Environmental Effect of the European Establishment of Plantation Agriculture in the Americas

Environmental effect of the European establishment of plantation agriculture in the Americas  Mercantilism was a popular idea when the European conquerors arrived  This idea that colonies must benefit the mother country led to the establishment of plantation economies in the fertile lands of the Caribbean, Brazil, and the southern climes of the United States  In these fertile lands, sugarcane, tobacco, and cotton could be grown  Of course, a plantation is a large farm and the land must be altered to create such a farm  Widespread deforestation occurred as trees were cut down to clear the land for farming  In addition, the depletion of nutrients occurred as the same crops were harvested year after year

Compare the European Caravel to the Ming Treasure Ship  From 1405 until 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven ocean expeditions for the Ming emperor  Over sixty of the three hundred seventeen ships on the first voyage were enormous “Treasure Ships,” sailing vessels over 400 hundred feet long, 160 feet wide, with several stories, nine masts and twelve sails, and luxurious staterooms complete with balconies  The likes of these ships had never before been seen in the world, and it would not be until World War I that such an armada would be assembled again  During the first expeditions, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India’s southwest coast  In his fourth voyage, he traveled to the Persian Gulf  But for the three last voyages, Zheng went even further, all the way to the east coast of Africa  The European Caravel on the other hand was a significantly smaller vessel  A Caravel was a small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed in the 15th century by the Portuguese to explore along the West African coast and into the Atlantic Ocean  The lateen sails gave the caravel its speed and the capacity for sailing to windward  Find images of both to visually recognize the ships and their differences

The Umma  Umma is the Arabic word for the Islamic community  Membership in the Umma is based on belief not birth  Umma means the “community of the faithful”

The Religious Symbols of Buddhism  The wheel symbolizes the auspiciousness of the turning of the precious wheel of Buddha’s doctrines  The golden fish symbolizes the auspiciousness of all living beings in a state of fearlessness without danger of drowning in the ocean of sufferings  The lotus flower symbolizes the complete purification of the defilements of the body, speech and mind, and the full blossoming of wholesome deeds in blissful liberation  The endless knot represents the union of wisdom and method and at the time of enlightenment, the complete union of wisdom and great compassion  The conch symbolises the deep, far-reaching and melodious sound of the Dharma teachings which awakens practitioners from the deep slumber of ignorance and urges them to accomplish their own and others’ welfare

Peninsulares in Colonial Latin America  In the colonies of Spain in the Americas, there was a colonial hierarchy or ranking system  Peninsulares were individuals born in Spain and were given the most important jobs in the colonial government like viceroy or governor in addition to receiving valuable tracts of land; Peninsulares were wealthy and powerful  Peninsulares had the highest social status in Latin American colonies  Beneath Peninsulares were Creoles or individual born in the colonies but of 100% European ancestry; as a result of being born in the colonies, they were viewed as being less educated or cosmopolitan and were therefore denied the top jobs in the colonial government although they were wealthy landowners [these individuals will lead the independence movements in Latin America]  Mestizos were of mixed ancestry: European and Indian and faced discrimination  Native American Indians and Africans were exploited and frequently enslaved

The effect of the spread of Christianity among most Amerindian societies after 1500  Spanish conquistadors came to the Americans in search of “God, Glory, and Gold”  Native American Indians were often forcibly converted to Roman Catholicism  While Native American Indians were converted to Christianity, they still retained elements of their previous animistic faiths  Syncretism or cultural blending occurred as cultural ideas rarely die  Thus, Amerindians or Native American Indians or the indigenous peoples of the Americas maintained local customs by combining indigenous beliefs with elements of Christianity

The Belief System that Gained Influence after the Collapse of the Han Dynasty in China  The collapse of the Han Dynasty was a profound shock to the Chinese  Confucianism had taught that when people adhere to proper behavior, there is peace and harmony  Yet the Han Dynasty collapsed due to invaders, high taxes, and incompetent rulers  During the years that followed, there was much fighting and warfare as competing lords sought to gain the imperial throne  During this time of suffering, Buddhism increased in popularity  Buddhism offers adherents a path to end suffering  Buddhism became a popular religion in China An Effect of the Neolithic Revolution  People learned to farm and domesticate animals  As a result of farming, people settled  Population increased due to a reliable food source  Epidemic diseases occurred due to proximity to animals  Class divisions emerged as some individuals acquired more goods than others  Patriarchy or male dominance occurred as women’s work was viewed as less valuable  Sedentary village communities were established as people settled abandoned their nomadic ways

A Result of the Development of Agriculture  Sedentary villages  Class divisions  Patriarchy  Slavery  Epidemic diseases  Population density increased

Reason for the fall of the Roman, Han, and Gupta Empires  Invasions  High Taxes  Corrupt rulers

A Contributing Factor to the Spread of the Plague in the Fourteenth Century  Germs travel when people travel  Think of it as the “cough heard round the world”  A major contributing factor to the spread of the plague to Cairo, Beijing, and Florence in the fourteenth century was trade along the Mongol road system  The Mongols conquered a vast empire that stretched from the Pacific coast to the Black Sea  The Mongols conquered the entire length and breadth of the Silk Roads  The Mongols provided peace and security on the Silk Roads during this time of peace in the Mongol Empire, the Pax Mongolica  As trade flourished, more people travelled and the more people that travel, the greater the likelihood of more contagious people travelling and spreading more contagious diseases

Mosques in West Africa – Cultural Diffusion  Islam entered West Africa along the Trans-Saharan trade routes  Of course, Islam originated in Arabia and therefore, Islam in Africa is an example of cultural diffusion or the spread of cultural ideas  A mosque is an Islamic house of worship; therefore a mosque in West Africa is also an example of cultural diffusion  Of course, a mosque will be built with different materials in West Africa as the geography of the region is different  Therefore, make sure to look at an image of a West African mosque in order to identify a West African mosque on the examination Effects of the Bantu Migrations  The Bantu were agriculturalists originally from West Africa  They migrated throughout sub-Saharan Africa as their population increased and they required more lands  These migrations occurred from approximately 1000 B.C.E. to 1000 C.E.  The Bantu spread iron, agriculture, and their language throughout sub-Saharan Africa  The Bantu provided a common linguistic root for the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa as many sub-Saharan African languages are derived from Bantu  The Bantu also spread banana cultivation which entered Africa from Southeast Asia

Similarities – Inca and Aztec  There are obvious differences  The Aztecs built an empire in Central Mexico and the Incas built an empire along the Andes Mountains in South America  The Aztecs built chinampas or floating islands for farming and the Incas engaged in terrace farming  Aztec conquest was motivated by a desire for human sacrifice victims to nourish the Sun God in order to ensure that the sun would rise  The Aztecs were more interested in receiving tribute from conquered subjects while the Incas were more interested in assimilating conquered subjects  The Incas had a welfare system that provided for the sick, elderly, widow, and orphan  The Incas used the quipu or knotted cord for recording information  However, there were significant similarities  Both the Aztecs and Incas were polytheists  Both the Aztecs and Incas lacked writing systems and domesticated animals  Both the Aztecs and Incas were skilled builders with the Aztecs building pyramids and the Incas building monuments without mortar that endure to the present day  Both the Aztecs and Incas acquired empires by means of military conquest

The Abbasids  Overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 C.E.  Lasted from 750 C.E. to 1258 C.E. when the Mongols sacked Baghdad  Capital was Baghdad  More decentralized than Umayyad in that local princes had greater autonomy  Second Islamic Caliphate  Never conquered Umayyad Spain  Founded by Abu al-'Abbas'  Support from Mawali [non-Arab Muslims] and Shi’a although Sunni dynasty Point of View in World History and the Crusades  Point of View analysis occurs when the reader identifies the author of the text and determines who the individual recording the information is  What class is the author from? What gender? What information can I gather from the individual that will provide insight into why the author might express his thoughts as he does?  When we read a primary source, we want to reflect on the author for a moment in order to better understand the passage  Of course, we do not want to jump to conclusions either  Each text will speak for itself  Thus, if we are reading passages on the Crusades, let us not assume that the Muslim will write or say one thing and the Christian the other  Again we must let each text speak for itself  People are full of surprises  History teaches us not to generalize and only to reach conclusions without deep thinking

Trade and the Growth of Cities  One of the most significant causes of the growth of cities in Afro-Eurasia in the period 1000–1450 was increased interregional trade  Centers of trade frequently become cities because many people engage in the exchange of goods  In the Indian Ocean Trade Network, there was an “archipelago of towns” that connected merchants throughout the region  Where there is a great center of trade, there is usually a city

Indian Ocean Trade Networks  Indian Ocean commerce flourished and was conducted by a mixture of Asian, Middle Eastern, and East African merchants  Indian Ocean trade connected Southeast Asia, South China, India, Arabia and East Africa in commercial activity  In East Africa, Swahili city-states flourished as a result of Indian Ocean Trade  Indian Ocean Trade even flourished in 1000 to 1450 but flourished even earlier  Zheng He, the great Chinese explorer from the Ming Dynasty, traveled along the Indian Ocean trade routes all the way to East Africa and brought a giraffe back to the Beijing Zoo  Calicut in India was the pepper capital of the world  Monsoons winds, blowing predictably for half of the year in one direction and then in the other direction for the other half of the year, were used by navigators in the Indian Ocean basin  India was the fulcrum of the trade route

The European Arrival in the Americas – Effects  With the arrival of Columbus in the Caribbean in 1492 and the subsequent arrival of the conquistadors, great changes occurred  The indigenous population of the Americans [Native American Indians] greatly declined as new diseases introduced by European explorers and conquerors decimated Native American Indians  New diseases such as smallpox and measles decimated indigenous peoples as they lacked immunities to these diseases due to a lack of exposure due to a lack of domesticated animals  In addition, the Americas were brought into a global trading network  Thus, 1492 marks the beginning of a truly global trade network  Therefore, the late 1400s marked the beginning of a new period in world history, a new period of the incorporation of the Americas into a broader global network of exchange

The Columbian Exchange  The Columbian Exchange is the great global cultural diffusion that occurred as a result of Columbus’ arrival in the Americas  Potatoes, corn, peanuts, and other agricultural crops were brought from the Americas to Europe, Asia, and Africa  Horses, rice, and wheat were brought from Eurasia to the Americas  Diseases also travelled too  As did people  The Columbian Exchange involved new connections in the era 1450–1750 such as between African population to the Western Hemisphere, Western Hemisphere food to Europe and Africa, and African and European diseases to the Western Hemisphere

Cash Crops and Plantations in the Americas  Mercantilism is all about the colonies benefitting the mother country  Thus, gold and silver from the colonies to the mother country but also valuable crops for sale to the mother country or cash crops  Sugar was an important cash crop and very valuable  As a result of desire for more sugar, plantations were established in the Americas, particularly on the islands of the Caribbean and in Brazil  Sugar, cotton, and tobacco were important cash crops  Where sugar plantations were established, many African slaves worked  Thus, in the period 1450-1750, sugar and tobacco were produced on large plantations by slave labor and were significant commodities in the growing world market

The Impact of the Global Demand for Sugar and African Slavery in Brazil  In the period 1500 to 1750, the population of the Portuguese colony of Brazil grew rapidly and became predominantly African because of the increase in global demand for cash crops such as sugar  Plantation labor in the Americas was African slave labor and as Europeans and colonial settlers profited from the sale of these cash crops, African slaves labored under horrific conditions and were terribly exploited The Effects of Epidemic Diseases on the Americas  The effects of epidemic diseases were devastating on the Americas in that with the arrival of the European explorers and conquerors, new diseases were introduced to the Americas  Diseases such as smallpox and measles had devastating effects on the indigenous peoples of the Americas because the Native American Indians lacked immunities to these diseases  As a result of a lack of domesticated animals in the Americas prior to Columbus’ arrival in 1492, Native American Indians were not exposed to the deadly epidemic diseases that had plagued Eurasia and Africa  Thus, the population of the indigenous peoples greatly declined in the Americas with the arrival of the Europeans  This great loss of population in the Americas is known as the “Great Dying”  A historian researching the effects of epidemic disease on the population levels of seventeenth-century colonial Peru therefore would probably find church records of baptisms and funerals most useful in determining the number of individuals affected by these diseases and overall population levels

World Trade in the Seventeenth Century and Eighteenth Century  In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European nations were becoming more powerful, conquering more lands, and dominating more of the world  Yet it would be incorrect to conclude that Europeans controlled the largest share of world trade during these centuries because other nations and kingdoms were also involved in world trade  Thus, in recent decades, many world historians have challenged the commonly held view that Europeans controlled the largest share of world trade in the seventeenth through the eighteenth centuries because European merchants transported only a fraction of the goods shipped globally  Muslim traders, Indian traders, Chinese traders and others also traded

Atlantic Slave Trade  With the decimation of Native American Indian populations in the Americas due to the arrival of new diseases carried in the bodies of European explorers and conquerors as well as the brutality of the conquest and colonization of the Americas, a labor shortage existed in the Americas  The deaths of many Native American Indians led to labor shortages in the Americas as Europeans did not want to work on the plantations and haciendas or in the mines of the Americas  The deaths of Native American Indians led to the importation of African slaves to labor on the plantations of the Americas  Cash crop farming on plantations was very profitable for plantation owners  A useful source of evidence for research about the profits of Portuguese and British slave traders in the period 1600-1800 would be European slave traders’ account books as these records would provide historians with the number of slaves brought to the Americas to replace a dying Native American Indian population

Reasons for Aztec Human Sacrifice  Cosmology or the Aztec understanding of the universe fueled Aztec human sacrifice  While many groups engaged in human sacrifice as a means of appealing to the gods in distressing times, the Aztec regularly engaged in human sacrifice and on a scale previously unseen in world history  The Aztecs believed that the sun would only rise if the sun god was nourished with human hearts and human blood  Thus, to ensure that the world was not plunged into eternal darkness, Aztec priests sacrificed many victims to the sun god  Usually prisoners of war or war captives were sacrificed  Therefore, Aztec human sacrifice fueled Aztec conquests as the Aztecs were primarily interested in collecting tribute from their conquered subjects and tribute was usually in the form of sacrificial victims  The Aztecs offered human sacrifices in order to Honor the gods and forestall the destruction of the world

Reasons for Inca Storehouses of Agricultural Surplus  The Incas understood that a great harvest one year could be followed by a miserable harvest the next year  As such, the Incas built storehouses to store extra grains in good times for lean times  The Inca government maintained storehouses of agricultural surplus for public relief and social welfare  Storehouses ensured that in hard times or bad farming years, there would be relief for the public; there would be food  Storehouses also ensured that the widow, sick, orphan, and elderly would always have a meal  The Incas provided for all members of their empire that stretched across the Andes Mountains in South America

Chinampa System of Aztecs  The chinampa system of agriculture created fertile plots of land from the mud dredged off the bottom of Lake Texcoco  The Aztecs used the chinampa system to increase the amount of fertile land available for farming  This advanced agricultural technique increased food production in the Aztec Empire of central Mexico

Isolation of Americas Prior to 1492  Before 1492, the Americas was isolated from Eurasia and Africa  Yes, there was the occasional Viking but the Vikings did not linger in the Americas and did not leave a lasting footprint  With the arrival of Columbus in 1492, the Americas was forever changed and for the Native American Indian in a painful and difficult way  With the arrival of the Europeans came new diseases that due to the lack of domesticated animals prior to 1492 had devastating consequences  As a result of new diseases, many indigenous Americans died  Aztec civilization existed in an almost complete state of isolation in the period 600 to 1450 as did all of the societies of the Americas  For 1492 is a hugely significant turning point in the Americas and world history

Foot binding in Song Dynasty  It was the practice of making a woman’s foot appear small and delicate  It was popularized in China during the Song Dynasty  It increased the attractiveness of the female in Song Dynasty  It was incredibly patriarchal in that it further reduced the freedom of women as the mobility of women was greatly decreased  Like the corset in Europe, foot binding restricted the movement of women – whether walking or breathing comfortably

Champa Rice  In World AP, when we speak rice, it is almost always Champa Rice and Champa Rice was drought-resistant and originated in Vietnam  The Chinese brought Champa Rice to China and it greatly increased rice production as a rice that is drought-resistant can grow even in difficult circumstances  Champa Rice is also early-ripening  Thus, Champa Rice increased population because it increased rice production - more food, more survival  Rice dominated Korean and Vietnamese agriculture in the 1400s as it provided many calories

Reasons for Decline of Islamic Empires  During the post-classical era from 600 C.E. to 1450 C.E., the Islamic Empires were powerful and expanding  The Islamic Empires were flourishing and golden ages occurred  Trade flourished and merchants prospered  But by the 1700s, the Islamic Empires began to decline as Western European nations rose in power  A major reason for the decline in the Islamic Empires was the refusal to accept new ideas and technologies from the West  But not adapting the ideas and technologies of more prosperous societies, the Islamic Empires fell technologically behind and were eventually reduced in power and size

Similarities – Christianity and Buddhism  Although different in many ways, there are similarities  Buddhism and Christianity provided alternatives to marriage for women  Women could become nuns in monastic orders  In monastic orders, women had some degree of autonomy within their convents  Yet nuns were still subordinate to monks  Buddhism and Christianity are also similar in that their founders were members of other religions and modified those religions  Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was raised a Hindu  Jesus was a Jewish carpenter and teacher  In addition, both belief systems owned monasteries, spread across trade routes, and appealed to a variety of social classes  Yes, Buddhism and Christianity spread on trade routes and appealed to a variety of social classes because it promised a kind of salvation for all people  Buddhism promises an end of suffering for all people  Christianity promises salvation for all people

Monasticism  It is to dedicate the individual’s life to religious practice  Buddhism and Roman Catholic Christianity encourage monasticism  Individuals are encouraged to lead a life purely devoted to religious practice and to forsake families and worldly life  Of course, most Buddhists and Catholics do not become monastics but all practicing Buddhists and Catholics admire monastics

Sunni Muslims  Muhammad died unexpectedly before picking a successor  Thus, disagreement over leadership succession issues arose  Sunni Muslims believe that any pious Muslim man can lead the Islamic umma or community

Shi’a Muslims  Shi’a believe that leadership of the community should be through ʿAli, the Prophet's son-in-law  ʿAli was the fourth of the Righteously Guided caliphs and was assassinated  After the assassination of ʿAli, Shi’a believed that the rightful caliph was murdered and have sought to ensure a descendant from the Prophet’s family as caliph

Islamic art  In general, geometric art is preferred in Islam  As only God is the creator, Muslims prefer that art not be an imitation of God's creation but rather based on patterns and beautiful geometric designs  Geometric designs prevent idolatry  Islamic art focused on abstract geometric patterns and ornate calligraphy in Arabic

Last Prophet – Islam  According to Islam, Muhammad is the last prophet  There will be no other prophets after Muhammad according to Islam  Muhammad, therefore, is the “Seal of the Prophets”  Again, after Muhammad, there will be no other prophets  Muhammad is the final prophet Byzantine Emperor Justinian  Byzantine Emperor Justinian was the most significant emperor of the Byzantine Empire  During the reign of Justinian, Roman law was codified in the Code of Justinian  From the Code of Justinian, many modern Western European law codes have been created or influenced  Ideas like “innocent until proven guilty” or equality before the law were important Roman judicial concepts found in the Code of Justinian that still influence many people today  Justinian also ordered construction of the beautiful Hagia Sophia or beautiful Byzantine Church  Justinian also conquered many of the lands lost to the Romans with the fall of Rome  Of course, the Byzantine Empire was formerly the eastern Roman Empire  From law to architecture to conquest, Justinian influenced world history  Yes, this early Byzantine emperor had the longest lasting impact on civilization in the eastern Mediterranean and beyond

Location of Byzantine Empire  The Byzantine Empire was formerly the Eastern Roman Empire  It was located between Europe and Asia at a crossroads of trade  Its capital, Constantinople, had a particularly great location  Constantinople was very defensible with water on three sides  Yes, the Byzantine Empire flourished as a crossroads of trade between the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia  Of course, it is important to find a map of the location of the Byzantine Empire in order to clearly see its location

Capital of Byzantine Empire  Constantinople  Located between Europe and Asia  Very defensible with water on three sides  Not on the map today  Renamed Istanbul when conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1453

Beliefs of Judaism  Monotheism  Ethical and Moral Religion [The Ten Commandments] ... certain behaviors are required of a Godly people  A covenant or agreement between God and his People such as to worship one God and obey his Commandments to be blessed or to be punished for disobedience to God’s Commandments

Beliefs of Buddhism  The Four Noble Truths - Life has suffering - Desire causes suffering - Suffering can end - Follow the Noble Eightfold Path - Eight actions to provide a path to end suffering such as Right Speech and Right Concentration  Nirvana is the end of suffering  There are two major sects of Buddhism: Theravada and Mahayana  Theravada Buddhism requires practitioners to find their own way to nirvana but adhering to the dharma or the teachings of the Buddha  Mahayana Buddhism has a belief in Bodhisattvas or spiritual beings who have attained enlightenment but remain on Earth to bring other suffering beings to the shores of nirvana or to the end of suffering

Beliefs of Daoism  A philosophy that developed in China during the Zhou Dynasty in the period known as the “Age of Warring States”  Sought a solution to China’s warfare in living harmoniously in nature  Daoism encourages individuals to live naturally and to live close to nature  Daoists believe that the government that governs best governs least and allows individuals to live naturally without restrictions and unnecessary rules  Daoism encourages wu wei or to do nothing but also wu bu wei or to do everything  The Yin-Yang is often a symbol in Daoism for it suggests non-duality  In dynastic China, a scholar could be Confucian by day in his scholarly work but Daoist at night as he painted and danced  a key philosophical and religious element of Daoism is emphasis on harmony between humanity and nature

Importance of Phoenicians  The Phoenicians were a seafaring people from present-day Lebanon  The Phoenicians were traders  However, they are most remembered for creating the world's first alphabet  In an alphabet, each letter represents a sound  Thus, when we teach children to read by introducing them to the sounds of letters, we call that method of instruction “Phonics” after the Phoenicians  The Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet and we get our alphabet from the Greeks [alpha and beta are the first two letters of the Greek alphabet]

Examination System in China  The examination system in dynastic China which was based on Confucianism and Chinese history was open to all men  To work in government, a man had to pass the examination but as the examination was open to all men, in theory, any man could advance to government service  Thus, the examination system afforded a measure of social mobility in dynastic China  Yes, a male peasant could become a member of the scholar-gentry  Of course, it was difficult for a poor men to pass the examination as private tutors were expensive but a village might support a promising young peasant man (after all, it is good to have friends in government service)

Chinese Concept of Mandate of Heaven  The Mandate of Heaven was a Chinese belief that the emperor was given the right to rule or the Mandate of Heaven by the gods  As long as the emperor ruled wisely and justly, he kept the mandate  If, however, he ruled poorly, he lost the mandate and the people were allowed to overthrow the dynasty  Thus, the Mandate of Heaven justified rebellion  The people would know if the emperor lost the mandate if there were floods, epidemics, famine, or warfare

The Rise of the Mongol Empire Contributed to  An empire that extended across parts of Europe and Asia  An unsuccessful attempt to conquer Japan  The spread of the plague  The growth of trade across Central Asia  Psychological warfare conducted by skilled warriors on horseback  Religious toleration for the members of the Empire  But also a “Surrender and Be Spared or Resist and Perish” form of conquest

Rights of Islamic Women  In the eyes of Allah, women and men are equal  In Islam, women have an equal chance of entering Heaven as men do  Female infanticide (the killing of female infants) is forbidden  Women can sue for divorce  Women can inherit property; however, daughters inherit half of what sons inherit  Women can testify in court; however, a woman's testimony in court only counts as half of a man's testimony  A woman can only marry one husband whereas a man can marry up to four wives  Women can engage in business ventures

Sufis  Sufism is the mystical branch of Islam  Mystics seek to experience God and to love God as opposed to merely follow the rules of the religion  Sufis were very effective missionaries as they tolerated observances of some non- Islamic customs  Sufis sought an emotional and mystical union with Allah  Sufis used emotional sermons and song and dance to encourage devotion