group D for people who use just looking the words.
Read and write Test Listen and write Test Delay Test Delay Test
A B A B Mean
score 10.27 7.30 2.30 4.21 s.d. 3.76 3.26 2.08 2.88 Table 1: Overall data in first Test A and B, and Delay Test A and B
2.3. Summary
In this chapter, two kinds of experiments were conducted. In the experiments,
33 subjects aged 18 to 63 were asked to memorize 18 Spanish words by two methods, one method allowed them to use any methods as long as subjects didn’t speak, the other was that subjects listen to the pronunciation for each word and they repeat it and
Japanese meanings, and then they repeat this process twice for all 18 words to memorize them. As a result, subjects got higher scores in Test A than that in Test B at the first administration, but when they took the same Test A and B one or more weeks later, the score of Test B was about twice higher as that in Test A. At the same time we found the degree of forgotten words learnt by method B was much slower than method
A.
31 The reasons for this data and the results and others will be analyzed in Chapter
Three.
32 Chapter Three3: Discussion
3.1 Introduction
In Chapter One, we mainly looked at various methods which enhance our vocabulary and the components of BBL. Consequently, we understood what BBL is like and how useful it can be for language learning compared to traditional learning strategies. In Chapter Two, we looked at whether there are differences of the test scores depending on the memorizing methods; using phonological working memory and written practice. And we saw if there is a difference in results depending on the group divided as learner’s preferences by asking 33 subjects in total to take tests.
In this chapter, we would like to analyze the results of the tests and discuss the data in detail. Finally, the answers to questions will be described, and limitations of the research will be stated.
3.2 Summary of the results
As a result, almost all of the subjects except one got a higher score on Test A than that on Test B the first time, but when they took the same test part of Test A and B one or more weeks later, the score of Test B in average was about twice higher than that in Test A. At the same time we found the degree of forgotten words learnt by method B was much slower than method A. That is, although at first the score itself which subjects got in Test A was higher than that in Test B, when it comes to how many words are retained in our memory, the number of words which subjects could answer in a Delay Test B was much larger than that in Delay Test B. Therefore, it got to be clear
33 that the learning method using phonological memory is quite effective for vocabulary learning.
3.3 Discussion of the results
In this section, we will discuss the results of the test in detail.
3.3.1 Discuss of the tests
・Overall result
As a learning method, two ways of learning methods were adopted, one is the method requiring writing or looking through the list of words and the other is the method using phonological memory like listening to the pronunciation to memorize. Both receptive tests, Test A and B, were done immediately after subjects memorized the list of 18 words for each. On Test A, most subjects performed better than Test B. 24 out of
33 subjects (73%) got higher scores on Test A than B, 2 (6%) performed equally in both
Test A and B and followed 7 (21%) got lower scores on Test A than B. Despite the average score in receptive Test A was 17% higher than that in Test B, the scores subjects got on Delay Tests taken one or more weeks later from first receptive tests differ from the result in first tests. Whereby, 26 out of 33 subjects (79%) performed well on Delay Test B compared to Delay Test A, 3 (9%) got the same score in both Delay
Tests and 4 (12%) got lower scores on Delay Test B than Delay Test A. According to the average scores displayed in figure 6 below, the method which subjects were supposed to use in Test A enables them to memorize words for short time, but the words stored in their memory was hardly to be retained as vocabulary. On the contrary, the method
34 using phonological memory like listening to pronunciation for memorizing works better to enable what people learned retain memory than the former method.
Figure 6: the average scores on Test A and B, and Delay Test A and B
・Prefered methods
From the questionnaire asked at the end of first test, 33 subjects were divided into 4 groups according to their favorite learning methods; Group A for people who choose writing and reading method, Group B for people who like the writing and pronouncing method, Group C for people who like making a play on words or connecting the image and the meaning of words, and Group D for people who use just looking the words. Table 2 below shows the average scores for each test according to
Group A-D.
Gro Numb Read and Listen and Delay Delay up Style er write Test A write Test B Test A Test B A Write/ read and 12 9.92 6.33 2.17 3.92
35 memorize write and
B pronounce 8 9.00 7.63 2.13 3.50 word play and
C image 6 9.33 7.33 1.83 4.00 D look only 7 11.71 8.57 3.14 5.71 Table 2: The average scores on each Test By group A-D
As you can see, 12 of 33 subjects prefer to use the method with reading and writing when they memorize vocabulary, 8 of them choose writing and pronouncing method, 6 like to memorize with making a play on words or connecting the image and the meaning of words and 7 only look something to memorize it. The method used in read and write Test A, matches to learning styles of Group A, C and D. Therefore, the scores of these 3 groups is slightly higher than that of Group B. In the meanwhile, the score of Group D in listen and write Test B was the highest of all though the method used in the first Test B was as same as the method Group B normally use and they got the second highest score. As for the Delay Tests, Group D answered 3.14 words on
Delay Test A and 5.71 words in Delay Test B. As a result, the subjects prefer to just look what they what to memorize got the highest scores in average for each test. Therefore we can see the prefered method should not be the best one when we learn.
・Answers to the Questionnaire
At the end of the first Test B and after 1 week or more, subjects were asked the questionnaire about language learning. One of the questions was asked to figure out what subjects think about the method in terms of BBL. 20 of the subjects used this
36 method though some of them usually use different method when they learn. Some of
them answered “I like this method because you can not only hear the actual
pronunciation but this way helps you to speak correctly,” or “I definitely think the second
method (using phonological term) was much easier to memorize words for me.” On the
other hand, 12 of the subjects were against this method. Most of their answers pointed
out how difficult it is to memorize words just by pronouncing them.
However, when asked how they liked Delay Test A and B after subjects finished
answering, more than half of them answered “It was pretty easier to remember words in
Delay Test B than Delay Test A.” And some of them answered that they clearly
remembered what the pronunciations were like and the feelings when they had when
they listened to them. From their answers, it seems quite obvious that the method
based on BBL was not the way people often use for language learning and therefore
when subjects took Test B for the first time using this method, some had thoughts like
this method might not be efficient enough to memorize words. However, as a result, the
more subjects realized this method enabled them to remember the words which they
had memorized easier and more accurate than just writing and looking method.
3.4 Research questions
The research questions in Chapter One are answered here. We had Three
research questions;
1. Is using phonological working memory, or written practice more useful for acquiring
vocabulary? If so, how?
37 Regarding the number of words subjects had memorized on the first Test A and
B, written practice or the method such as just looking at the list of words worked better
than the learning method using phonological working memory. However, it is clearly
revealed that the latter method enables people to remember vocabulary for a long
period of time.
2. Is there a difference in scores depending on prefered methods people normally use
when they learn by other learning methods like using phonological term?
As we saw the test results when classified with 4 groups depending on their
prefered learning methods, there were not so big differences in scores on both tests A
and B. Although Group D scored the highest of all tests, Group A got the second highest
score than other 2 groups in first Test A and Group B scored the second highest than
others as well in first Test B. It can be considered the method used in Test A was little
advantageous for Group A than Group B and C at the point that they usually memorize
words with written practice. On the other hand, Group B prefer to learn using sounds
when they memorize words and they might be well familiar with pronouncing practice
which was actually used in Test B.
Despite the results in Test A and B for the first time that differed in some measure
depending on subjects’ favorite methods to learn, there were no obvious differences in
both Delay Tests. Therefore, their favorite methods don’t mean it’s the best way to learn
though some of them got the high score when the method matched their preference.
3. Does the phonological working memory take a big role of language learning as a
component of BBL? If so, how?
38 Based on these data, we cannot confirm the phonological working memory has the biggest role of language learning as an element of BBL because we couldn’t have chances to see how 2 other elements worked well separately. However, as one of the learning methods used in Test B with listening, reading and speaking, this can be greatly connected to BBL and much more effective for vocabulary learning in respect of long-term memory.
3.5. Implications
So far we have outlined the importance of BBL focusing on not only one term of language learning. I would suggest that the method using phonological memory to memorize vocabulary might be more effective than other methods like written practice or making a play of words because this method lets vocabulary stay in our memory longer than those methods according to this modest experiment. Also, from the answers at questionnaire, we can guess BBL might give some connections to what we learn like vocabulary and sounds or situation. Therefore, it can be said that the method which has more than one motion at the same time to learn languages let us have stronger connection than single process.
3.6. Limitations of the Experiments
Most researches based on BBL used fMRI or some special equipment to figure out how the brain works. Therefore, it was nearly impossible to use them to see if BBL is efficient enough for language learning from the point of view using special device for this thesis. The restrictions on the scope of this thesis meant there was no choice but to
39 focus on one of the components of BBL like the learning style based on language processing to reveal how BBL works for acquiring language. Therefore, there are some possibilities left for future experiments, for instance, the learning method focusing on emotions or all of components of BBL in one test.
As for test design, the words were limited. That is, the words used in Test A were relatively different from those in Test B. It can be possible that the words in Test A were easier to learn than those in Test B or vice versa though these words were chosen after the pre-test which 5 subjects had taken to see whether the words were equally difficult enough for the tests used in experiments.
There is another limitation about the timeing of the experiment. Subjects were asked to take a Delay Test one or more weeks later than first tests but this period of time was too short to see if the words subjects have memorized become their permanent vocabulary.
The last limitation of the experiment was that the subjects were all Japanese and the number of the subjects was not that so large to say the results from both tests were precise enough. In addition to that, we could not have any chance to work out the results in other countries. The learning style commonly used varies in each country so that the results could be different from that taken by Japanese subjects.
3.7. Further research
To follow up this research, we can find out how emotions affect our learning. As we saw before, BBL basically consists of three components; language processing,
40 emotions and memories. Thus, we will find other interesting results from the tests focusing on how emotions affect us while taking a test or the effect of visual aids in terms of language processing.
Also it would be good to test how well subjects produce language on a productive test. In both tests in this experiment, subjects were asked to translate
Spanish words into Japanese, to see how well we can store new vocabulary as memory. Although the number of words subjects can answer correctly on a productive test would be smaller than receptive test, we might get a different result and it could show whether BBL helps learners’ for output.
3.8. Conclusion
From the experiment and questionnaire, we found out that people tend to focus on one method when they learn new words. For all that, the method such as BBL which utilizes several terms at the same time enables what we have learned to stay longer in our brains as long-term memory. That is to say, this method requires a lot of time to work well as a short-term memory than other methods but certainly makes what we learned remain our long-term memory.
Also, it depends on individuals whether BBL is the best way of learning for them because there are differences in how people have learned and also in the learning levels.
However, it’s quite clear that it doesn’t matter which way of learning people prefer for language acquisition but that cannot be always best way for them as well.
41 References Books and articles
Alireza N. Moghaddam., & Seyed M. Araghi., 2013. Brain-Based Aspects of Cognitive Learning Approaches in Second Language Learning. Canadian Center of Science and Education, pp.55-61
Baddeley, A. D., Gathercole, S. E., & Papagno, C.1998. The phonological loop as a language learning device. Psychological Review, 105 (1), pp.158-173.
Caine, R., & N. Caine. 1991. Making connections: Teaching and the human brain. Somerset, NJ: Addison Wesley. PMCid: 1669626
Caine, R., & N. Caine. 2006. Meaningful learning and the extensive functions of the brain. The Neuroscience of Adult Learning, pp.53-62.
Friederici, Angela D. (2011). The Brain Basis of Language Processing: From Structure to Function. pp. 1357-1364.
Gathercole, S. E., & Baddeley, A. D. 1990. The role of phonological memory in vocabulary acquisition: A study of young children learning new names. British Journal of Psychology, pp.439-454.
Jensen, E. 2005. Teaching with the brain in mind. USA: The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Kaan, E., & Swaab, Y. Tamara. 2002. The brain circuitry of syntactic comprehension. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, pp. 350-356.
Masouma, Y. Elvira., & Gathercole, E. Susan. 1999. Phonological Short-term Memory and Foreign Language Learning. International Journal of Psychology, 34 (516), pp.383-
42 388.
O’Malley, J. Michael, Chamot, Anna U., Stewnwe-manzanares, Gloria, Russo P., and L. Kupper. 1985. Learning Strategy Applications with Students of English as a Second Language. TESOL Quarterly 19: 557-584.
Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. 1990. Vocabulary Learning: A Critical Analysis of Techniques. TESL Canada Journal / Revue TESL du Canada, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 9-30.
Service, E. 1992. Phonology working memory and foreign language learning. Quarierfy Journal of Experimental Psychology, 45A, pp.21-50.
Service, E., & Kohonen, Y. 1995. Is the relationship between phonological memory and foreign language learning accounted for by vocabulary acquisition? Applied Psycholinguistics, 16, pp.155-172.
Wolfe, P. 2001. Brain matters: Translating research into classroom practice. USA: The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
Websites Scholarpedia. (2011).”Working memory.”
Texas Language Technology Centre (2010) “Foreign Language Teaching Methods.”
43 Appendices Appendix 1: Test A
These words below are all Spanish words and Japanese meanings. I’d like you to memorize as many words as possible for 2 minutes.
1. bueno 良い 2. malo 悪い 3. pagar 払う 4. árboles 木 5. cielo 空 6. parque 公園 7. aprender 学ぶ 8. poco 少し 9. vida 人生 10. porque なぜなら～ 11. anillo 指輪 12. rosa ピンク色 13. esposa 妻 14. huevo 卵 14. queso チーズ 16. nada 何も～無い 17. cantar 歌う 18. enseñar 教える
44 This time, I’d like you to translate words below into Japanese. For example, 1. blanco 白色
2. nieve 雪
1. anillo 2. malo 3. aprender 4. rosa 5. árboles 6. poco 7. nada 8. huevo 9. vida 10. enseñar 11. pagar 12. bueno 13. queso 14. cielo 15. cantar 16. parque 17. esposa 18. porque
45 Appendix 2: Test B
You are going to listen to the pronunciation for each word in Spanish and please repeat it and Japanese meaning as well. And memorize each meaning in Japanese.
1. noche 夜 2. feliz 幸せな 3. mismo 同じ 4. grande 大きい 5. gente 人 6. comprar 買う 7. escuela 学校 8. colegio 大学 9. cuando いつ(時) 10. nuevo 新しい 11. amigo 友達 12. tu あなた 13. verde 緑色 14. lechuga レタス 15. cama ベッド 16. libería 本屋 17. año 年 18. hablar 話す
46 You are going to listen to Spanish words and please translate it into Japanese.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
47 Appendix 3: Questionnaire
Thank you for taking the test!! Lastly I’d like you to answer the questionnaire.
1. What is your mother tongue?
2. Have you ever taken Spanish class?
3. Do you think you are good at memorizing?
4. How do you usually memorize words when you start learning a language? And why?
5. How did you like memorizing words by listening pronunciation?
6. General comment…
48