8 WORK TEAMS AND GROUPS
CHAPTER SCAN
There is an increase in groupwork and teamwork in organizations because groups and teams provide psychological advantages to organizational members, and because the tasks are being accomplished more creatively by groups. All groups must progress through typical developmental stages. One of the key elements of group work is empowering individuals to carry out their ideas.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Define group and team. 2. Explain four important aspects of group behavior. 3. Describe group formation, the four stages of a group's development, and the characteristics of a mature group. 4. Discuss quality circles and quality teams. 5. Identify the social benefits of group and team membership. 6. Explain the task and maintenance functions in teams. 7. Discuss empowerment, teamwork, and self-managed teams. 8. Explain the importance of upper echelons and top management teams.
129 130 Chapter 8: Work Teams and Groups
KEY TERMS
The following key terms are introduced in Chapter 8. group team norms of behavior group cohesion social loafing loss of individuality status structure quality circle (QC) quality team psychological intimacy integrated involvement task function maintenance function self-managed team upper echelon
THE CHAPTER SUMMARIZED
I. OPENING SPOTLIGHT: Competition in the Subcompact Car Market
II. GROUP BEHAVIOR
This is a good opening place to remind students of the differences between groups and organizations, and between groups and teams.
A. Norms of Behavior
The standards for behavior by which we evaluate the members are referred to as norms of behavior. Group members need to understand the stated as well as the unspoken norms by which they are evaluated.
B. Group Cohesion
Group cohesion is defined as the "interpersonal glue" that makes members of a group stick together.
C. Social Loafing Chapter 8: Work Teams and Groups 131
Social loafing refers to the failure of a group member to contribute personal time, effort, thoughts, or other resources to the group. Students can readily relate examples from their experiences of working in groups.
D. Loss of Individuality
Loss of individuality is a social process in which individual group members lose self- awareness and its accompanying sense of accountability, inhibition, and responsibility for individual behavior.
III. GROUP FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT
All groups go through four predictable stages of development after formation. They may fluctuate between stages, and some never reach the last state.
A. Group Formation
Groups may be informal or formal, and our behavior will vary accordingly. It is important to have diverse representation in both types of groups. Informal groups may evolve around an activity related to a formal group (e.g., bowling leagues).
B. Stages of Group Development
Groups typically go through four stages of development.
1. Mutual Acceptance
The focus in this stage is interpersonal relationships. Some power, influence, and authority issues may also arise. Trust and emotional comfort are important in this stage.
2. Decision Making
This stage emphasizes decision making activities related to what the task is and how the task is to be accomplished.
3. Motivation and Commitment
Self-motivation and motivation of groups members becomes the primary focus of the third stage of group development. Task functions in this stage include ensuring that the work of the group gets done while maintenance functions include encouragement and support of group members. 132 Chapter 8: Work Teams and Groups
4. Control and Sanctions
At this stage the group should have a clear purpose and mission, clear norms, and a high level of cohesiveness. Both positive and negative sanctions are used in this stage to control member behavior.
C. Characteristics of a Mature Group
Mature groups have four distinguishing characteristics.
1. Purpose and Mission
The purpose and mission may be assigned or it may emerge from within the group. A clear purpose and mission enhances performance in groups.
2. Behavioral Norms
Behavioral norms take time to develop, but they are intuitively understood by each group member. These are also what outsiders to the group judge the group on. Students may be aware that it is not a problem for them to be late to a group meeting, but it is not accepted, for example, to leave early.
3. Group Cohesion
Low cohesion in a group results in low commitment to the group goals. On the negative side, groupthink can be a problem with highly cohesive groups. Groups need to understand that conflict is not a sign of a lack of cohesion, but a necessary phase which all groups must go through before they perform as a unit.
4. Status Structure
Authority and task relations among group members is status structure. Effective teams resolve authority issues effectively and have a well understood status structure. Groups typically have one well-defined leader, while teams typically share leadership based on the characteristics of each group member.
IV. TEAMS AT WORK
A. Why Teams?
Teams are effective when work is complex, tasks are interdependent, activities require collaboration, and when knowledge, skills and abilities are dispersed across organizational members. Organizations must be careful, however, to provide adequate training and direction to any teams that are formed. Chapter 8: Work Teams and Groups 133
B. Quality Circles and Teams
Quality circles (QCs) are small groups of employees who work voluntarily on company time to address quality-related problems, such as quality control, cost reduction, production planning and techniques, and even product design. A quality team is a more formal group, typically formed by upper-level managers and is sometimes given responsibility to act on a decision.
C. Social Benefits
The benefits of teams are psychological intimacy and integrated involvement. Psychological intimacy is the emotional and psychological closeness to other team or group members. Integrated involvement is the closeness achieved through tasks and activities.
D. Task and Maintenance Functions
A task function is an activity directly related to the effective completion of a team's work. Maintenance functions relate to satisfying interpersonal needs within the group or team. Some task functions are more important at one time in the life of a group, and other functions are more important at other times. Students might want to try to define specific activities that relate to these functions from their personal experiences.
V. EMPOWERMENT AND SELF-MANAGED TEAMS
Teamwork can be implemented in organizations through self-managed teams. Self-managed teams deal with broader issues than just quality. Teams are empowered to the extent that they are participative and supportive of team members.
A. Empowerment Skills
This is an alternative to individual empowerment through teams. Competence skills are required components for self-managed teams. This implies that as new organizational members receive training, they will receive a corresponding increase in empowerment.
B. Self-Managed Teams
Research indicates that participation in self-managed teams positively influences employee attitudes, but does not influence absenteeism and turnover. Managers must be realistic about the expected results from self-managed teams. Although they can be set up and functioning in relatively short periods of time, full self-direction may not occur for several years.
VI. UPPER ECHELONS: TEAMS AT THE TOP 134 Chapter 8: Work Teams and Groups
A top level executive team in an organization is referred to as upper-echelon. The background characteristics of the top management team can often predict organizational characteristics.
A. Multinational Teams
Multicultural teams increase the uncertainty, complexity, and inherent confusion in group processes. The advantages are that diverse groups produce more, and better ideas, which often limits the effects and risks of groupthink.
VII. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: TEAMWORK FOR PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY
VIII. CLOSING SPOTLIGHT: People and Processes Produce Quality at Ford Wayne
CHAPTER SUMMARY
· Groups are often composed of diverse people at work. Teams in organizations are a key to enhance quality and achieve success. · Important aspects of group behavior include norms of behavior, group cohesion, social loafing, and loss of individuality. · Once a group forms, it goes through four stages of development. If successful, the group emerges as a mature group with a purpose, clear behavioral norms, high cohesion, and a flexible status structure. · Quality circles, originally popularized in Japan, and quality teams contribute to solving technological and quality problems in the organization. · Teams provide social benefits for team members, as well as enhancing organizational performance. · Empowerment and teamwork require specific organizational design elements and individual psychological characteristics and skills. · Upper echelons and top management teams are key to the strategy and performance of an organization. Diversity and a devil's advocate in the top team enhance performance. · Managing in the new team environment places new demands on managers, teams, and individuals. Managers must create a supportive and flexible environment for collaborative teams and empowered individuals. Team leaders must nurture the team's development.
REVIEW QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. What is a group? A team?
A group is a collection of two or more people with common interests or objectives. A team is a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common mission, performance goals, and an approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. Chapter 8: Work Teams and Groups 135
2. Explain four aspects of group behavior. How can each aspect help or hinder the group's functioning?
The norms of behavior are standards that a work group uses to evaluate behavior of its members. Group cohesion is the "interpersonal glue" that makes members of a group stick together. Social loafing is the failure of a group member to contribute personal time, effort, thoughts, or other resources to the group. The loss of individuality occurs when group members lose self- awareness and its accompanying sense of accountability, inhibition, and responsibility for individual behavior. In general, norms are facilitative. Social loafing is detrimental because it creates conflict. Loss of identity or deindividuation can lead to aberrant behavior. Cohesiveness can have positive effects such as satisfaction, but it can also lead to problems such as groupthink.
3. Explain what happens in each of the four stages of a group's development. When does the group address interpersonal issues? Task issues? Authority issues?
The group forms and determines what to expect from each other. This first state is the mutual acceptance stage. This first stage focuses on interpersonal relations among the members. Next, decision making is the first task-oriented step, and is thought of as a planning stage. The motivation and commitment stage determines the contributions of teammates and is concerned with execution, achievement, and authority. The final stage, control and sanctions, is the maturity stage. The group controls its members by using positive and negative reinforcements.
4. Describe the four characteristics of mature groups.
A mature group has a clear purpose and mission, well-understood norms and standards of conduct, a high level of group cohesion, and a flexible status structure.
5. Why are teams important to organizations today? How and why are teams formed?
In addition to having creative ideas evolve from groups, employees become loyal to and psychologically intimate with team members. Teams can meet the needs for integrated involvement as well.
6. Describe at least five task and five maintenance functions that effective teams must perform.
Task functions include initiating activities, seeking information, giving information, elaborating concepts, coordinating activities, summarizing ideas, testing ideas, evaluating effectiveness, and diagnosing problems. Maintenance functions include supporting others, following others' leads, gate keeping communication, setting standards, expressing member feelings, testing group decisions, consensus testing, harmonizing conflict, and reducing tension. 7. Describe the necessary skills for empowerment and teamwork. 136 Chapter 8: Work Teams and Groups
Competence skills and negotiating skills, especially with allies, opponents, and adversaries are essential. Another set of skills needed is the development of cooperative and helping behaviors. Finally, communication skills are needed.
8. What are the benefits and potential drawbacks of self-managed teams?
Research has shown that self-managed teams have a positive impact on employee attitudes but not on absenteeism or turnover. Such teams are empowered to make many decisions, and because they are closest to the actual work performed, can positively affect product and source quality improvements.
9. What is the role of the manager in the new team environment? What is the role of the team leader?
The manager is responsible for creating a receptive organizational environment for work groups and teams by setting limits and barriers. Leaders are active team members who nurture the development and performance of the team.
DISCUSSION AND COMMUNICATION QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. Which was the most effective group (or team) of which you have been a member? What made that group (or team) so effective?
Students can use the characteristics from the chapter, and can probably name others. Issues of leadership, empowerment, cohesion, norms and diversity are especially applicable.
2. Have you ever experienced peer pressure to act more in accordance with the behavioral norms of a group? Have you ever engaged in a little social loafing? Have you ever lost your head and been caught up in a group's destructive actions?
Students having worked in groups that meet outside class will have experience in peer pressure. Be sure to point out that meeting the requirements of the group, and social loafing are not the same. Destructive actions have also been referred to as "mob mentality." Both the Los Angeles riots and the spring break fiascoes in Florida are examples of destructive actions.
3. Name a company that successfully uses teamwork and empowerment. What has that company done that makes it so successful at teamwork and empowerment? Has its team approach made a difference in its performance? How?
The six focus companies from the textbook are logical suggestions for students who will not be able to single out individual organizations. The Ritz-Carlton is also a good example, because it is the only hotel that has ever won the Baldrige award. Chapter 8: Work Teams and Groups 137
4. Name a person you think is a particularly good team member. What makes this person a good team member? Name a person who is a problem as a team member. What makes this person a problem?
This can be constructive, and students should provide the text criteria and examples.
5. Think about your current work environment. Does your work environment use quality circles or self-managed teams? What are the barriers to teamwork and empowerment in that environment? What elements of the environment enhance or encourage teamwork and empowerment? (If you do not work, discuss this question with a friend who does.)
In class, students with experience in teams have an opportunity to tell other students their frustrations and their rewards working with teams. Cultural differences are relevant, and international students from collectivist cultures can be encouraged to share their views of teamwork.
6. Prepare a memo describing your observations about teams and groups in your workplace or your university. Where have you observed teams or groups to be most effective? Why? What changes might be made at work or in the university make teams more effective?
Encourage students to consider different types of teams that they might observe, particularly those at different levels in the organization. Students should draw on the material from the text in discussing the effectiveness of the teams.
7. Develop an oral presentation about what the most important norms of behavior should be in an academic community and workplace. Be specific. Discuss how these norms should be established and reinforced.
In addition to outlining important norms, students should also provide support for why those norms are important. Discuss whether norms should be the same for faculty, staff, administration, and students. If there has been a recent debate on your campus regarding a particular norm and how it is reinforced, this is a good opportunity to discuss the issue.
8. Interview an employee or manager about what he or she believes contributes to cohesiveness in work groups and teams. Ask the person what the conclusions are based on. Be prepared to discuss what you have learned in class.
If the comments of the person interviewed differ from the text material, students should probe as to why this is the case. During class discussion, compare and contrast the different perspectives of the people interviewed. 138 Chapter 8: Work Teams and Groups
9. Do you admire the upper echelons in your organization or university? Why or why not? Do they communicate effectively with groups and individuals throughout the organization?
Students should consider whether others in the organization or university share their opinion about the upper echelons. Discuss why there might be differences in perspectives between individuals and groups.
ETHICS QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. Assume that someone is engaged in social loafing in a group of which you are a member. What should you do? Is this person acting in an unethical manner?
The central point here is related to the previous chapter, on communication. Groups should foster an open environment as a group norm so that when there is a variance in the quality of effort, you can address the individual honestly and openly.
2. Does a moral dilemma arise when an individual is expected to subordinate his or her individuality and autonomy to the will of the work group or team? Suppose you are a member of a work group or team that is getting ready to act in a way you believe is unethical or immoral. What should you do? Will you be responsible for the actions of the entire team?
The film, Twelve Angry Men, is an excellent example of staying with your convictions once you are convinced that it is an ethical issue. Even in organizations where you are ordered to obey a command, individuals are ultimately responsible for their actions. (Students can see this illustration through the film, A Few Good Men.)
3. Assume that a very mature group decides that it is necessary to resort to threats to one of the members to keep the person in line with the group's norms. Further assume that the behavior of the person in question is not endangering anyone inside or outside the group. Is the proposed group action unethical? What should your position be on the issue?
Threats are not an adequate way to communicate. This is a form of manipulation and coercion. Again, ask students to refer to the previous chapter on communication. Threats, especially severe ones, are unethical. Managing behavior is best accomplished by training, reinforcement, coaching, and counseling. Chapter 8: Work Teams and Groups 139
4. Suppose an empowered employee makes a mistake at your place of work that damages some property but does not hurt anyone. Assuming the employee was empowered to act, should the employee be punished for the unfortunate consequences of the action? Would your answer differ depending on whether the employee had been properly trained and supervised before being empowered?
Most organizations are fairly specific regarding accidents at work. Accidents are rarely punished, particularly if the employee had not received training related to the equipment. An individual may be empowered but may not necessarily be liable
CHALLENGES
8.1HOW COHESIVE IS YOUR GROUP?
This challenge could be assigned prior to class discussion on cohesiveness. During class discussion, students could be asked to share the experiences from the group they evaluated in the challenge to help illustrate the points related to cohesiveness.
8.2ARE YOU AN EMPOWERED EMPLOYEE?
As you cover the material on empowerment in class, encourage students to share their experiences as empowered or unempowered employees.
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
8.1 TOWER BUILDING: A GROUP DYNAMICS ACTIVITY
This exercise gives students an opportunity to examine group dynamics in a task-oriented situation. Students must take responsibility to bring materials to class for building a tower. All materials must fit into a box no greater than eight cubic feet. This exercise is a favorite exercise for many to uncover the dynamics of group and leadership behavior. The advantage of this exercise is that it takes far less time than game-oriented simulations.
8.2 DESIGN A TEAM
This exercise provides students with an excellent opportunity to apply much of the material from the text and to think in depth about how teams should be formed. As groups share their responses to the questions be sure and discuss similarities and differences in responses. At the conclusion of the group presentations, try to reach agreement as a class on the ideal profile for this team. 140 Chapter 8: Work Teams and Groups
ALTERNATIVE EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: PUTTING THE BEAT BACK IN GROUPS
Instructor's Notes:
This exercise may be discussed in at least three ways. (1) Students may use this opportunity to review or teach the chapter components to each other in the group, (2) this serves as a team development exercise, where the instructor may ask how cohesive the group is and where the group development is on this project, and (3) this is a lighthearted avenue to receive different contributions from students than are normally provided. Creativity is a difficult subject to convince students that they utilize throughout their lives. This exercise provides an avenue for students to risk being creative among their peers. Chapter 8: Work Teams and Groups 141
PUTTING THE BEAT BACK IN GROUPWORK Adapted from Donald D. Bowen, The University of Tulsa
You and the members of your team are lyricists for a major must publishing house, Country & Western, Inc. (CWI). CWI specializes in country music, and has developed a unique approach to the creative business of developing hit country songs. In contrast to the normal approach to song writing, artists under contract to CWI provide only the music to their songs. CWI employs specialists in lyrics (you and your teammates) to write the titles and words.
When a musician submits a new melody to CWI, the Vice President of Creativity listens to the tune, identifies a topic he believes to be appropriate for the melody, then assigns one of the lyric production teams to develop a catchy title for the song including the words (or variations of them) the Vice President used to designate the topic of the song. For example, if the assigned topic was "love", acceptable titles might include:
"I ain't had a beer since breakfast so what I'm feelin' must be love, or "Lovin' you sure beats punchin' cows.
The Vice President of Creativity has just assigned the following topics for titles. Make a creative country and western song title out of as many as possible in the time allotted.
Topic Proposed Title
1. Empowerment
2. Group cohesion
3. Team
4. Group development
5. Quality circles
6. Social loafing
7. Upper echelon
8. Psychological intimacy 142 Chapter 8: Work Teams and Groups
EXTRA EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES:
The following exercises to supplement the material in the textbook can be obtained from:
Marcic, Dorothy & Seltzer, Joe. Organizational Behavior: Experiences and Cases, 5th Ed. South Western College Publishing Company, 1998.
Prisoner’s Dilemma: An Intergroup Competition. p. 195-196. Time: 50 minutes. Purpose: To explore trust and its betrayal between group members through demonstrating the effects of interpersonal competition.
Windsock Inc. p. 121-123. Time: 50 minutes or more. Purpose: To explore intergroup relationships.