• Abstract and Figures
• Public Full-text

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY PROPOSAL FOR PROJECT DEVELOPMENT FUNDS (PDF) BLOCK B GRANT

Country: Global GEF Focal Area: International Waters, OP 9, Multiple Focal Area Project Title: Investigations of the Impacts of Localized Stress and Compounding Effects of Climate Change on the Sustainability of Coral Reef Ecosystems, and the Implications for Management Requesting Agency: World Bank Executing Agencies: ICLARM Total Project Cost: 14 M – Phase I

Financing Plan (tentative): US$ 8.0M - GEF The balance to be raised by partnering institutions including the following: The Great Barrier Reef Research Foundation The University of Queensland, Australia The Caribbean Coral Reef Research Institute The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration The International Coral Reef Action Network CGIAR/The World Fish Center (ICLARM)

Project Duration: 5 years - Phase I

Preparation Costs: US$718 K PDF Block B Funds Requested: US$350 K PDF Co-Funding: US$38 K The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission US$210 K The Caribbean Coral Reef Research Institute US$30 K The University of Queensland, Australia US$ 20K The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration US$10 K Australian Institute of Marine Science US$25 K ICLARM (in kind)

Block A Grant Awarded: Yes (US$25 K) 1. Project Objectives

This project proposes to conduct specific, targeted research to fill critically important information gaps in the fundamental understanding of coral reef ecosystems so that management and policy interventions can be strengthened globally. The purpose of the targeted research is to test specific hypotheses related to major human and natural factors threatening coral reef sustainability and to build capacity to manage these ecosystems to enhance reef resilience and recovery. The project has five major objectives:

1. target the most important gaps in applied scientific understanding related to the sustainability of coral reefs: develop and refine rigorous protocols to examine specific factors related to the resilience and vulnerability of coral reef ecosystems and differentiate climate-related factors from anthropogenic ones across appropriate scales in space and time 2. establish an effective, scientific framework and knowledge base for the express purpose of synthesizing and comparing findings between sites across national boundaries, and at regional and global levels 3. disseminate research results broadly for use by policy-makers, the scientific and marine resources management community, reef-based industry (e.g., tourism and fisheries), and the general public, 4. apply findings to management interventions and policy formulation at national and local levels; integrate relevant findings into strategic frameworks for sustainable development, e.g., National Development Plans, Country Assistance Strategies, PRSPs, (Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers), and sectoral strategies, where relevant ; 5. further the capacity and involvement of researchers within developing countries to participate fully in the global, targeted research framework; 6. in line with the research results, assist the Global Environment Facility and other stakeholders to prioritize resources for the conservation and sustainable use of coral reefs.

The primary output of this proposed PDF is to develop a full project brief that will describe:

 The formation, convening and activities of each of six specialized international scientific working groups, organized around specific coral reef themes determined to be most important in addressing gaps in our understanding of coral reef sustainability, based on the results of the consultations held during the Block A period;  The formation of a Synthesis Panel composed of chairs from each of the working groups and other senior scientists with experience in interdisciplinary environmental investigations to oversee the targeted research program and synthesize research findings;  A detailed and coordinated plan for a series of applied investigations that will form the basis of the targeted research program;  Details of experimental designs and standard operating procedures for each of the working groups and institutional arrangements to phase these in across a global network of study sites;  Pilot studies carried out to demonstrate hypothesis testing and coordination of investigations in the field, associated with one or more working groups  Methods and plans to disseminate relevant findings and mainstream into GEF-financed operations and those of other partners in the Targeted Research 2. Background

By the year 2008, the world population will exceed 6 billion people, with 75% living within sixty kilometers of the coast. The increase in demographics near coastal and marine resources has far-

2 reaching implications concerning impacts to marine ecosystems (e.g. sedimentation and pollution) and their productivity, as well as materials being extracted from them (e.g. overfishing and destructive fishing). Moreover, the impacts associated with climate change also have potentially serious consequences for the coastal zone and its resources.

The importance of coral reef ecosystems to global commons, tropical developing nations, the environmental services they provide, and their relevance to sustainable development and poverty alleviation, has been well established in the scientific and conservation literature (e.g. see Spalding et al, 2001). Over 80 developing countries rely on coral reefs as key natural resources and economic assets.

One of the most significant challenges facing nations with coral reefs is to clearly understand the impacts from changes in climate versus local human activities, and to determine the range and feasibility of options that would be effective in protecting goods and services generated by coral reefs. The World Bank, with co-financing from GEF and other partners, has current investments and commitments of nearly $250 million in coral reef projects (Table 1). These investments are potentially at risk in light of the recent coral reef bleaching events and other global change phenomena that threaten to undermine the success of management efforts which do not take into account Climate Change and the cumulative impacts of human disturbance.

Over the past 30 years, the volume and diversity of information about coral reefs has steadily increased, and efforts are underway to enhance management based upon the knowledge already gained (for example, see the section on ICRAN below). However, significant gaps in knowledge of the fundamental structure and function of coral reef ecosystems remain, and “our understanding of even the basic physical parameters of global change relevant to reefs is inadequate,”(Knowlton 2001). There is general agreement that management will be limited without advancement in scientific understanding of the basis for ecosystem resilience or collapse in the face of cumulative stress (Scheffer et al 2001; Knowlton 2001, Buddemeier and Smith 1999). Coordinated, scientific frameworks are needed to provide timely and reliable information in support of management and the application of appropriate interventions. This has already been recognized by the GEF in the area of climate change, through its support of the Assessments of Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change in Coordination with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

The year 1998 was documented as the warmest in 600 years of recorded history, and high sea surface water temperatures (SST) were exacerbated by the strongest El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event ever recorded. Elevated SSTs led to an unprecedented bleaching of coral reefs, a phenomenon in which coral hosts reject their symbiotic algae, leaving the animals and their communities with a ghostly-white, bleached appearance. In some cases the bleaching led to mortality on a massive spatial scale, particularly in the Indian Ocean region. Up until this single event, coastal development, pollution and excessive resource extraction were the most significant factors threatening these globally important marine ecosystems. Such factors continue to chronically affect coral reefs. Warming is once again being observed over the tropical Pacific and predictions of a new El Nino developing by early spring are already circulating (NOAA, 2002). However, the impacts of climate-related events, in tandem with human stress, are poorly understood.

Within the last 10 years, estimates of the decline of coral reefs have ranged between 10% and 30%, with forecasts claiming an additional 25% decline possible by 2025 (Wilkinson, 2000). However, it is urgent that future investigations go beyond simply documenting the decline of coral reefs, and address critical information gaps to inform policies and the kinds of management

3 interventions which must be adopted to reverse this trend and promote conservation of reefs over time.

Table 1. ActiveWorld Bank projects involving coral reef resources from fiscal years 1993-2004, (including projects in the pipeline). Project / Program/ Activity World Bank Region Fiscal Year Project Project of Project Status Amount (USD Start-up millions) Egypt, Private Sector Tourism and Environmental Management MNA 1993 Active 5.00 Project OECS Countries (Caribbean) Ship Waste Management Latin America/ 1995 Active 12.5 Caribbean (LAC) OECS Countries (Caribbean) Waste Management (Coastal) LAC 1995 Active 50.5 Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan MNA 1996 Active 2.70

Madagascar, Second Environment Program Support Project Africa 1997 Active 6.60 Mozambique – Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Management Africa 2001 Active 5.00 Project Indonesia - Coral Reef Monitoring and Rehabilitation Program EAP 1998 Active 33.1 (COREMAP) Indonesia: COREMAP, Phase II EAP 2002 Preparation 27.0 Indian Ocean Commission - Coral Reef Monitoring GEF Africa 2000 Active 1..36 Medium-Sized Project World Bank/Netherlands Partnership - Western Indian Ocean Africa 1999 Active 0..35 Bleaching: CORDIO (Regional) MesoAmerican Barrier Reef System Initiative (Regional) LAC 2001 Active 24.2 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden AFR/MNA 1999 Active 19.50 (Regional) Seychelles – Marine Ecosystem Management Project Africa 1999 Active 1.40 Philippines –Mindanao MPA Management EAP 1999 Active 2.50 Viet Nam – Han Mun MPA (with IUCN and Danida) EAP 2001 Active 2.00 Samoa - Marine Biodiversity Protection and Management EAP 1999 Active 1.61 Colombia - Conservation and Sustainable use of the Serrania del LCR 2000 Active 0.75 Baudo Marine Electronic Highway EAP (Regional) 2003 Preparation 6.00 Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Climate Change (Phase 1) LAC Regional 1997 Active 6..5 MACC - Caribbean Regional: Mainstreaming Adaptation to LAC (Regional) 2002` Preparation 5.00 Climate Change (Phase 2) Indonesia Bali Marine Conservation Center East Asia-Pacific 1999 Preparation 3.75 Bay of Bengal - Large Marine Ecosystem South Asia 2002 Preparation 12.00 Indonesia - Komodo Tourism EAP 2002 Preparation 5.00 Philippines - Palawan IFC (Regional) 2002 Preparation 6.00 Colombia – San Andres - CORALINA LAC 1999 Preparation 1.00 Western Indian Ocean Fisheries AFR (Regional) 2004 Preparation 5.00 TOTAL 246.32

In 1998, several coral reef scientists from around the world alerted the World Bank's Environment Department about the ENSO event and the unprecedented impact and mortality on coral reefs worldwide. During this period, many World Bank resident missions located in Small Island Developing States and coral reef-dependent countries voiced concern about the severity of the ENSO events and the potential impacts to coral reefs and surrounding local communities. Meetings were held within the World Bank and with the GEF to consider ways in which effective responses might be developed to address the environmental consequences. During these meetings, it became evident that pursuing remedies would be significantly limited due to the lack of information about the cause, effects and consequences of this global event, and the compounding variables associated with localized, chronic, anthropogenic stresses. Significant concern was also raised regarding the effects on local economies, and whether and how quickly these ecosystems may recover. Gathering significant information on this unprecedented coral

4 bleaching event was an opportunity lost, largely because metrics were not in place to determine Before-After/Control-Impact conditions that could be adequately measured.

In February 19991, a concept paper was presented to the GEF Targeted Research Committee, and Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP). Under the International Waters OP 9, the concept proposed use of Targeted Research to address information gaps, such as those associated with coral bleaching and its consequences, to improve the knowledge base in responding to coral reef decline. At the direction of the Targeted Research Committee, the development of a Block B grant proposal was authorized, and was submitted to the Targeted Research Committee in June of 1999. After review and discussion, the GEF requested that additional information be developed through two Block A grants: one to be developed by the World Bank, and one by UNEP.

Although a Block A grant was never pursued by UNEP, a Block A proposal was submitted by the World Bank and approved in September, 2000. The Grant was used to carry out consultations with scientists around the world to define the most pressing questions concerning the vulnerability and resilience of coral reefs under localized stress regimes and the looming threat of climate change. A gap-analysis/literature review and bibliography (Annex 1) was undertaken. The literature review addresses information gaps under the categories listed below, and is being produced as a manuscript to be submitted for peer review and publication in a refereed journal as an output of the Block A grant.

 multiple stressors  reviews  remediation  bioindicators  destructive fishing practices/overfishing  damage from oil spills  eutrophication/pollution  climate change and coral bleaching  sedimentation  storm damage  site-specific surveys (related to anthropogenic effects)  remote sensing.

The consultations and meetings were held in the following locations over a three-year period2:

 Townsville, Australia, The International Tropical Marine Management Symposium, November, 1998  International Coral Reef Initiative-Coordination Planning Committee Meeting, Paris, February, 1999  Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA, International Conference on the April, 1999  Honolulu, Hawaii, Remote Sensing of Coral Reef Resources, June, 1999

1 During this same time period, the Swedish Development Agency (Sida) with financial assistance from the Netherlands Trust Fund, proceeded separately to establish a regional program in response to the coral reef bleaching and mortality within the Indian Ocean (CORDIO- Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean). See the discussion of CORDIO in the section on 'baseline conditions' below.

2 Lists of participating scientists at each of the consultations are on file.

5  International Coral Reef Initiative-Coordination Planning Committee Meeting, Guadeloupe, October, 1999  Townsville, Australia, AIMS/UNEP, December, 1999  Riyadh, Saudia Arabia, February, 2000  International Coral Reef Initiative-Regional Workshop and Coordination Planning Committee Meeting Noumea, New Caledonia, April, 2000  Bali, Indonesia, 9th International Coral Reef Symposium, October, 2000  Paris, France. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, Coral Reef Bleaching Indicator Working Group, April, 2001. In addition to these consultations, the PDF Block proposal has been circulated for review to a number of the world’s leading coral reef scientists, to conservation NGOs, and to private foundations, all of whom have confirmed the importance of the proposed research and expressed interest in collaborating in this effort.

3. General Findings of the Block A Consultations

The recommendations stemming from the consultations reinforce the view that while significant changes have been obvious in many coral reef regions, the root causes of these observed changes remain poorly understood. Furthermore, the sustainability of coral reef ecosystems under various stress regimes—both chronic and acute, as in ENSO related events—cannot be predicted, given the non-linear response that has been observed in these and other complex ecosystems subject to multiple stressors (Scheffer 2001). The consultations consistently identified similar outstanding questions about coral reefs, and included the following issues:

1. Scientists agreed that specific investigations are needed to improve basic understanding of the forcing functions that influence coral reef environments, community responses to disturbance, such as coral bleaching, and resilience capacity. However, current understanding of these mechanisms is inadequate to ensure their conservation for the future. For example, coral reef calcification rates depend on the calcium carbonate

saturation state of surface seawater, and elevated CO2 concentrations associated with global warming are expected to reduce the capability of corals to calcify and accrete reef structures. The effect on calcification rates in combination with local anthropogenic stresses are not yet known, and combinations of impacts may lead to significant shifts in the structure, function or even existence of coral reefs in the future.

2. Coral reefs are influenced by processes over a wide range of time and space scales. Better understanding is needed concerning population and recruitment dynamics (especially post-larval survivorship), and the role of fish spawning aggregations in maintaining connectivity between reefs and sustaining coral reef populations. Consequently, long- term studies (at least 10 years) are required to better understand the temporal and spatial variability in population dynamics and recruitment, and how this information can be applied in management contexts. Use of high resolution tools such as remote sensing were repeatedly identified by managers and scientists as a high priority to assist with these kinds of investigations.

3. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) were consistently identified as a potential focus to quantify effectiveness in protecting habitat and fisheries. A global network of coral reef MPAs may promote the long-term survival of coral reef communities, but an increased

6 emphasis on scientific protocols to site, monitor and enhance management of coral reef MPAs in relation to climate change is needed.

4. The development of reef restoration into an effective management tool requires approaches that encompass hypothesis-testing of the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of interventions.

5. Investigations to address such questions should include a range of screening, monitoring and experimental design, the testing of specific hypotheses, and the investigation of multiple variables. Nested experimental designs that examine multiple stressors (such as sediment, nutrients, chemical pollutants) at a variety of spatial scales, were consistently recommended.

6. To date, the level of synthesis in assessing the state of coral reefs globally has involved a range of low-resolution monitoring, qualitative assessments and anecdotal observations. Many of the participating scientists and managers queried, repeatedly stated the need for a rigorous and coordinated investigative framework to advance management interventions targeting specific problems.

4. Project Description and Overall Strategic Approach

From the Block A consultations, a series of major sub-themes emerge that serve as organizing principles around which the targeted research will revolve. The sub-themes include the following:

 multiple factors affecting the biophysical, physiological and ecological responses of reefs which help determine their overall resilience or vulnerability under various stress regimes  the basis and spread of coral diseases, now affecting a large number of reef building corals  recruitment dynamics and survivorship affecting community structure (for corals, coral reef communities and larval fishes), and the relationship to Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)  the need to develop viable remediation techniques and enhance restoration  enhancement and application of specific tools, such as remote sensing and predictive model development for decision support to managers and policy-makers.

Based on these findings the activities under the targeted research program will be organized under the following five main components during the initial five-year phase:

1. Formation and operation of thematic working groups under the guidance of a multi- disciplinary synthesis panel 2. The testing of specific hypotheses and the implementation of plans and procedures for each of the working groups 3. Capacity building through development of the applied, investigative research network for each working group, which will link developing country institutions with partners in the developed world. 4. Strategy for dissemination of results and the application of relevant research findings to strengthen management interventions and enhance policy reforms over the short, medium and long-term. 5. Project management and coordination with other initiatives linked to the Targeted Research.

7 Component 1. Formation and convening of thematic working groups and the guiding/Synthesis Panel

The purpose of this component is to establish the research framework and an oversight body to guide its implementation and integrate results for public dissemination. As part of their mandate, the working groups and synthesis panel will promote collaboration between developed and developing country scientists and institutions. To the extent possible, scientists from developing countries will form part of the Working Groups, and in regions where the research is carried out, individuals from developing country institutions will be invited to join the research as full partners. Six thematic working groups have been defined to address a particular sub-theme of the targeted research. These are:

A. Coral Bleaching in response to climate-related and local ecological factors B. Remote Sensing C. Coral Diseases D. Larval Transport, Connectivity and implications for MPAs E. Remediation and Restoration F. Modeling

The chairs from each of these working groups will convene with other selected scientists to form a guiding, Synthesis Panel. This panel will serve to steer the targeted research framework, review results and modify the study designs as appropriate. The Panel will also be responsible for synthesizing and reporting findings to the scientific and management communities. To illustrate the scope and function of the working groups, detailed examples of two of the six working groups proposed are included below.

1. IOC Working Group on Bleaching and local ecological factors

This working group was formed3 in early 2001 by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission. The working group's first meeting was held in April 2001, and a second field-based meeting is planned in early March, 2002 to develop standard operating procedures and begin testing the experimental designs. The group's terms of reference involve the development of molecular, cellular, physiological and community indicators for coral bleaching under a range of variables. The group will also examine potential mechanisms of coral reefs for adaptation and acclimatization to environmental change. Based on consultations with World Bank staff, this Working Group has developed a series of detailed questions followed by specific, testable hypotheses. These hypotheses (see Annex 3) will be tested through a standardized set of controlled in-situ experiments, combined with concomitant, in-field measurements immediately adjacent to the controlled experiments. The experiments will be replicated in at least three different geographic locations initially, and then expanded as part of investigative infrastructure to establish a global network of study sites. Details of the experimental design are described in Component 2.

The actual mechanisms affecting coral stress, bleaching and subsequent mortality may involve a series of compounding variables (Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999). Thus, hypotheses have been developed

3 The working groups members on coral bleaching and local ecological factors are: Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, Chair, Yossi Loya, William K. Fitt, Michael Lesser, Barbara Brown, Ruth Gates, Roberto Prieto-Iglesias, John Bythell, Robert van Woesik, Bernard Salvat, and David Obura. Details of the working group participants are listed in Annex 2 and the working hypotheses in Annex 3.

8 to address three levels of investigation: molecular, cellular and coral polyp-level, and local ecological responses (see Annex 3 for details).

Outputs The outputs anticipated from this series of targeted investigations will be:

1. A series of biomarkers such as:  Molecular markers which will rapidly and easily distinguish heat stress from other types of stresses (e.g. sedimentation, metal contamination, nutrient stress) on coral reefs.  Cellular markers that will enable users to accurately anticipate and monitor the advent of coral bleaching or recovery.  Ecological markers that will enable users to monitor impacts of coral bleaching and to project how the changes are likely to impact on local ecosystem function.  Genetic markers that will enable insight into the tolerance and resilience of communities of reef-building corals.

2. A more complete model of the mechanisms that trigger mass coral bleaching, forecasting of events and prospects for recovery. This will contribute to adaptive management techniques to reduce localized stress during anticipated bleaching events and enable better projections of the impact of climate change on coral reefs, and impacts on those human communities relying upon them as sustainable resources.

2. Working Group on Remote Sensing Recent advancements in remote sensing technology make this area of inquiry highly significant in the study and monitoring of coral reefs (Mumby et al., 2001). Improved resolution and cost- effectiveness make remote sensing an indispensable and increasingly accessible tool for coral reef managers in mapping abundance and distribution of reefs, reef quality and vulnerability to stress as part of risk assessment. In June, 1999 the first global workshop on remote sensing of coral reefs was hosted by NOAA and ICLARM to examine the range of technology and advancements in application in a variety of ways (http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/corvil/coral_reefs/). Figure 1 depicts the range of measurements where remote sensing can be applied to support targeted investigations specifically for coral reefs.

During the Block A period a working group4 for this area of targeted research was established, and its first meeting held in Washington in early December 2001. The Australian Institute of Marine Science hosted a second planning meeting of this working group on January, 28, 2002 to review the latest data on Bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef and the developing ENSO in the southern hemisphere and further refine their mandate.

It was agreed that during the Block B phase, the working group would:

. Develop an agreed-upon assessment of the state of remote sensing of coral reefs . Confirm research priorities that address specific gaps in understanding and application . Establish objectives, identify sites, data requirements

4 The members of this working group are: Peter J. Mumby, Chair, Serge Andrefouet, Jack Hardy, Eric Hochberg, William Skirving, Alan Strong, Ellsworth LeDrew, and Rick Stumpf,. Details of the working group participants are listed in Annex 2.

9 Remote sensing for the science and management of coral reefs Reef science application

Physical Effect of acute Reef connectivity Stratification of Biodiversity Monitoring environment & disturbance (e.g. (interaction with reef sampling (e.g. planning & damage and climate effects Reef functions hurricanes & oceanic circulation monitoring, stock Marine Protected recovery of reef (e.g. coral floods) models) assessment) Areas health bleaching) t n e m

e Chlorophyll & Health of reef

r Sea surface Location of coral Reef Community

u sediment

s temperature reefs geomorphology structure of reef

a concentration (coral & algal cover) e M

satellite sensors airborne sensors

increasing requirement for high spatial resolution

. Identify partners in developing countries and their infrastructure and information needs to effectively use remote sensing

The Working Group has already identified three priority areas of investigation. These are:

1. Assessment and Reef conditions and health 2. Provision of ecological data for spatial decision making (such as, MPA design) 3. Describing the external physical processes affecting coral reef health (e.g. coral bleaching or other event) The locations of investigations of this Working Group will overlap to the extent possible with those of the Bleaching and other working groups, to create synergies during the Block B phase and to capitalize on the experimental infrastructure developed by the various working groups and their developing country associations (see section on Working Group field logistics below).

Other Working Groups

3. Working Group on Coral Diseases

In 1974, only two coral diseases were known to science. Today there are over 20 coral diseases and lesions that have been classified, even though the disease etiology has only been clearly established for about three or four. Disease frequencies have increased the most significantly within the Caribbean Basin. For example, Dustan et al. (1999) showed an increase in diseased coral species of over 215% from 1996-1998 in the Florida Keys, USA. However, coral diseases appear to be emerging within other regions as well, and an increasing number of researchers are now focused on elucidating disease origins, causes and impacts.

10 The purpose of the coral disease working group will be to examine the state of the science, prioritize and target those investigations that are critical to understanding coral disease, and how this information can assist managers in minimizing disease frequency and transmission. This working group will also consider developing studies that utilize the investigative infrastructure that will be piloted by the Bleaching Working group. This working group has also been formed during the Block A period, with a coordinating chair identified and working group participants nominated.

Establishment of other working groups The formation of the other working groups and their composition will occur during the Block B period; however, the focus of their investigations is briefly discussed below.

4. Working Group on Larval transport, connectivity and coral reef MPA relevance This working group will convene to examine the role that larval transport, recruitment, post- recruitment survival, and connectivity play in networking coral reef environments, particularly as they relate to the siting and management of marine protected areas. Genetic studies in addition to behavioral, ecological and broad scale oceanographic features will be integrated into models of reef connectivity. As such, the working group will collaborate with other working groups, (i.e. remote sensing and modeling), to apply technologies to this area of inquiry. The results of reef connectivity models will serve as powerful tools for managers seeking to build in resilience and recovery from ecosystem disturbance into the design of effective MPA networks.

5. Working Group on Remediationand Restoration Given the degree of decline within some coral reef regions, the role of remediation and restoration could have an increasingly important role in the future. Encouraging news from the Caribbean evidencing signs of recovery of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum, nearly two decades after its collapse (Knowlton 2001), open the door for enhancing restoration. However, viable approaches and technologies are still in early stages of development, and in most cases are currently difficult to implement on large spatial scales. This working group will convene to examine the state of remediation techniques and develop investigations that can test the efficacy of a range of potential applications. This will include the following considerations:

1. the scientific protocols necessary to design and implement restoration strategies 2. baseline data for developing effective criteria 3. the efficacy and feasibility of restoration and remediation techniques. 4. prospects for enhancing natural recovery

6. Working Group on Modeling One of the major objectives in developing a coordinated information and knowledge base through targeted research is so that coordinated data sets can improve the accuracy and reliability of forecasting and predictive modeling. Such models have the potential to alert managers to specific conditions, events or probabilities of events, so that appropriate and timely responses may occur. Questions on the functioning and responses of coral reef systems necessarily are multi-scalar and multi-disciplinary. They all include aspects of community dynamics, physical oceanography, climate dynamics and climate change. Many also include sociological and economic components from fisheries, tourism, coastal development, inland agriculture and industry. These questions are necessarily explored at relatively large spatial, and long time scales. They will only be answered with extensive data sets requiring substantial computational and data storage capacity.

11 To be successful, this project must develop modeling tools to handle these kinds of data. This will be the task of the Modeling Working Group. This working group will convene during the Block B period to examine the state-of-the-science and, in collaboration with other working groups, determine the current and potential applications of integrated data modeling for management.

Field Sites and Logistics

Part of the power of a global research infrastructure will be to relate investigations to information at different scales. To create synergies between working groups, build comprehensive databases and strengthen capacity in the field, efforts will be made to target investigations of the different working groups at many of the same field locations. At least initially, the Bleaching Working Group will work in three coral reef regions of the world—the Indo-Pacific, the Western Caribbean, and the Western Indian Ocean. Field sites within these regions will depend on the location of existing institutions or centers of excellence that can host the type of research proposed by the Working Groups. Ideally, these centers would serve as nodes or focal points for the research to be carried out within each region, while building capacity elsewhere in the region. Where possible, twinning arrangements would be designed whereby the nodal institution would host visiting investigators from other facilities to take part in the research. This will be particularly important where baseline information, controlled experimental conditions and communications infrastructure will be essential to carry out rigorous research design (see Figure 2, below).5 Following the initial phase, investigators would return to their home institutions to set up replicates and carry out sequential or comparative studies. (see Figure 4). A network of field sites and research institutions would be linked in this process. The University of Queensland on the Great Barrier Reef and a site in Thailand or the Philippines in the Indo-Pacific; the University of Mexico in Puerto Morelos, in the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System; and the Tanzanian Institute of Marine Research, in Zanzibar, will be the initial nodal institutions for the Bleaching Working Group.

In the establishment of subsequent working groups, designated member(s) of the group would visit existing research sites in order to determine the suitability of these sites for their research. This would allow them to discuss logistics and verify the types of coral reef present (depths, habitat types), and to undertake ground-truth activities, such as the measurement of water turbidity / attenuation coefficients and the identification of local data sources. Ideally, there would be three field locations in each region, comprising a suite of varying water quality, biophysical parameters and reef systems within each region. However, to ensure the necessary flexibility required by each Working Group to pursue its agreed lines of inquiry, the numbers and locations of sites would not be limited to those identified above, and would likely be expanded in concert with the global network infrastructure over the life of the Targeted Research Program.

Establishment of the Synthesis Panel Without clear vision at the beginning, it is difficult to establish any program that will provide useful data for a range of applications. This is why the program must have a strong conceptual foundation and be hypothesis-driven. As stated earlier, the Chairs from each of the six working groups, and selected senior scientists, managers and policy specialists will form a Synthesis Panel for the Targeted Research Program. The role of the Synthesis Panel will be to review the

5 Arrangements are already underway for formal collaboration between the University of Miami (RSMAS) and the Bank/GEF MBRS Project to undertake reef connectivity studies, analysis of reef resilience and model building for decision support as additional resources become available.

12 priorities and activities of each of the working groups, and provide guidance in establishing the global framework. The panel will also discuss the findings of each of the working groups over time, and in combination with reviews of the scientific literature, synthesize and publish findings that can relate to practical applications for management and policy development. An objective of this panel will also be to serve as a collective voice and in collaboration with the International Society for Reef Studies, serve to coordinate scientific knowledge of coral reefs at a global level. During year 4 of the project, the Synthesis Panel, in conjunction with the working groups will agree on research priorities for phase two of the program, and the research framework to support its implementation.

Component 2. Implementation of studies to test specific hypotheses

Under the GEF guidelines for Targeted Research, activities should be highly focused in their effort to address specific questions. This program aims to establish a foundation of study sites and controlled experiments that can be replicated and built upon over time. The Bleaching Working Group will provide an initial series of experiments to test the hypotheses outlined in Component 1. The infrastructure will provide a basis for other studies.

The experiments will employ a set of controlled mesocosms where variables, such as water temperature, photosynthetically active and ultraviolet radiation, can be controlled against other variables, such as water turbidity and oxygen concentration, nutrients and pollutants (see Figure 2). These experiments will not only test these selected hypotheses, but they will also serve as standards, or benchmarks for field measurements, so that results can be compared and subsequent models developed to help predict where vulnerabilities lie and when reef responses to various stresses may occur. Water Temperature PAR UV

Mixing (O2) Sediment Nutrients other

13

Variable-Controlled Mesocosms (flow-through pools containing coral reef species)

Experimental Treatments Control/Reference Figure 2. Schematic depicting the basic experimental design for the Bleaching Working Group.

Another foundation for the targeted research program will rest with the use of complementary approaches and operating procedures with the other coral reef sub-themes and working groups. By coordinating investigations, the working groups have the potential to build an information base that can directly relate findings across space and time (Figure 3). Building common data sets over extended periods of time is a powerful approach to targeted research because it will help guide the overall framework in developing a core set of measurements that can be closely related to one another.

Working Group Collaboration

•Connectivity

•Impacts & Trends

•Regional Distributions & Zones

•Local Ecological Dist. & Responses

•Community Structure

•Individual samples

Figure 3. Example of how the various targeted research working groups can collaborate in their investigations and coordinate information through use of complementary study designs and locations. Such complementary data collection not only strengthens findings but also enhances correlation between different scales.

Component 3. Identification and Development of the Applied, Investigative Network among developing countries. This component will work with developing country institutions to expand the network of study sites globally. Each of the members of the working groups, and the Synthesis Panel will participate in using their professional networks to identify locations and institutions that either have existing interest and capacity, or that can have their capacity enhanced to become part of the active network.

Component 4. Development and implementation of Guidelines for the application of relevant findings for management and policy intervention.

14 In concert with the Synthesis Panel, working group members and supporting staff will design, plan and implement guidelines for the application of relevant findings into management and policy operations. Part of this initiative will be working with on-going management programs, such as the such as the suite of GEF and other co-financed projects referred to in part in Table 1, the International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN), the Nature Conservancy/Conservation International’s Global Marine Program, WRI’s analysis of Reefs at Risk, ICLARM’s work on coral reefs and that of other institutions, to improve effectiveness of, to ensure that the results of the research are practically applied where they will have the greatest impact on the conservation of the world’s coral reefs.

15 Figure 4. Illustration of the institutional linkages involved in designing, implementing and disseminating the results of the investigations in the field. Institutional Nodes, or Centers of Excellence, provide the quality control and research rigor required to carry out the experimental design formulated by the working groups and endorsed by the Synthesis Panel. Capacity building is the result of collaboration between a Node and other research facilities in selected locations with coral reef ecosystems. Research results are channeled to management projects and activities to inform decision making, and to policymakers to introduce needed reforms. Similar clusters of node and satellite institutions are envisioned in each region and some of the working groups may overlap in their use of field sites and clusters to carry out investigations. Component 5. Project Management and Coordination

This component will support the technical assistance, financial services, training, logistical and operational requirements necessary to ensure the appropriate and efficient administration of project activities and resources. It will also pursue institutional and financial arrangements to ensure the long-term sustainability of the targeted research in subsequent phases of the program. A number of partner institutions are already committed to working with ICLARM and the World Bank during the Block B Phase, and several private foundations have signaled their interest in collaborating in the Targeted Research once it is launched. A key task of the implementing institution and associated executing entities will be the consolidation of such emerging partnerships during the initial phase, and creation of a blueprint for implementing the next phase of research priorities, which will be identified by the Working Groups and Synthesis Panel.

Justification for PDF Grant

As this is a global project potentially involving all coral reef regions of the world, this PDF grant is needed to finalize the experimental design for the full Project and the institutional arrangements required to implement the research framework under Phase 1. Preparation funds will be used to convene the working groups (and reconvene those working groups that have already been established), develop and convene the guiding Synthesis Panel, and implement pilot activities associated with testing several of the initial hypotheses.

Block B resources will also be used to define the geographic network where targeted investigations will occur, and the various institutions on the ground that will be carrying out the research and capacity building during Project implementation. The Working Groups and the Synthesis Panel will each meet at least twice during the PDF Block B period, and then convene regularly over the course of Project implementation to review the research program, interpret results and publish official reports about the global implications of the targeted research.

Description of PDF Activities and Expected Outputs

Activity 1. Formation and convening of the Working Groups and the Synthesis Panel The working groups identified as part of the Block A period will be reconvened to continue development of their targeted priorities and plans. The remaining working group will be defined and convened for their first meetings. Once each of the working groups have met and Chairs selected, the Synthesis Panel will convene toward the middle of the Block B period.

Activity 2. Implementation of pilot activities to test the specific hypotheses of the 1st two working groups Pilot studies at the four locations Mexico, Australia, Zanzibar and The Philippines (or Thailand)will be supported with Block B resources. The intent is to test the experimental designs to ensure that they can be implemented and function as planned. Experiments to test the specific hypotheses described in component 1 would be conducted and any preliminary findings reported as part of the full Project proposal.

There is a sense of urgency in establishing these study sites during the Block B period. Recent meteorological models have forecasted another El Niño/Southern Oscillation event beginning around June/July, 2002. Having the experimental mesocosms and field stations in place and operating in advance of this predicted event would allow for critical information to be collected before and after potential elevations in SSTs, and other conditions conducive to stress and coral bleaching.

17 Activity 3. Finalization of the Full Project Proposal During the course of the working groups and Synthesis Panel meetings, the full Project proposal and Budget will be completed. This proposal will identify the complete set of investigative priorities and collaborations from each of the working groups, reviewed and endorsed by the Synthesis Panel, and the complete network of study sites identified with participating countries' letters of support for the Phase I project period. The full proposal will also develop the initial guidelines for the application of relevant findings to management.

Activity 4. Implementing Arrangements ICLARM, The World Fish Center, has been identified to serve as the Executing Agency for the PDF Block B preparation grant. ICLARM is one of the 16 Centers of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, with a secretariat in the World Bank, and has been selected because of its global scope, its research orientation, and established networks in developing countries.

Figure 5 ICLARM ‘s Outreach Capability

The Center’s Research Facilities and Offices are in 10 countries

1997 1996 Egypt Caribbean 1989 Bangladesh 2000 Vietnam 1977 Philippines 1985 2000 2000 Solomon Cameroon Penang Islands 2001 1986 New Caledonia Malawi CGIAR Staff in 10 countries Projects in 23 Countries

ICLARM’s mission is to help poor people in developing countries through research into the sustainable development and conservation of fish and other living aquatic resources. Coral reefs have been identified as one of the focus fisheries resource and ecosystems for the Center's work because of the important ecosystem goods and services they provide to millions of people. The Center's work on coral reefs includes the creation of ReefBase, the global database of the world's reefs, their resources, status and ecology, assessing reef fisheries resources and the valuation of 18 all reef resources, studies of better governance policies, genetic diversity of indicator species and the development of environmental friendly culture and stock enhancement technologies for conservation and aquaculture of reef species. The Targeted Research program also needs a major administrative commitment to data management, including mechanisms and standard operating procedures to ensure data quality and good archiving over time and to make data available to the resource managers, policy makers and the public, and to researchers. ReefBase, centered at ICLARM, the global repository for coral reef information, will be capable of serving the working groups in this regard.

The institutional arrangements for the operation of the full Targeted Research project will be developed in detail during project preparation. Galvanized by the bleaching events of 1997-98 and by earlier consultations with the World Bank in the development of the TR concept, a number of NGOs and marine research institutions have already begun to focus attention on the impacts of climate change on coral reef ecosystems. As described earlier, the initial geographic focus will be in East-Asia/Pacific, the Western Caribbean and the Western Indian Ocean, where GEF/Bank investments are heaviest, and where existing marine research institutions may be tapped more readily to become involved in a networked program of targeted research for coral reefs. Along these lines, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and Conservation International (CI) have recently joined forces to mount a new initiative in the Asia/Pacific Region to improve the effectiveness of MPAs in counteracting the impacts of climate change. This will rely on field based observations of: (1) differential survival of corals/reefs to bleaching linked to Climate Change, (ii) the importance of connectivity and larval dispersal between reef to recovery from bleaching and other disturbance events, and (iii) the importance of fish spawning aggregation sites to reef connectivity and sources of replenishment to damaged/overfished reefs. Applying these science-based principles to the design of more effective/resilient coral reef MPA networks will depend on the kind of rigorous research and hypothesis testing envisioned under the proposed Targeted Research Project. TNC is eager to collaborate with the GEF Project in linking the results of its investigations to management and in building capacity locally for more effective conservation. TNC proposes to create a Coastal Marine Conservation Center in Indonesia which will provide TA and training in marine conservation to MPA managers, coastal resources managers and other NGOS, and will be linked through a series of strategic partnerships to learning centers and project sites throughout the Asia Pacific region. This learning center may be linked to the Center of Excellence referred to under Component 4 of the Targeted Research (see Figure 4), as a dissemination node. Further collaboration in Capacity Building for Adaptation to Climate Change is envisioned under a partnership involving TNC, the World Wildlife Fund, IUCN, the USEPA and the World Bank to develop a series of good practice guidelines for MPA managers around the world. These would outline mitigation measures to reduce vulnerability to the impacts of climate change by enhancing the resilience of marine coastal communities to bleaching, storm damage and other climate change-related impacts.

Eligibility

The Project will be submitted under OP 9, Integrated Land and Water Multiple Focal Area for International Waters, but has relevance to OP 2 and OP (X for Climate Change). Coral reefs provide an excellent model for understanding the relationship between three of the four major GEF focal areas: Climate Change, International Waters and Biodiversity. Coral reefs house the most diverse forms of life on earth and are among the most species rich habitats in the world. Recent El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, which ushered in dramatic changes in global precipitation, circulation patterns and increases in Seas Surface Temperature (SST), have shed new light on the relationship between Global Warming and the world’s coral reefs. The widespread bleaching and mortality of reefs which occurred in association with the most severe ENSO event in history in 1997/98, suggests a strong correlation between changes in the earth’s 19 atmosphere and dramatic and pervasive change in these fragile marine ecosystems. Current models suggest that the exchange of CO2 through the atmosphere and the sea surface has a regulatory effect on coral reefs by affecting calcification rates of corals through changes in the concentration of carbonate ions and the saturation state of calcium carbonate in the water column. The greater the CO2 concentration, the lower the carbonate and CaCO3 saturation rates, leading, in turn, to a decrease in reef accretion and a predominance of bio-eroding processes. Clearly more field measurements and experimental work are needed to determine the long-term effects of increased atmospheric CO2 on coral reefs. However, it is clear that reefs, as shallow water systems at the margins of continents, are at risk not only from land based sources of pollution, but are vulnerable to changes occurring at the interface of the sea surface and the earth’s atmosphere. Understanding the nature of these interactions between air, land, and sea in the context of coral reefs will be critical to their conservation and to the design of appropriate management interventions. The proposed Targeted Research also has the potential to advance our conceptual thinking on integrated ecosystem management and the additional challenges imposed by climate change.

Coordination with other Implementing Agencies

The proposed Targeted Research is linked with a number of initiatives of other GEF Implementing Agencies and potential partners in the implementation of a collaborative, long-term program which links science to management. Emphasis will be placed during the Block B phase on identifying synergies and building on efforts which offer opportunities for technical collaboration, institutional networking, economies of scale and co-financing.

Examples include the following:

· The Millennial Ecosystem Assessment, which involves a partnership between the UNEP, UNDP and The World Bank, among others, seeks to produce assessments of five major ecosystems: coastal/fisheries, agriculture, forests, grasslands/drylands, and water. At this stage, the Millennium Assessment is seeking to develop indicators of ecosystem health as a first step in conducting the assessment. The proposed coral reef targeted research has the potential to serve as the first sustainable investigative framework for a major ecosystem, and could provide important inputs on methodology and data for assessment of the world’s tropical coastal and marine environments. ICLARM, which will serve as the executing agency for the PDF Block B, is also the executing agency for the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, thus ensuring synergies between the two initiatives. · ICRAN, is a collaborative partnership for coral reef conservation involving UNEP, ICLARM, and five other founding partners has been endorsed by the International Coral Reef Initiative, of which both the World Bank and UNEP are members. The proposed Targeted Research for Coral Reefs has also been endorsed by ICRI and discussed with UNEP as a complementary initiative that provides the investigative framework for the management interventions that will be promoted under ICRAN. Work on larval dispersal and coral reef connectivity in Southeast Asia currently being carried out by ICLARM; will be complemented by similar work in the Caribbean to be carried out under the TR. Research results may feed directly into pilots for improved siting and management of MPAs in ICRAN demonstration sites in the Caribbean and Southeast Asia. Baseline Situation and Developing Efforts

ICRI (www.icriforum.org) Launched in 1995, the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) seeks to implement Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 as well as other international conventions and agreements for the benefit of coral reefs and related ecosystems, and has served as the main 20 supporting forum for over 85 member countries since 1995. The US served as the initial Secretariat from 1995-96. The Secretariat was then hosted by Australia from 1997 through 1998. Immediately following the first International Tropical Marine Ecosystems Management Symposium (ITMEMS) and ICRI review this past November, 1998, the ICRI Coordination Planning Committee (CPC) met and officially transferred the ICRI Secretariat to France, beginning January 1, 1999 until 2001.

ICRI has identified four cornerstones of operation:

 integrated management (to incorporate human activities affecting coastal/marine and related terrestrial ecosystems, both within and outside marine protected areas);

 capacity building (to involve all stakeholders ensuring equity, empowerment, and transparency in resource management processes);

 research and monitoring (to provide the information base required to help informed decision- making); and

 review (of progress to make adjustments in actions and goals where necessary)

The success of the Initiative in its future phases will require concrete action at the regional, national and local levels. ICRI's focus is shifting to regional levels, where national governments, with the help of the private sector and local and community groups can shape policies and measures to their particular circumstances. The goal is for ICRI to be comprised of a series of self-sufficient regional programs based on existing organizations and requiring a minimum of international secretariat support. Designated regional coordinating units will take on the responsibility for coordination between regions and representation of ICRI at the international level. Ultimately, results from the targeted research can be integrated within ICRI's policy and management objectives.

GCRMN (www.gcrmn.org) The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) is an operational program of ICRI and global network of people, governments, institutes and NGOs monitoring coral reefs and their user communities in over 80 countries or states. GCRMN is guided by a Strategic Plan that focuses on building capacity to monitor coral reefs worldwide. Monitoring includes biophysical and socio-economic factors. To date, the GCRMN has also produced two global reports assessing the state of the world coral reefs (see Wilkinson, 2000). The GCRMN has four co-sponsors (IOC/UNESCO, IUCN, the World Bank and UNEP), and is guided by a scientific and technical advisory committee (STAC).

The GCRMN identifies three levels of monitoring: i) Community-based, or Volunteer monitoring, which is considered a low-level form on monitoring, ii) government-level monitoring--which considered a moderate in precision, and iii) research-level monitoring. In a recent five-year review of the GCRMN the higher precision, research level monitoring remains under represented compared to the other categories. This targeted research program has the potential to--over time--provide the GCRMN with higher-precision status and trends of the network of research sites.

The International Society for Reef Studies. Founded in 1980, The International Society for Reef Studies (ISRS) is a membership organization with over 800 members from over 50 countries worldwide. The principal objective of the Society is to promote for the benefit of the public, the production and dissemination of scientific knowledge and understanding of coral reefs, both living and fossil. ISRS produces the quarterly scientific journal Coral Reefs, which 21 focuses on quantitative and theoretical coral reef studies, including experimental and laboratory work, and modeling. ISRS in not a funding body; it relies on individual researchers to contribute findings to its peer-reviewed journal. However, ISRS endorses existing government and private funding of multidisciplinary programs to promote research on the changing nature of coral reefs, and recognizes the need for an increased level of support if the many threats to reefs worldwide are to be understood and mitigated. The current president of the ISRS has written a letter of endorsement for this proposed targeted research initiative6.

CORDIO (www.cordio.org)- is an acronym for Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean. CORDIO is supported by Swedish Sida and the World Bank, through Dutch Trust Funds, beginning in 1999. Coral reefs are key ecosystems within this region supporting large sectors of the countries' populations and economies (e.g. through artisanal fisheries, tourism and large-scale investments). Activities within CORDIO have focused on a) determining the bio-physical impacts of coral degradation as a result of bleaching and other disturbances, and monitoring the long term prospects for recovery, b) the socio-economic impacts of coral mortality and options for mitigation through management and development of alternative livelihoods and c) the prospects of restoration and rehabilitation of reefs to accelerate ecological and economic recovery. CORDIO's programs are conducted in Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Madagascar, Seychelles, Reunion, Comoros, Mauritius, Maldives, India and Sri Lanka and are coordinated from subregional secretariats in Kenya, Sri Lanka and Reunion. CORDIO has been operating and has received additional cosponsors over its two-year history. CORDIO's program currently does not conduct targeted research; however, one of its representatives has become a member of the coral bleaching working group.

ICRAN - The International Coral Reef Action Network. (www.icran.org). The International Coral Reef Action Network is a global partnership of coral reef experts who are working to reverse the decline of the world's coral reefs. Through the adoption of a strategic plan, ICRAN is designed to act on an international, regional and local scale while building on existing coral reef conservation and management programs already underway. ICRAN provides a strategic and central network to support existing coral reef conservation and management by enabling the partners to streamline their efforts through communication and shared resources.

There are three main interlinked components of ICRAN: Management Action, Assessment, and Communication and knowledge dissemination. A major goal of ICRAN is to assist local communities to continue building on successful management efforts and to share those experiences in hopes that good practices will be replicated. ICRAN also provides a forum to extend experience and knowledge to other interested coral reef managers and Policy-makers worldwide. ICRAN's Management Action component involves specific activities within four coral reef regions (the Caribbean, Eastern Africa, East Asia and the South Pacific).

As part of the Regional Seas development of ICRAN, inventories have been developed for each of the participating countries within the Regional Seas, and the level of monitoring or baseline environmental assessment has been determined in many areas. In the majority of cases, there are no coordinated, research-level, scientific investigations underway. Rather, investigations are generally fragmented and independent among institutions. This information can be viewed within ICRAN's Strategic Plan (http://www.unep.ch/coral/icranpln.htm).

ICRAN has received support from the United Nations Foundation to begin its four-year action phase. ICRAN partners have been in contact with the GEF to look for ways to leverage coral reef management and conservation initiatives. Once the investigative infrastructure is in place, this

6 This endorsement letter is on file and available upon request. 22 proposed targeted research program could eventually serve as a crucial information base for the ICRAN framework, by providing improved recommendations for management, and policy.

National Center for Caribbean Coral Reef Research (NCORE). This is a 10 yr initiative based at the University of Miami, with seed funding from the USEPA and NSF, to improve the scientific basis for coral reef management. NCORE’s objective is to unravel the complex interactions--bio-physical, ecological and socio-economic--which affect the resilience of coral reefs to stress, and to supply decision support tools to facilitate knowledge-based management. NCORE intends to develop a series of models of coral reef ecosystem structure and behavior, and to determine the connectivity between major reef ecosystems in Belize, the Florida Keys and the Bahamas as a determinant of resilience as well as transboundary impacts. A Memorandum of Understanding between NCORE and the GEF/World Bank regional Project for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System is in the process of being finalized, outlining the basis for collaboration in this research and capacity building effort.

The Integrated Global Observing Strategy (IGOS). The IGOS is a cooperative strategy that, through partnership, seeks to provide a comprehensive framework for the major space-based and in-situ systems for global observation of the Earth. Its aim is to provide an over-arching strategy for conducting observations relating to climate and atmosphere, oceans and coasts, the land surface and the Earth's interior. The Partners, through IGOS, intend to build upon the strategies of existing international global observing programs, and upon current achievements, in seeking to improve observing capacity and deliver observations in a cost-effective and timely fashion. Efforts will be directed to those areas where satisfactory international arrangements and structures do not currently exist.

As a result of the ICRAN program, UNEP has formed a Coral Reef unit to assist in coordinating ICRAN, and to address other aspects of coral reef information, conservation and management. Through the Coral Reef Unit, an IGOS Coral Reef theme is currently under development. This theme is to be linked to ICRAN, and will be designed to address improved observations of coral reefs and associated ecosystems through the following actions: . quantify the global extent and distribution of coral reefs and associated ecosystems and their spatial relationships; . quantify the loss of coral reefs and associated ecosystems over time; . document the health of coral reef ecosystems to the extent possible with remote sensing and in situ approaches and their combination; . monitor changes in coral reef ecosystems over time, both to determine natural variability and anthropogenic degradation, and to identify the effects of global change; . provide early warning of, and monitor the extent of, major stressful events such as raised water temperature and associated coral bleaching; . supply improved data on stresses on and risks to coral reefs, such as adjacent land use and runoff changes, coastal construction and dredging, human pressures on fringing reefs and the coastline, etc.; . document large scale and long term phenomena and characteristics important to the productivity and maintenance of coral reefs; . develop a geomorphological unit classification of habitats and seascapes in coral reef and associated ecosystems and its map representation; . generate observational products of immediate use to coral reef and coastal zone managers and planners, and to different resource user communities (fishing, tourism, biodiversity protection, etc.); . provide evidence if possible of the effectiveness of marine protected areas.

23 This IGOS theme is currently developing a working draft document and proposal to determine the ways and means to support and implement this initiative.

US-based Integrated Ocean Observing System.

In a more recent development, the US government has announced plans to establish an integrated ocean observing system that would routinely gather ocean information similar to the information gathered for atmospheric weather forecasting. It purpose would be to provide a range of background data to assist in supporting an integrated ocean observing system that would move ocean observations from a research-focused activity towards an operational system for routine use. The system would provide information services such as detecting and forecasting the ocean's role in climate, facilitating safe and efficient marine operations, ensuring healthy marine ecosystems, restoring degraded ones, and mitigating natural hazards, and ensuring public health. However, this system remains in a planning stage, and may join effort with the IGOS coral reef theme.

U.S. Coral Reef Task Force. In June 1998, President Bill Clinton signed an Executive Order for enhancing the protection of coral reefs and related ecosystems. The Order established the formation of a U.S. Task Force, whose purpose is to improve intergovernmental and U.S. international coordination in working toward the conservation of coral reefs. To date, the Task Force has held two meetings. The initial meeting was held in Key Biscayne, Florida in October 1998. The second meeting was held in Maui, Hawaii, in March 1999, in which the Task Force adopted a resolution on coral bleaching and climate change. As a result of the Executive Order the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) has announced its commitment to improve its capability in tracking global elevated sea surface temperatures and other remote sensing capabilities to examine coral reefs in greater detail.

Under the Bush administration the USCRTF continues to operate and will hold its second meeting in the Fall of 2001.While there is significant interest by the Task Force's international working group, there are currently no plans to directly link this targeted research project with the Executive Order. NOAA, a member of the USCRTF continues to remain heavily involved in remote sensing operations for coral reefs, and is providing some co-financing support for a remote sensing workshop to be convened during the Block B period. Sustainability

The Targeted Research Program is envisioned as a long-term, collaborative effort, involving a suite of institutions, research networks and funding sources over a period of 10 – 15 years. If conservation and management of the world’s remaining coral reefs is to be effective in the face of continuous human pressures and environmental change, extended time-series data over large spatial scales will be needed to unravel the system behavior and resilience of coral reefs. To fill the critical information gaps identified by the Working Groups and Synthesis Panel, scientific partnerships between the developed and developing world, and a long-term commitment of effort and resources, will be required. GEF support is seen as catalytic to this process. While a number of institutions have expressed interest in collaborating, an initial infusion of resources from the GEF to jump start the process will be critical to mobilizing the necessary institutional and financial support to launch and sustain this effort over the long term. Based on discussions with interested foundations and research institutions in the developed world, GEF funds are expected to leverage resources on a nearly 1:1 basis during the first phase. GEF resources would be used to support developing country participation in the Targeted Research, while contributions from research institutions in the developed world, would be targeted to support participation of e.g., U.S. and Australian investigators. Private foundation support would also be tapped to help 24 finance the work of the Working Groups and Synthesis Panel. The Bank will seek to consolidate this support during preparation, and to expand the network of financing partners during implementation of Phase 1. The Project will also reinforce the sustainability of the research effort by building capacity locally within developing country institutions to carry out the research, to link it closely to the needs of management and decision-makers, and to integrate the program into other regional and global initiatives addressing marine conservation and ecosystem management. A series of performance and process indicators to assess knowledge output and its application to management as a measure of capacity building, will be developed for Phase 1. Phase 2 follow on activities will depend on the extent to which Project benchmarks have been achieved in the first phase and will focus on strengthening the linkages between research, management and policy. Indicators will be fleshed out during the Block B phase and tied to OP indicators for International Waters, as these emerge in the coming months. Development of criteria for scale up or phase out of particular lines of research at the end of Phase 1 will be the responsibility of the Working Groups. These will be reviewed by the Synthesis Panel in the design of the research framework to be carried out under Phase 2. While it is anticipated that resources for implementation of the follow-on phase will also be sought from the GEF, the ratio of GEF financing to other sources is expected to decline significantly in the follow on phase.

Participation and Consultation

In addition to the detailed consultations that form the basis of this proposal, both government and institutional representatives from Belize, Mexico, Thailand and the Philippines have verbally endorsed the concept. Belize provided an endorsement letter as part of the Block A process7. Endorsement letters from those other countries where pilot/trial studies are to be implemented, and where the network will be expanded, will be submitted with the full project document.

Incremental Cost Analysis. This will be developed under the PDF Block B Grant. The baseline activities being carried out in various coral reef regions of the world are outlined above. The incremental costs of the proposed Targeted Research Project are primarily associated with the establishment of long-term time series and spatially robust data sets, the need for experimental work directly linked to management, capacity building of in-country research scientists, and the synoptic analysis of results within and across regions to allow for predictive modeling as a decision-support tool for managers and policy- makers.

Expected Date of Project Preparation Completion

The completion of the project preparation would be fourteen months from the date of initiation of the PDF Block B.

Implementing Agency

The World Bank intends to serve as the implementing agency for this Project for Targeted Research. As a founding member of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) and with projects under implementation or in the pipeline totaling nearly $250 million (Table 1), the World Bank is committed to advancing the objectives of coral reef conservation and sustainable use. In light of the continued decline of coral reef ecosystems and impacts on the livelihoods of hundreds of millions of people who depend on the goods and services provided by coral reefs, the

7 This endorsement letter is on file and available upon request. 25 Bank has both a mandate, through its commitment to poverty reduction, and an interest, in line with its work on conserving global public goods, to support this global initiative. Sector work is now underway within the Bank to link poverty alleviation in coastal communities with improved environmental management and payment for ecosystem services. This work along with new data and policy recommendations derived from the Targeted Research will strengthen the basis for policy dialogue between the Bank and client countries to promote the reforms necessary to relieve major sources of localized stress on coral reef ecosystems as well as reforms under the Climate Change agenda. The Bank will also work with the other GEF implementing agencies to promote the partnerships and scientific networks needed for this initiative to take root and to channel the information where it can be used most effectively to ensure the success of investments on the ground. Implementing Agency Task Manager

Marea Hatziolos (Telephone 202-473-1061; email [email protected]) is the World Bank's task manager for the project.

26 Preparation Costs Items to be financed using PDF Block B funds would include the following activities:

Project Preparation Activities USD$x1,000 Preparation Activity GEF/PDF B IOC U of ICLARM NOAA AIMS NCORE TOTAL Queensland (In-Kind)

Activity 1. Convening of Working Groups and Synthesis Panel IOC Bleaching Working Group $30 $38 $10 $78 Remote Sensing Working Group $30 $20 $15 $65 Coral Disease Working Group $35 $35 Larval and Fisheries Recruitment, Connectivity $30 $30 $60 and Genetics Coral Modeling Working Group $30 $210 $60 Coral Reef Remediation Working Group $35 $35

Convening of Synthesis Panel $30 $30

Activity 2 Pilot of Experimental Designs Australia $20 $20 $40 Mexico $40 $40 Zanzibar $40 $40 Philippines (or Thailand) - TBD (TBD) Activity 3 Finalization of the full project $10 $10 proposal

Activity 4 Identification of Institutional $20 $25 $45 arrangements

TOTAL $350 $38 $30 $25 $20 $15 $240 $718 Note: The totals above do not include World Bank internal resources or trust fund resources which are still being sought to complement the project preparation activities. References

Buddemeier, R.W. and S.V. Smith. 1999. Coral Adaptation and Acclimatization: A Most Ingenious Paradox. Amer. Zool. 39:1-9.

Dustan, P, J.W. Porter, W.C. Jaap. 1999. Coral Reef Monitoring Project, Analysis of trends 1996-1999. Executive Summary. USEPA. Hoegh-Guldberg, O. 1999. Climate Change, coral bleaching and the future of the world's coral reefs. Greenpeace International (www.greenpeace.org). ISBN 90-73361-52-4.

Knowlton, N. 2001 (a). Sea Urchin recovery from mass mortality: New hope for Caribbean coral reefs? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. April 24. Vol. 98, No. 9:4822-4824.

Knowlton, N. 2001 (b). The future of coral reefs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. May 8. Vol.98, No. 10: 5419-5425.

Knowlton, N. 1998. Hard Decisions and Hard Science: Research Needs for Coral Reef Management. In: Coral Reefs: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Management. The World Bank, 1998. pp 183-187. ISBN: 0-8213-4235-5

Mumby, P.J., J.R.M. Chisholm, C.D. Clark, J.D. Hedley and J. Jaubert. 2001. A bird's eye view of the health of coral reefs. Nature Vol. 413: 36-37.

Risk, M.J. 1999. Paradise lost: how marine science failed the world's coral reefs. Mar. Freshwater Res., 1999. 50: 831-7.

Spalding, M.D. C. Ravilious and E. P. Green. 2001. World Atlas of Coral Reefs. Prepared at the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. University of California Press. Berkeley, USA 302 pp.

Wilkinson, C. Ed. 2000. Status of Coral Reefs of the World. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, Australian Institute of Marine Science. 363 pp. Annex 1 Biliography

1. Multiple Stressors

Aronson, R.B. and W.F. Precht, 2001. Evolutionary paleoecology of Caribbean coral reefs. Pages 171-233 in W.D. Allmon and D.J. Bottjer, editors. Evolutionary Paleoecology: The Ecological Context of Macroevolutionary Change. Columbia University Press, New York.

Aronson, R.B., and W.F. Precht. 1997. Stasis, biological disturbance, and community structure of a Holocene coral reef. Paleobiology 23: 326-346.

Buddemeier, R.; W., and S.V. Smith. 1999. Coral adaptation and acclimatization: a most ingenious paradox. American Zoologist (39): 1-9.

Dunstan, P.K., and C.R. Johnson. 1998. Spatio-temporal variation in coral recruitment at different scales on Heron Reef, southern Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs 17:71-81. Edinger, Evan N.; Jompa, Jamaluddin; Limmon, Gino V.; Widjatmoko, Wisnu; Risk, Michael J. Reef degradation and coral biodiversity in Indonesia: Effects of land-based pollution, destructive fishing practices and changes over time. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin Aug., 1998. 36 (8): 617-630.

Edmunds, P.J., and R.C. Carpenter. 2001. Recovery of Diadema antillarum reduces macroalgal cover and increases abundance of juvenile corals on a Caribbean reef. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98: 5067-5071.

Greenstein, B.J., H.A. Curran, and J.M. Pandolfi. 1998. Shifting ecological baselines and the demise of Acropora cervicornis in the western North Atlantic and Caribbean Province: a Pleistocene perspective.

Grigg, Richard W.. Effects of sewage discharge, fishing Pressure and habitat complexity on coral ecosystems and reef fishes in Hawaii. In: Marine Ecology Progress Series 1994. 103 (1-2): 25-34.

Hughes, Terry; Szmant, Alina M.; Steneck, Robert; Carpenter,Robert; Miller, Steven. Algal blooms on coral reefs: What are the causes? In: Andréfouët S, Roux L, Chancerelle Y, Bonneville A (2000) A fuzzy possibilistic scheme of study for objects with indeterminate boundaries: application to french polynesian reefscapes. IEEE Trans. Geoscience and Remote Sensing 38 : 257-270

Hughes, T.P. and J.H. Connell. 1999. Multiple stressors on coral reefs: a long-term perspective. Limnology and Oceanography 44: 932-940.

Lafferty, K.D., and A.M. Kuris. 1999. How environmental stress affects the impacts of parasites. Limnology and Oceanography 44: 925-931.

McClanahan, T.R., and A.M. Muthiga. 1998. An ecological shift in a remote coral atoll of Belize over 25 years. Environmental Conservation 25: 122-130.

Porter, James W.; Lewis, Sarah K.; Porter, Karen G.. The effect ofmultiple stressors on the Florida Keys coral reef ecosystem: A landscape hypothesis and a physiological test. In: Limnology and Oceanography May, 1999. 44 (3 PART 2): 941-949.

Scheffer, M.; Carpenter, S.; Foley, J.; Folkes,C. and Walker, B. 2001. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature. Vol. 413: 591-596.

Wellington GW, Glynn PW, Strong AE, Navarrete SA, Wieters E, Hubbard D (2001) Crisis on coral reefs linked to climate change. EOS Trans. AGU 82 : 1,5

Yamano, H., Kayanne, H., Yonekura, N. and Kudo, K., 2000. 21-year changes of backreef coral distribution: causes and significances. J. Coastal Research, 16(1): 99-110.

2. Reviews

Abrams M (2000) The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER): data products for the high spatial resolution imager on NASA's Terra platform. Int. J. Remote Sensing 21 : 847-859

Brown, Barbara E.. Disturbances to reefs in recent times. Birkeland, C., Ed. In: Life and death of coral reefs.Chapman and Hall, Inc; Chapman and Hall Ltd. 29 West 35th Street, New York, New York, USA; 2-6 Boundary Row, London SE1 8HN, England, 1997. 354-385. pp.

29 Done, Terrence and David Lloyd, Eds. 1999. Information, management and decision support for marine biodiversity protection and human welfare: coral reefs. Proceedings from a workshop, Townsville, Queensland, Australia, December 6-10, 1999. UNEP/DEIA&EW/MR.2000-2.

Hinrichsen, Don. Coral reefs in crisis: An overview of these vanishing ecosystems, the problems that plague them, and the means for saving them. In: Bioscience 1997. 47 (9): 554-558.

Holden H, LeDrew E (1998) The scientific issue surrounding remote detection of submerged coral ecosystems. Progress in Physical Geography 22 : 190-221

Kinzie, Robert A.,. Sex, symbiosis and coral reef communities. In:American Zoologist Feb., 1999. 39 (1): 80-91.

Markham, Adam. Potential impacts of climate change on ecosystems:A review of implications for policymakers and conservation biologists. In: Climate Research 1996. 6 (2): 179-191. Pennings, Steven C.. Indirect interactions on coral reefs. Birkeland, C.,Ed. In: Life and death of coral reefs.Chapman and Hall, Inc.; Chapman and Hall Ltd. 29 West 35th Street, New York, New York, USA; 2-6 Boundary Row, London SE1 8HN, England, 1997. 249-272. pp.

Peters, Esther C.; Gassman, Nancy J.; Firman, Julie C.; Richmond, Robert H.; Power, Elizabeth A.. Ecotoxicology of tropical marine ecosystems. In: Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 1997. 16 (1): 12-40.

Pittock, A. Barrie. Coral reefs and environmental change: Adaptation to what? In: American Zoologist Feb., 1999. 39 (1): 10-29.

Risk, Michael J.. Paradise lost: How marine science failed the world's coral reefs. In: Marine and Freshwater Research

Van Woesik, R.. Modelling processes that generate and maintain coral community diversity. In: Biodiversity and Conservation September, 2000. 9 (9): 1219-1233.

Wilkinson, Clive R.. Global and local threats to coral reef functioning and existence: Review and predictions. In: Marine and Freshwater Research 1999. 50 (8): 867-878.

Spalding, M.D. C. Ravilious and E. P. Green. (2001). World Atlas of Coral Reefs. Prepared at the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. University of California Press. Berkeley, USA 302 pp.

Stehman SV (1997) Selecting and interpreting measures of thematic classification accuracy. Remote Sensing of Environment 62 : 77-89 Stehman SV (1999) Basic probability sampling designs for thematic map accuracy assessment. Int. J. Remote Sensing 20 : 2423-2441

Cao C, Lam NS (1997) Understanding the scale and resolution effects in remote sensing and GIS. In Quattrochi DA, Goodchild MF (ed) Scale in remote sensing and GIS. Lewis Publishers, New-York, pp 57-72

Fargion GS, Mueller JL, 2000.- Ocean optics protocols for satellite ocean color sensor validation, Revision 2.- In . NASA/GSFC.

3. Remediation

Done, Terry. Remediation of degraded coral reefs: The need For broad focus. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1995. 30 (11): 686-688.

Edwards, Alasdair J.; Clark, Susan. Coral transplantation: A useful management tool or misguided meddling? In: Marine Pollution Bulletin Aug.-Dec., 1998. 37 (8-12): 474-487. 4. Bioindicators

Alcolado, Pedro M.; Herrera-Moreno, Alejandro; Martinez-Estalella, Nereida (Symposium Miami, Florida, USA June 10- 11, 1993). Sessile communities as environmental bio-monitors in Cuban coral reefs. Ginsburg, R. N., In:Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami ; Miami, Florida, USA, 1994. 27-33. Edinger, Evan N.; Limmon, Gino V.; Jompa, Jamaluddin; Widjatmoko, Wisnu; Heikoop, Jeffrey M.; Risk, Michael J.. Normal coral growth rates on dying reefs: Are coral growth rates good indicators of reef health?. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin May, 2000. 40 (5): 404-425.

Hill, Richard W.; Dacey, John W. H.; Krupp, David A.. Dimethylsulfoniopropionate in reef corals. In: Bulletin of Marine Science 1995. 57 (2): 489-494.

Molis, M. Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology. (AnnualMeeting of the Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology Boston, Massachusetts, USA January 3-7, 1998). Bioindicators in coral reefs. In:American Zoologist 1997. 37 (5): 39A.

30 Richmond, R. H.; Leota, S.; Romano, S.; Mackenna, S. (Annual Meeting of the Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology Chicago, Illinois, USA January 6-10, 1999). The use of coral planula larvae as ecological indicators of pollution effects on coral reefs. In: American Zoologist 1998. 38 (5): 173A.

Risk, Michael J.; Erdmann, Mark V.. Isotopic composition of nitrogen in stomatopod (Crustacea) tissues as an indicator of human sewage impacts on Indonesian coral reefs. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin Jan., 2000.40 (1): 50-58. 5. Destructive Fishing Practices

Bohnsack, James A. (Symposium Miami, Florida, USA June 10-11, 1993). The impacts of fishing on coral reefs. Ginsburg, R. N., In: Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health,Hazards and History. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami ; Miami, Florida, USA, 1994. 196-200.

Fox, Helen E.; Erdmann, Mark V.. Fish yields from blast fishing in Indonesia. In: Coral Reefs July, 2000. 19 (2): 114.

Jones, R. J.; Kildea, T.; Hoegh-Guldberg, O.. PAM chlorophyll fluorometry: A new in situ technique for stress assessment in scleractinian corals, used to examine the effects of cyanide from cyanide fishing. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin Oct., 1999. 38 (10): 864-874.

Jones, Ross J.; Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove. Effects of cyanide on coral photosynthesis: Implications for identifying the cause of coral bleaching and for assessing the environmental effects of cyanide fishing. In: Marine Ecology Progress Series Feb. 11, 1999. 177 (0): 83-91. Jones, Ross J.; Steven, Andrew L.. Effects of cyanide on corals in relation to cyanide fishing on reefs. In: Marine and Freshwater Research 1997. 48 (6): 517-522.

McClanahan, T. R.. A coral reef ecosystem-fisheries model:Impacts of fishing intensity and catch selection on reef structure and processes. In: Ecological Modelling 1995. 80 (1): 1-19.

McManus, John W.; Menez, Lambert A. B.; Kesner-Reyes, Kathleen N.; Vergara, Sheila G.; Ablan, M. C.. Coral reef fishing and coral-algal phase shifts: Implications for global reef status. In: ICES Journal of Marine Science June, 2000. 57 (3): 572-578.

McManus, John W.; Reyes., Rodolfo B.,; Nanola, Cleto L.,.Effects of some destructive fishing methods on coral cover and potential rates of recovery. In: Environmental Management 1997. 21 (1): 69-78.

Pet-Soede, C.; Cesar, H. S. J.; Pet, J. S.. An economic analysis of blast fishing on Indonesian coral reefs. In: Environmental Conservation June, 1999. 26 (2): 83-93.

Riegel, B. Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology. (Annual Meeting of the Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology Boston, Massachusetts, USA January 3-7, 1998). Developers, divers, dynamite: Man-made Environmental change and an uncertain future for Northern Red Sea coral reefs.

Riegl, B.; Luke, K. E.. Ecological parameters of dynamited reefs in the northern Red Sea and their relevance to reef rehabilitation. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin Aug.-Dec., 1998. 37 (8-12): 488-498. In: American Zoologist 1997. 37 (5): 12A.

Saila, S. B.; Kocic, V. L.; W.Mcmanus, J.. Modelling the effect of destructive fishing practices on tropical coral reefs. In: Marine Ecology Progress Series 1993. 94 (1): 51-60. 6. Damage from Oil Spills

Abdel-Kader, A. F.; Nasr, S. M.; El-Gamily, H. I.; El-Raey, M.. Environmental sensitivity analysis of potential oil spill for Ras-Mohammed Coastal Zone, Egypt. In: Journal of Coastal Research Spring, 1998. 14 (2): 502-510.

Guzman, Hector M.; Holst, Irene. Effects of chronic oil-sediment pollution on the reproduction of the Caribbean reef coral Siderastrea siderea. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1993. 26 (5): 276-282. Guzman, Hector M.; Burns, Kathryn A.; Jackson, Jeremy B.C.. Injury, regeneration and growth of Caribbean reef corals after a major oil spill in Panama. In: Marine Ecology Progress Series 1994. 105 (3): 231-241.

Roberts, Callum M.; Downing, Nigel; Price, Andrew R. G. (Symposium Miami, Florida, USA June 10-11, 1993). Oil on troubled waters: Impacts of the Gulf War on coral reefs. Ginsburg, R. N., In: Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami ; Miami, Florida, USA, 1994. 132-133.

Negri, A.P., and A.J. Heyward. 2000. Inhibition of fertilization and larval metamorphosis of the coral Acropora millepora (Ehrenberg, 1834) by petroleum products. Marine Pollution Bulletin (41): 420-427.

Guzman, H.M. and K.E. Jarvis, 1996. Vanadium century record from Caribbean reef corals: a tracer of oil pollution in Panama. Ambio Vol. 25 No. 8, Dec. 1996. 7. Eutrophication/Pollution 31 Abelson, Avigdor; Steinman, Boris; Fine, Maoz; Kaganovsky, Semion. Mass transport from pollution sources to remote coral reefs in Eilat (Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea). In: Marine Pollution Bulletin Jan., 1999. 38 (1): 25-29. Online Access

Bell, Peter R. F.; Tomascik, Tom (Symposium Miami, Florida, USA June 10-11, 1993). The demise of the fringing coral reefs of Barbados and of regions in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) lagoon: Impacts of eutrophication.

Ginsburg, R. N., In: Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami ; Miami, Florida, USA, 1994. 319-325.

Carpenter, S. R.; Caraco, N. F.; Correll, D. L.; Howarth, R. W.; Sharpley, A. N.; Smith, V. H.. Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. In: Ecological Applications Aug., 1998. 8 (3): 559-568.

Chabanet, P.; Dufour, V.; Galzin, R.. Disturbance impact on reef fish communities in Reunion Island (Indian Ocean). In: Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 1995. 188 (1): 29-48.

Fiege, Dieter; Neumann, Volker; Li, Jinhe. Observations on coral reefs of Hainan Island, South China Sea. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1994.29 (1-3): 84-89.

Gast, G. J.; Jonkers, P. J.; van Duyl, F. C.; Bak, R.P.M.. Bacteria, flagellates and nutrients in island fringing coral reef waters: Influence of the ocean, the reef and eutrophication. In: Bulletin of Marine Science Sept., 1999. 65 (2): 523-538. Holmes, Katherine E.. Effects of eutrophication on bioeroding sponge communities with the description of new West Indian sponges, Cliona spp. (Porifera: Hadromerida: Clionidae). In: Invertebrate Biology 2000. 119 Huber, Michael E.. An assessment of the status of the coral reefs of Papua New Guinea. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1994. 29 (1-3): 69-73.

McCook, L. J.. Macroalgae, nutrients and phase shifts on coral reefs: Scientific issues and management consequences for the Great Barrier Reef. In: Coral Reefs Dec., 1999. 18 (4): 357-367.

Nickerson-Tietze, Donna J.. Scientific characterization and monitoring: Its application to integrated coastal management in Malaysia. In: Ecological Applications April, 2000. 10 (2): 386-396.

Schaffelke, Britta. Short-term nutrient pulses as tools to assess responses of coral reef macroalgae to enhanced nutrient availability. In: Marine Ecology Progress Series June 11, 1999. (182): 305-310.

Schaffelke, Britta; Klumpp, David W.. Short-term nutrient pulses enhance growth and photosynthesis of the coral reef macroalga Sargassum baccularia. In: Marine Ecology Progress Series Sept. 3, 1998. 170 (0): 95-105.

Shimoda, Toru; Ichikawa, Tadafumi; Matsukawa, Yasuo. Nutrient conditions and their effects on coral growth in reefs around Ryukyu Islands. In: Bulletin of the National Research Institute of Fisheries Science Dec.,1998. 0 (12): 71-80.

Vargas-Angel, Bernardo. Distribution and community structure of the reef corals of Ensenada de Utria, Pacific coast of Colombia. In: Revista de Biologia Tropical 1996. 44 (2 PART A): 643-651.

Zann, Leon .. The status of coral reefs in south western PacificIslands. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1994. 29 (1-3): 52-61. 8. Climate Change/Coral Bleaching Berkelmans R, Oliver J (1999) Large scale bleaching of corals on the Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs 18 : 55-60 Buddemeier, Robert W. (Workshop held during the IVth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas Caracas, Venezuela February 10-21, 1992). Potential impacts of rapid climate change on coral reefs: Implications for marine parks.

Pernetta, J. Leemans, R. Elder, D. Humphrey, S., In: Impacts of climate change on ecosystems and species: Implications for protected areas. IUCN ; Rue Mauverney 28, CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland, 1994. 95-103.

Eakin, C. Mark (1996 AAAS Annual Meeting and Science Innovation Exposition: The 162nd National Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science Baltimore, Maryland, USA February 8-13, 1996). Climate impacts on reefs: Hungry sea urchins and shifting budgets. In: AAAS Annual Meeting and Science Innovation Exposition 1996. 162 (0): A148-A149.

Hoegh-Guldberg, O. 1999. Climate Change, coral bleaching and the future of the world's coral reefs. Greenpeace International (www.greenpeace.org). ISBN 90-73361-52-4.

Meehan, William J.; Ostrander, Gary K.. Coral bleaching: A potential biomarker of environmental stress. In: Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 1997. 50 (6): 529-552.

Pernetta, John; Leemans, Rik; Elder, Danny; Humphrey, Sarah 1994.(UNEP-IOC-WMO-IUCN Meeting of Experts on a Long-Term Global Monitoring System of Coastal and Near-Shore Phenomena Related to Climate Change: Pilot Projects on Mangroves and Coral Reefs Monaco, Monaco December 9-13, 1991). Impacts of climate change on ecosystems and species: Marine and coastal ecosystems; UNEP-IOC-WMO-IUCN Meeting of Experts on a Long-Term Global Monitoring System of Coastal and Near-Shore Phenomena Related To Climate Change: Pilot Projects on Mangroves and Coral Reefs, Monaco, Monaco, December 9-13, 1991.

32 Ware, J. R. Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology. (Annual Meeting of the Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology Boston, Massachusetts, USA January 3-7, 1998). Coral reefs in the greenhouse: The adaptive bleaching hypothesis and global climate change. In: American Zoologist 1997. 37 (5): 72A. Wilkinson, Clive; Linden, Olof; Cesar, Herman; Hodgson, Gregor; Rubens, Jason; Strong, Alan E.. Ecological and socioeconomic impacts of 1998 coral mortality in the Indian Ocean: An ENSO impact and a warning of future change? In: Ambio March, 1999. 28 (2): 188-196.

9. Sedimentation

Anthony, K.R.N. 1999. A tank system for studying benthic aquatic organisms at predicatable levels of turbidity and sedimentation: Case study examining coral growth. Limnology and Oceanography 44: 1415-1422.

McClanahan, T. R.; Obura, D.. Sedimentation effects on shallow coral communities in Kenya. In: Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 1997. 209 (1-2): 103-122.

Gilmour, J. 1999. Experimental investigation into the effects of suspended sediment on fertilization, larval survival and settlement in a scleractinian coral. Marine Biology 135: 451-462.

Wesseling, I., Uychiaoco, A.J., Porfirio, M.A., Aurin, T., and J.E. Vermaat. 1999. Damage and recovery of four Phillippine corals from short-term sediment burial. Marine Ecology Progress Series (176): 11-15.

Bastidas, C., D. Bone, and E.M. Garcia. 1999. Sedimentation rates and metal content of sediments in a Venezuelan coral reef. Marine Pollution Bulletin 38: 16-24.

Hodgson, G. 1990. Tetracycline reduces sedimentation damage to corals. Marine biology 104: 493-496. Meesters, E.H., Bak, R.P.M., Westmacott, S., Ridgley, M., and S. Dollar. 1998. A fuzzy logic model to predict coral reef development under nutrient and sediment stress. Conservation Biology 12: 957-965.

Lopez, E.O., Bonilla, H.R., and J.K. Mejia. 1998. Effects of sedimentation on coral communities of southern Socorro Island, Revillagigedo Archipelago, Mexico. Ciencias Marinas (24): 233-240. vanKatwijk, M.M., Meier, N.F., van Loon, R., van Hove, E.M., Giesen, W.B.J.T., van der Velde, G., and C. den Hartog. 993. Sabaki River sediment load and coral stress: correlation between sediments and condition of the Malindi-Watamu reefs in Kenya (Indian Ocean). Marine Biology 117: 675-683.

Ross, P., and M.E. DeLorenzo. 1997. Sediment contamination problems in the Caribbean islands: research and regulations. Envrironmental Toxicology and Chemistry (16): 52-58.

Pandolfi, J.M. 1999. Response of Pleistocene coral reefs to environmental change over long temporal scales. American Zoologist (39): 113-130.

Lidz, B.H., and P. Hallock. 2000. Sedimentary petrology of a declining reef ecosystem, Florida Reef Tract (U.S.A.). Journal of Coastal Research (16):: 675-697.

Larcombe, P., and K.J. Woolfe. 1999. Increased sediment supply to the Great Barrier Reef will not increase sediment accumulation at most coral reefs. Coral Reefs (18): 163-169.

Abelson, A., Shteinman,B., Fine, M., and S. Kaganovsky. 1999. Mass transport from pollution sources to remote coral reefs in Eilat (Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea). Marine Pollution Bulletin (38): 25-29.

10. Storm Damage

Lugo, Ariel E.; Rogers, Caroline S.; Nixon, Scott W.. Hurricanes, coral reefs and rainforests: Resistance, ruin and recovery in the Caribbean. In: Ambio March, 2000. 29 (2): 106-114.

Nowlis, Joshua Sladek; Roberts, Callum M.; Smith, Allan H.;Siirila, Erkki. Human-enhanced impacts of a tropical storm on nearshore coralreefs. In: Ambio Dec., 1997. 26 (8): 515-521.

11. Site Specific Surveys

Ruitenbeek, J.; Ridgley, M.; Dollar, S.; Huber, R.. Optimization of economic policies and investment projects using a fuzzy logic basedcost-effectiveness model of coral reef quality: Empirical results for MontegoBay, Jamaica. In: Coral Reefs Dec., 1999. 18 (4): 381-392.

33 Al-Jufaili, S.; Al-Jabri, M.; Al-Baluchi, A.; Baldwin, R. M.;Wilson, S. C.; West, F.; Matthews, A. D.. Human impacts on coral reefs in the Sultanate of Oman. In: Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science Aug., 1999. 49 (SUPPL. A): 65-74.

Cook, C. B.; Dodge, R. E.; Smith, S. R. (Symposium Miami, Florida, USA June 10-11, 1993). Fifty years of impacts on coral reefs in Bermuda. Ginsburg, R. N., In: Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami ; Miami, Florida, USA, 1994. 160-166.

Dai, Chang-Feng. Patterns of coral distribution and benthic space partitioning on the fringing reefs of southern Taiwan. In: Marine Ecology1993. 14 (3): 185-204.

Downing, Nigel; Roberts, Callum. Has the Gulf War affected coral reefs of the northwestern Gulf? In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1993. 27 (0):149-156. Edinger, E. N.; Azhar, I.; Rao, A.; Bachtiar, T.; Risk, M. J. Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology. (Annual Meeting of the Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology Boston, Massachusetts, USA January 3-7, 1998). Coral reef conservation and coral biodiversity in central Java, Indonesia. In: American Zoologist 1997. 37 (5): 166A.

Glynn, Peter W.. State of coral reefs in the Galapagos Islands: Natural vs anthropogenic impacts. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1994. 29

Guzman, Hector M.; Holst, Irene. Biological inventory and present status of coral reef at both ends of the Panama Canal. In: Revista de Biologia Tropical 1994. 42 (3): 493-514.

Holmes, Katherine E.; Edinger, Evan N.; Hariyadi; Limmon, Gino V.; Risk, Michael J.. Bioerosion of live massive corals and branching coral rubble on Indonesian coral reefs. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin July, 2000. 40 (7): 606-617.

Huber, Michael E.. An assessment of the status of the coral reefsof Papua New Guinea. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1994. 29 (1-3): 69-73.

Hunter, Cynthia L.; Evans, Christopher W.. Coral reefs in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii: Two centuries of western influence and two decades of data. In: Bulletin of Marine Science 1995. 57 (2): 501-515.

Hutchings, Pat; Payri, Claude; Gabrie, Catherine. The current status of coral reef management in French Polynesia. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1994. 29 (1-3): 26-33.

Jameson, Stephen C.. Rapid ecological assessment of the Cayos Miskitos Marine Reserve with notes on the shallow- water stony corals from Nicaragua. In: Atoll Research Bulletin Sept., 1998. 0 (450-458): 1-15.

Johnstone, Ron W.; Muhando, Christopher A.; Francis, Julius. The status of the coral reefs of Zanzibar: One example of a regional predicament.In: Ambio Dec., 1998. 27 (8): 700-707.

Jokiel, P. L.; Hunter, C. L.; Taguchi, S.; Watarai, L.. Ecological impact of a fresh-water "reef kill" in Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. In: Coral Reefs 1993. 12 (3-4): 177-184. Leao, Zelinda Margarida De Andrade Nery. The coral reefs of Bahia: Morphology, distribution and the major Environmental impacts. In: Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciencias 1996. 68 (3): 439-452. Letourneur, Yves. Dynamics of fish communities on Reunion fringing reefs, Indian Ocean. II. Patterns of temporal fluctuations. In: Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 1996. 195 (1): 31-52.

Lewis, John B.. Abundance, distribution and partial mortality of the massive coral Siderastrea siderea on degrading coral reefs at Barbados, West Indies. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1997. 34 (8): 622-627.

McClanahan, Timothy R.; Muthiga, Nyawira A.. An ecological shift in a remote coral atoll of Belize over 25 years. In: Environmental Conservation June, 1998. 25 (2): 122-130.

McClanahan, T. R.; Muthiga, N. A.; Kamukuru, A. T.; Machano, H.; Kiambo, R. W.. The effects of marine parks and fishing on coral reefs of northern Tanzania. In: Biological Conservation July, 1999. 89 (2): 161-182.

McClanahan, T. R.; Nugues, M.; Mwachireya, S.. Fish and sea urchin herbivory and competition in Kenyan coral reef lagoons: The role of reef management. In: Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 1994. 184 (2): 237-254.

McClanahan, T. R.; Obura, D. (Symposium Miami, Florida, USA June 10-11, 1993). Status of Kenyan coral reefs. Ginsburg, R. N., In: Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami ; Miami, Florida, USA, 1994. 392-396.

Price, A. R. G.. The Gulf: Human impacts and management initiatives. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1993. 27 (0): 17-27.

Price, A. R. G.. Impact of the 1991 Gulf War on the coastal environment and ecosystems: Current status and future prospects. In: Environment International Jan.-Feb., 1998. 24 (1-2): 91-96.

Price, Andrew R. G.; Firaq, Ismael. The environmental status of reefs on Maldivian resort islands: A preliminary assessment for tourism planning. In: Aquatic Conservation 1996. 6 (2): 93-106.

34 Riegl, B.; Piller, W. E.. Mapping of benthic habitats in northern Safaga Bay (Red Sea, Egypt): A tool for proactive management. In: Aquatic Conservation March-April, 2000. 10 (2): 127-140.

Sheppard, Charles R. C.. Physical environment of the Gulf relevant to marine pollution: An overview. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1993. 27 (0): 3-8.

Shimoda, Toru; Ichikawa, Tadafumi; Matsukawa, Yasuo. Nutrient conditions and their effects on coral growth in reefs around Ryukyu Islands. In: Bulletin of the National Research Institute of Fisheries Science Dec.,1998. 0 (12): 71-80.

Wilkinson, C. R.; Chou, L. M.; Gomez, E.; Ridzwan, A. R.; Soekarno, S.; Sudara, S. (Symposium Miami, Florida, USA June 10-11, 1993). Status of coral reefs in southeast Asia: Threats and responses. Ginsburg, R. N., In: Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami ; Miami, Florida, USA, 1994. 311-317.

Zann, Leon P.. The status of coral reefs in south western Pacific Islands. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1994. 29 (1-3): 52- 61.

7. Remote Sensing

Ahmad W, Neil DT (1994) An evaluation of Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) digital data for discriminating coral reef zonation: Heron Reef (GBR). Int. J. Remote Sensing 15 : 2583-2597

Andrefouet S, Payri C (2001) Scaling-up carbon and carbonate metabolism in coral reefs using in situ and remote sensing data. Coral Reefs 19 : 259-269 Andréfouët S, Claereboudt M, Matsakis P, Pagès J, Dufour P (2001) Typology of atolls rims in Tuamotu archipelago (French Polynesia) at landscape scale using SPOT-HRV images. Int. J. Remote Sensing 22(6):987-1004

Andréfouët S, Claereboudt M (2000) Objective class definitions using correlation of similarities between remotely sensed and environmental data. Int. J. Remote Sensing 21: 1925-1930

Andrefouet S, Berkelmans R, Odriozola L, Done T, Oliver J, Muller-Karger FE (in press) Choosing the appropriate spatial resolution for monitoring coral bleaching events using remote sensing Lee, Z.P., Carder, K.L., Chen, R.F. and Peacock, T.G., 2001.

Atkinson PM, Curran PJ (1997) Choosing an appropriate spatial resolution for remote sensing investigations. Photogrammetric Engineering Remote Sensing 63 : 1345-1351

Atkinson PM, Lewis P (2000) Geostatistical classification for remote sensing: an introduction. Computers and Geosciences 26 : 361-371

Bajjouk T, Populus J, Guillaumont B (1998) Quantification of subpixel cover fractions using Principal Component Analysis and a linear programming method: application to the coastal zone of Roscoff (France). Remote Sensing of Environment 64: 153-165

Burrage DM, Steinberg CR, Skirving WJ, Kleypas JA (1996) Mesoscale circulation features of the Great Barrier Reef region inferred from NOAA satellite imagery. Remote Sensing of Environment 56 : 21-41

Clark C, Mumby P, Chisholm J, Jaubert J, Andréfouët S (2000) Spectral discrimination of coral mortality states following a severe bleaching event. Int. J. Remote Sensing 21 : 2321-2327

Dustan P, Dobson E, Nelson G (in press) Remote sensing of coral reefs: detection of shifts in the community composition of coral reefs using the Landsat Thematic Mapper. Conservation Biology.

Fux E, Mazel C (1999) Unmixing coral fluorescence emission spectra and predicting new spectra under different excitation conditions. Applied Optics 38 : 486-494

Green EP, Mumby PJ, Edwards AJ, Clark CD (2000) Remote sensing handbook for tropical coastal management. UNESCO, Paris, 316 pp

Green EP, Mumby PJ, Edwards AJ, Clark CD (1996) A review of remote sensing for the assessment and management of tropical coastal resources. Coastal management 24 : 1-40

Hamilton LJ, Mulhearn PJ, Poeckert R (1999) Comparison of RoxAnn and QTC-View acoustic bottom classification system performance for the Cairns area, Great Barrier Reef. Continental Shelf Research 19 : 1577-1597

Hochberg E, Atkinson M (2000) Spectral discrimination of coral reef benthic communities. Coral Reefs 19 : 164-171

Holden H, Ledrew E (1999) Hyperspectral identification of coral reef features. Int. J. Remote Sensing 20 : 2545-2563

Holden H, Ledrew E (1998) Spectral discrimination of healthy and non-healthy corals based on cluster analysis, principal components analysis and derivative spectroscopy. Remote Sensing of Environment 65 : 217-224

IOCCG, 2000.- Remote sensing of ocean colour in coastal, and other optically complex, waters.- In . Int. Ocean Color 35 Coordinating Group.

Kutser T, Parslow J, Clementson L, Skirving W, Done T, Wakeford M, Miller I (2000) Hyperspectral detection of coral reef bottom types. Proc Ocean Optics XV, Monaco : CD-ROM

Lee ZP, Carder KL, Mobley CD, Steward RG, Patch JS (1999) Hyperspectral remote sensing for shallow waters: 2. Deriving bottom depths and water properties by optimization. Applied Optics 38 : 3831-3843

Lee ZP, Carder KL, Mobley CD, Steward RG, Patch JS (1998) Hyperspectral remote sensing for shallow waters. 1. A semianalytical model. Applied Optics 37 : 6329-6228

Liceaga-Correa MA, Euan-Avila JI (in press) Assessment of coral reef bathymetric mapping using visible LANDSAT TM data. Int. J. Remote Sensing.

Lubin D, Li W, Dustan P, Mazel CH, Stamnes K (2001) Spectral signatures of coral reefs: features from space. Remote Sensing of Environment 75 : 127-137

Lunetta RS, Elvidge CE (1999) Remote sensing change detection. Taylor and Francis, London, 318 pp

Markham BL, Barker JL (1985) Spectral characterization of the LANDSAT Thematic Mapper sensors. Int. J. Remote Sensing 6 : 697-716

Maritorena S (1996) Remote sensing of the water attenuation in coral reefs: a case study in French Polynesia. Int. J. Remote Sensing 17 : 155-166

Maritorena S, Morel A, Gentili B (1994) Diffuse reflectance of oceanic shallow waters: influence of water depth and bottom albedo. Limnology & Oceanography 39 : 1689-1703

Menges CH, Hill GJE, Ahmad W (1998) Landsat TM data and potential feeding grounds for threatened marine species turtle in northern Australia. Int. J. Remote Sensing 19 : 1207-1221

Miller RL, Cruise JF (1995) Effects on suspended sediments on coral growth: evidence from remote sensing and hydrologic modeling. Remote Sensing of Environment 53 :

Mumby PJ, Harborne AR (1999) Development of a systematic classification scheme of marine habitats to facilitate regional management and mapping of Caribbean coral reefs. Biological Conservation 88 : 155-163

Mumby PJ, Green EP, Edwards AJ, Clark CD (1999) The cost-effectiveness of remote sensing for tropical coastal resources assessment and management. Journal of Environmental Management 3 : 157-166

Mumby P, Green EP, Clark CD, Edwards AJ (1998) Digital analysis of multispectral airborne imagery of coral reefs. Coral Reefs 17 : 59-69

Mumby PJ, Green EP, Clark CD, Edwards AJ (1997) Coral reef habitat mapping: how much detail can remote sensing provide? Marine Biology 130 : 193-202

Myers MR, Hardy JT, Mazel CH, Dustan P (1999) Optical spectra and pigmentation of Caribbean reef corals and macroalgae. Coral Reefs 18 : 179-186

Patzert WC (2000) Coral reef bleaching: the view from space. Proc 9th Int. Coral Reef Symposium, Bali, Indonesia Abstract : 265

Phinn SR, Neil DT, Joyce KE (2000) Coral reefs: a multi-scale approach to monitoring their composition and dynamics. Proc IGARSS 2000, Honolulu, Hawaii CDROM : TH04.1540

Purkis S, Kenter JAM, Oikonomou EK, Robinson IS (in press) High resolution ground verification, cluster analysis and optical model of reef substrate coverage on LANDSAT TM imagery (Red Sea, Egypt). Int. J. Remote Sensing

Robinson JA, Feldman GC, Kuring N, Franz B, Green E, Noordeloos M, Stumpf RP (2000) Data fusion in coral reef mapping: working at multiple scales with SeaWiFS and astronaut photography. Proc Sixth International Conference on Remote Sensing for Marine and Coastal Environments, Charleston, South Carolina, 1-3 May 2000 II : 473-483

Schalles JF, Rundquist DC, Gitelson A, Keck J (2000) Close range, hyperspectral reflectance measurements of healthy Indo-Pacific and Caribbean corals. Proc Sixth International Conference on Remote Sensing for Marine and Coastal Environments, Charleston, South Carolina, 1-3 May 2000 I:431-440

Siljestrom PA, Rey J, Moreno A (1996) Characterization of phanerogam communities (Posidonia oceanica and Cymodocea nodosa) using side-scan sonar images. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 51 : 308- 315

Teillet PM, Barker JL, Markham BL, Irish RR, Fodesejevs G, Storey JC (in press) Radiometric cross-calibration of the LANDSAT 7 ETM+ and LANDSAT 5 TM sensors based on tandem data set. Remote Sensing of Environment, in press Zhang M, Carder KL, Muller-Karger FE, Lee Z, Goldgof DB (1999) Noise reduction and atmospheric correction for coastal applications of Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery. Remote Sensing of Environment 70 : 167-180

36 Annex II

List & Credentials of Members for the Bleaching and Remote Sensing Working Group

IOC working group on bleaching and local ecological factors NAME EMAIL EXPERT FOCUS COUNTRY

UNESCO COMMITTEE Bill Fitt [email protected] Cellular responses USA Helen T Yap [email protected] Local ecological responses Phillipines John Bythel [email protected] Local ecological responses UK Mauro Maida [email protected] Regional ecological responses Brazil Ole Vestergaard [email protected] Coastal processes, management and implementation Denmark Ove Hoegh-Guldberg [email protected] Molecular mechanism/markers Australia Rob van Woesik [email protected] Local ecological responses Japan Roberto Iglesias-Preito [email protected] Molecular mechanism/markers Mexico Ruth Gates [email protected] Cellular responses USA Barbara Brown [email protected] Cellular responses UK Bernard Salvat [email protected] Regional ecological responses France David Obura [email protected] Regional ecological responses Kenya Michael Lesser [email protected] Cellular responses USA Yossi Loya [email protected] Local ecological responses Israel

INVITEES Carolyn Smith [email protected] Molecular mechanism/markers Australia Bill Leggat [email protected] Molecular mechanism/markers Australia Tyrone Ridgway [email protected] Regional ecological responses South Africa Ron Johnstone [email protected] Coastal processes, management and implementation Australia Julius Francis [email protected] Coastal processes, management and implementation Tanzania Ross Jones [email protected] Molecular mechanism/markers Australia Andy Hooten [email protected] Coastal processes, management and implementation USA Annex II con't.

Remote Sensing Working Group

Abbrevs. for Technical areas Geographic Name Institution Technical areas Applications regions Sat = satellite sensors Air = airborne sensors Monitor, Biodiv, Hyp = hyperspectral data Serge University of South Caribbean, Sat, Air, Hyp, Bleach, Storm, Spectra = analysis of reef spectra Andrefouet Florida Indo-Pacific Spectra, RTM Connect Fluor = analysis of fluorescent spectra Western Washington Caribbean, Sat, Spectra, RTM = radiative transfer modelling Jack Hardy Bleach, Monitor University Indo-Pacific Fluor

Abbrevs. for Applications Eric Caribbean, Spectra, RTM, University of Hawaii Nut, Monitor Hochberg Indo-Pacific Hyp, Air, Sat Bleach = coral bleaching SST = sea surface temperature Bleach, Storm, Nut = chlorophyll and sediments University of Caribbean, Sat, Air, Hyp, Connect, Biodiv, Peter Mumby Storm = effects of tropical storms, Newcastle Indo-Pacific Spectra, RTM MPA, Man, floods Monitor Connect = reef connectivity Bleach, SST, Nut, Biodiv = biodiversity studies William Australian Institute of Indo-Pacific Sat, Air, Hyp Connect, Man, MPA = marine protected areas Skirving Marine Science Monitor Man = general reef management Monitor = monitoring reef health National Oceanic & Caribbean, SST, Bleach, Al Strong Atmospheric Sat Indo-Pacific Connect, Nut Administration

National Oceanic & Caribbean, Bleach, Man, Rick Stumpf Atmospheric Sat, RTM Indo-Pacific Monitor Administration

38 39 Annex 3

Working Hypotheses of WG 1 on Coral Bleaching

Molecular-level Hypotheses: 1. The first step of coral bleaching begins with a failure of the dark reactions of photosynthesis. ALTERNATIVE: The first step involves damage to other components of the photosynthetic machinery (such as proteins) 2. Failure of the primary steps of photosynthesis leads to a build-up of oxygen radicals, which then cause cellular damage. ALTERNATIVE: Oxygen radicals do not build up because of bleaching stress. 3. Light is an important secondary factor. ALTERNATIVE: Light does not play a role in coral bleaching. 4. Molecular mechanisms that result in reduced light stress (such as specific pigments) play a role in reducing damage during thermal stress. ALTERNATIVE: These mechanisms do not play a role in reducing either light or heat stress. 5. The basis of heat stress tolerance in corals rests in the molecular mechanisms that reduce photoinhibition. ALTERNATIVE: photoinhibitory strategies are irrelevant to heat tolerance in corals and zooxanthellae. 6. Both host and zooxanthellae have a series of coral bleaching specific markers that will be useful as bio-markers ALTERNATIVE: There are no specific markers for the stresses that underpin mass coral bleaching.

Cellular and Physiological Hypotheses 1. Cell detachment versus expulsion are both important mechanisms underlying the advent of coral bleaching. 2. Seasonal fluctuations in the density and quality of zooxanthellae are important to understanding coral bleaching. 3. Corals and zooxanthellae vary in their environmental tolerance - this is genetically based. 4. Coral bleaching and mortality is driven by the primary variable elevated temperature but is influenced by light, flow and other factors. 5. Thermal stress will reduce growth rates, coral metabolism, regenerative capacity and colony integration 6. Thermal stress will reduce reproductive output (gametogenesis, spawning)

(N.B. In each statement, the alternative hypothesis (H1) negates the stated null (H0)

Within-Reef Ecological-level Hypotheses: Climate change will reduce reef resilience by: 1. Increasing whole colony mortality on coral reefs. 2. changing differential mortality patterns (species, size) reducing recruitment (loss during larval phase failure of settlement). 3. having a greater effect on larval survival compared to the adult phase. 4. causing a change in relative abundance of populations within the community causing changes in coral abundance and in size frequency distributions. 5. causing a functional shift. 6. causing net erosion (balance between accretion and bio- and chemo-physical erosion). 7. altering foundation nutrient pathways & dynamics. 8. Other stressors (natural and/or anthropogenic) will have a compounding effect on the tolerance of corals and zooxanthellae to thermal stress. 9. Reef complexity (e.g. physical, biological, chemical, structural) will affect the response to environmental stress. 10. Refugia (patchiness) will exist within reefs such that corals within these sub- habitats will act as important sources of re-colonization for affected reefs.

41

Load more

  41

Copy Link