Religious & Journalistic Ethics in Photojournalism Chapter 1 - 1

Chapter 1

1. Introduction

The truly unique powers of visual media as well as those falsely attributed to them combine to confer upon their users the opportunity to achieve both noble and base goals: to discover and communicate truths, but also to deceive and manipulate; to unify dispersed and diverse groups, but also to cultivate false impressions and stereotypes of “the others”; to cross great distances and overcome barriers that block our view of important events, but also to intrude public scrutiny into individual and group privacy.1

1.1 A Changing Context

Islamophobia is dread or hatred of Islam and of Muslims. It has existed in several western countries and cultures for several centuries. However, It has, over the past few decades, become more specific and dangerous.

Muslims in India account for more than 120 million people. It is the largest minority group in the country and the second-largest Muslim population in the world. A large section of Muslim population has suffered media generated communal conflicts and mistrust, in a secular India. The biased media, socio-political and religious tensions, and living in a heterogeneous Indian society are some of the reasons for their discontentment and suspicion of successive governments.

News photographs engage our attention for their dramatic and emotional appeal. They draw us instantly into a news-story. All major newspapers and illustrated magazines use photographs, for they attract readers.

These days, it is normal to encounter a famous event in the newspaper with a single captivating image or a sequence of images along with the rhetoric of words that makes reading interesting. There is no denying that pictures have more immediate impact than do words.2

Ken Kobre in his article, “Is Photojournalism Dead?,” argues on the need of pictures in journalism:

1 Gross, Larry., Katz, John Stuart., & Ruby, Jay., eds, ‘Image Ethics: The Moral Rights of Subjects in Photographs, Film and Television,’ New York: Oxford University Press, 1988, pp 4-5. 2 Hutleng, John L., ‘The Messenger’s Motives: Ethical Problems of the News Media,’ 2nd edition, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1985, p.142.

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Only 25% of subscribers read a story on the front page of the newspaper if no picture accompanies it. Add a photograph - any photograph - and the readership of that story zooms. Increase the size of the picture and the readership of the story shoots up even higher. Journalism needs pictures.3

But sometimes irresponsible use of image, headline, caption, or the narrative text communicate a message, contrary to the actual story. A biased headline or a caption robs a good photograph of its true message.

Observing sheer pervasiveness of photographic images, Martin Lister observes:

The meanings of any particular photographic image are not free-standing and autonomous, as if fenced off from all others. Each one or each cultural form in which they circulate, is a small element in a history of image production and a contemporary ‘image world.’ 4

Journalists know that photographs have emotional appeal. Photographs are, therefore, seen as, a sure-fire ingredient of news-worthiness5. Journalists sometimes use photographs in an irresponsible manner, not thoroughly considering other implications.

In a multi-religious, multi-linguistic, multi-societal, and multi-cultural Indian context, the medium of photojournalism, among other things, if not handled responsibly and sensitively, can foster religious and ethnic conflicts, promote fundamentalism and help forces of division.

Sensational images, especially those of carnage or bloodshed can easily fan communal or ethnic violence in the sensitive parts of the country.

The medium of photojournalism, therefore, poses ethical responsibilities on journalists to contribute responsibly and sensitively in building national unity and communal harmony, instead of inciting anger, mistrust, hatred and communal violence.

The incident of the Oklahoma city bombing on 19 April, 1995, in the USA, covered by Scotland Today, is an example of the misuse of a photograph. The photograph along with the headline, “In the Name of Islam,”

3 Web Site: http://www.gigaplex.com/photo/kobre/pj95.htm 4 Lister, Martin., ed., ‘The Photographic Image in Digital Culture,’ London: Routledge, 1995, p.13. 5 Hutleng, John L., ‘The Messenger’s Motives: Ethical Problems of the News Media,’ 2nd edition, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1985, p.142.

Harold Williams Introduction Religious & Journalistic Ethics in Photojournalism Chapter 1 - 3 appeared on the front-cover of Scotland Today, 20 April, 1995.6 Both the photograph and the headline have independent meanings, but together they communicate an irresponsible message.

It was too early to know, who was responsible, but the headline held the Islamic faith and Muslims responsible for the bloodshed.

Such journalistic editorialising is capable of creating negative repercussions on the minority Muslim community in other parts of the country, where the event took place.

Since, events, such as this one, have far reaching implications, the photograph and headline of the story affects Muslim communities unfairly in other parts of the world.

The headline can give quite a different meaning to the photograph depending who sees it, how and in which context. For non-Muslim readers, it simply endorses that Islam is implacably threatening to non-Islamic world.7 For the majority of Muslim community, it invites racist indifference and hostility by non-Muslim communities.

In the Oklahoma City example, the photograph and the headline create both empathy for victims and hatred for the Islamic community, reputedly responsible for the incident.

Gross, Larry., Katz, John Stuart., & Ruby, Jay., while looking at images from the perspective of both producers and receivers, argue:

We are beginning to understand the technologically produced image as a construction - as the interpretative act of someone, who has a culture, an ideology, and often a conscious point of view - all of which cause the image to convey a certain kind of knowledge in a particular way. Image makers show us their view of the world, whether they mean to or not.8

Sometimes journalistic obligation to “truth telling,” becomes counter-productive to the message, in a sensitive multi-religious and multi-cultural context. 6 Appendix I 7 Islamophobia: Its Features and Dangers, A Consultation Paper by the Runnymede Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, February 1997, p. 10. 8 Gross, Larry., Katz, John Stuart., & Ruby, Jay., eds, ‘Image Ethics: The Moral Rights of Subjects in Photographs, Film and Television,’ New York: Oxford University Press, 1988, p.18.

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There is an old Indian saying, “ A sweet lie is better than a bitter truth.” Somewhere hidden in the notion is the fact that ‘truth’ for the sake of ‘truth’ could be detrimental, if not valued sensitively on its news-worthiness and subsequent effect.

Shabbir Akhtar, while reviewing Salman Rushdie’s, controversial Satanic Verses, in his book, “Be Careful with Muhammad! The Salman Rushdie Affair,” says:

[T]here is plenty of animus in works published in the hey day of western Christian imperialism. Washington Irving’s Mahomet and His Successors has on its title page, an imaginary painting of the Prophet with a sword in one hand, and a Koran in the other…His 19th century contemporary Sir William Muir is more explicit…the sword of Mahomet, and the Coran are the most fatal enemies of civilisation, liberty and truth which the world has yet known.9

Muslim community has been at the receiving end of derogatory references, both from the Western tabloid and mainstream press. Islamophobia prevents Muslim community from making positive contribution, to national debates on common concerns and issues in pluralistic cultures, from their perspective.10 It promotes ill- feeling towards the entire community, both locally and globally.

1.2 Church’s Mandate

Can a multi-religious, multi-societal and multi-cultural India afford journalism that incites anxiety and fear among its several religious communities? Is it not the mandate of the Christian Church to work towards reconciliation, national unity and harmony? Are we not called to serve with love and truth to build a just and peaceful society?

We, Indians, as a nation have faced much religious violence in India, over the past several years. How can the Indian Christian Church witness together with other faiths to bring peace in our land?

St. Paul’s letter to the Ephesians challenges us: “live a life that measures up to the standard God set when he called you. Be always humble, gentle, and patient. Show your love by being tolerant with one another. Do your best to preserve the unity which the Spirit gives by means of the peace that binds you together.” Ephesians 4:1-3 [Today’s English Version]

9 Akhtar, Shabbir., ‘Be Careful with Muhammad! A Salman Rushdie Affair,’ London: Bellew Publishing Company, 1989, p.8. 10 Islamophobia: Its Features and Dangers, A Consultation Paper by the Runnymede Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, February 1997, pp 15-16.

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The following quote from the MacBride Report [1980], on ‘Rights and Responsibilities of Journalists,’ perceives journalism both as a profession and a mission:

Although millions of people work in communication in one way or another, special attention is rightly devoted to journalists. They have not only an important social function, but their potential capacity to influence and even shape ideas and opinions…makes journalism both a profession and a mission.

This is particularly important since public opinion is dependent more than ever on those who supply objective, truthful and unbiased news and information; the news gatherer and news disseminator are essential to the workings of any democratic system.11

Kaarle Nordenstreng, commenting on the paradoxical nature of accuracy and truth- telling in journalism, argues:

[W]e have to question even the most fundamental dogma of the profession - truth seeking - because the way it has been conceived and practised in journalism serves as a deceptive filtering device preventing as much as helping the truth being discovered.12 The socio-religious and pluralistic Indian context demands us to “…uproot and to pull down, to destroy and to overthrow…” ideologies and doctrines which destroy the sense of truth and peace in a community and ‘to build and to plant’ communities which “will hammer their swords into ploughs and their spears into pruning-knives.” Jeremiah 1:10 ; Micah 4:3 [Today’s English Version]

1.3. Purpose of Dissertation

India is a nation of sub-continental proportions with linguistic, ethnic, socio- religious, and economic diversities. It has a cultural heritage of about five thousand years, and has been a home for many religions, Hinduism being the oldest. In a country marked with diversity, it is easy to instigate unrest, and suspicion among its people on the basis of religion.

Against such a backdrop, the medium of photojournalism raises several questions concerning religious and journalistic ethical principles, and their practice in a pluralistic society.

11 MacBride, Sean., ‘Many Voices, One World,’ London: Kogan Page Ltd; New York: Unipub; Paris: Unesco, 1980, p. 233. 12 Kaarle Nordenstreng., ‘The Journalist: A Walking Paradox,’ in Lee, Philip., ed., The Democratization of Communication, Cardiff: WACC and University of Wales Press, 1995, p.116.

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How can ethical principles and practice, thrive within multiculturalism? What are the parameters and limitations of “truth-telling,” “non-violence,” “fair representation,” “equality and justice,” “respect for dignity”? How do receivers decode images generated by the medium of photojournalism?

In recent times, there has been an increase of religious violence and prejudice against the Muslims as well as Christians, at the hands of Hindu fundamentalists in India. This adds urgency to the questions for the Church.

The embattled state of Christianity in India is a present-day fact, echoed by Prechard Basaiawmoit, a Christian journalist from north-east India. He says: National dailies in reporting uprisings anywhere in India do not fail to give the name and religion of one of the perpetrators should there be a Christian involved. Never before has the Church and the Christian faith been under attack.13

The Indian Vice-President, Kocheril Raman Narayanan, who was one of the candidates to become India’s next President, came under heavy fire by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad [VHP], and the National Harijan Action Council [NHAC], in June 1997.

Accusing K R Narayanan for his past involvement with the Church, VHP Vice- President, Ashok Singhal says:

… This is a larger conspiracy of the Church to make Rashtrapathi Bhavan [President’s House], a bastion of Christianity…14

The National Harijan Action Council [NHAC], Chairman,M K Kunhjol, says:

We should not allow the Rashtrapathi Bhavan [President’s House], become a playground for the anti-Hindu activities of the Christian clergy through Narayanan.15

It is paradoxical that different religious communities, which stood together in solidarity, during the Indian freedom movement, marked by Gandhi’s non-violent crusade, until the Partition of India in 1947, could get into conflict situation, simply on the basis of religion.

13 ‘Christians Should be in Newspapers,’ New Share, London: Council for World Mission [CWM], 3/1997, p. 9. 14 Appendix II 15 Appendix II

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In this dissertation, I will attempt to explore certain religious and journalistic ethics of photojournalism as they relate to religious and socio-political questions and their implication in the Indian context.

Indian case-studies are used as examples to help establish ‘an ethical frame of reference,’ to suggest a responsible use of photographs and editorialising in promoting national unity and harmony among different religious communities in India. In addition, a study of possible and intended dangers of photojournalism, hopefully, can be integrated in the Church’s media education programme for the benefit of media practitioners

The Church has a mandate to act and witness as an organ of reconciliation among all people. Awareness, practice and promotion of religious and journalistic ethics in photojournalism could strengthened the socio-religious fabric in India to fight against common social concerns and forces of division.

It is hoped that such considerations, among other things, will help foster sensitivity to different faiths and minority communities, and will promote communal harmony and peace, in otherwise a fragile country caught-up in regional and ethnic conflicts.

2. Journalistic Ethics : A Christian Analysis

The power of photojournalism is evident in its role as mediator of information and images of those parts of society most distant from the lives of the majority. Photographically produced images are often seen as mirror-reflection of any reality.

Such belief has encouraged people to co-operate with the photographers and journalists in the hope that “their story” would be truly captured and shared.

Gross, Larry., Katz, John Stuart., & Ruby, Jay., argue that image is contextual and that its connotative meaning is interpreted by different expectations:

[E]ventually, the meaning and significance attached to a visual image are a consequence of the label attached to it, the expectations associated with the context in which the image appears, and the assumptions made by audiences about which sort of images are produced by which sort of image-makers and shown in which sort of settings.16

16 Gross, Larry., Katz, John Stuart., & Ruby, Jay., eds, ‘Image Ethics: The Moral Rights of Subjects in Photographs, Film and Television,’ New York: Oxford University Press, 1988, p.18.

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International Principles of Professional Ethics in Journalism,17 prepared as an international common ground and as a source of inspiration for national and regional codes of ethics, in its section on ‘The Journalist’s Dedication to Objective Reality,’ states:

The foremost task of the journalist is to serve the people’s right to true and authentic information through an honest dedication to objective reality whereby facts are reported conscientiously in their proper context, pointing out their essential connections and without causing distortions...so that the public is provided with adequate material to facilitate the formation of an accurate and comprehensive picture of the world...

When we examine the photograph and the headline, ‘In the Name of Islam,’ in the introduction of this dissertation, we see that the code of accuracy and objectivity is not followed! Bernard Levin, a columnist, in the London Times, writes under the title, “There will be wars”:

We do not know who primed and put the Oklahoma bomb in its place; we do know that they were, in the fullest meaning of the word, fanatics. Unlike most of us, they do not in the least mind being killed; indeed they are delighted, because they believe they are going to a far, far better place…Do you realise that in perhaps half a century not more, and perhaps a good deal less there will be wars, in which fanatical Muslims will be winning? As for Oklahoma, it will be called Khartoum-on-the-Mississippi, and woe betide anyone who calls it anything else.18

However, we now know that Muslims had in fact no responsibility for the Oklahoma bombing. But such irresponsible journalism simply inhibits the development of a just pluralistic society.

It breeds serious social-disorder; mistrust, ill-feeling, hatred, and non-cooperation, and above all fragmentation of a community and individuals. Such news-coverage influence arbitrary thinking against the Muslim community in other parts of the world.

One common methodology used by the elite in any country is to fabricate an enemy, usually from a minority/ethnic group and to force them to a position of subordination and self-pity.

17 Appendix III 18 Levin, Bernard., ‘ There will be Wars,’ The Times, London, 25 April, 1995.

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An example of such an approach could be seen from the statement of Golwalker, the first chief of a fascist Hindu organisation, the Rashtriya Sevak Sangh [RSS]:

The non-Hindu people in Hindustan [India] must either adopt the Hindu culture and language, must learn to respect and hold in reverence Hindu religion, and must entertain no ideas, but the glorification of the Hindu race and religion… or may stay in the country wholly subordinated to the Hindu nation, claiming nothing, deserving no privileges, far less any preferential treatment - not even citizens’ rights.19

Ethics, deals with what journalists ought to do as responsible members of a free society.

First, journalists have an obligation to truth telling. They have to qualify as the “eyes and ears of the public.” In order to achieve their obligation to truth-telling, they are required to report accurately and objectively. Also, they should treat their readers/audience and subjects, who make news, with fairness and respect.

Another important obligation for journalists is to provide an appropriate honest link between the affairs of government and the public.

In theory, two kinds of ethics are identified. The first places its demand on all members of the community. In the Indian society, for instance, we are taught the notion, “satyameva jayate,” which literally means “truth shall triumph,” to help the needy and poor, and to practice non-violence.

The second kind of ethics deals with the obligations placed on members of a community because of their specific role in that community. Journalists, therefore, have an ethical obligation to truth-telling.20

The image-makers are required to be sensitive and responsible to their own subjects, whose lives and stories are exposed to public, and sometimes endangered by the presence of image-makers themselves. The responsibility of the image-maker to his or her subjects may not be always so different from their responsibility to the

19 Devasahayam, V., ‘Called to Witness Together Amidst Asian Plurality,’ in Turn Around: Called to Witness Together Amidst Asian Plurality, Asia Mission Conference, 1994, Hong Kong: Christian Conference of Asia, 1995, p.19. 20 Goodwin, Gene., & Smith, Ron F., ‘Groping for Ethics in Journalism,’ 3rd edition, Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1994, p. 6.

Harold Williams Introduction The Indian Context Chapter 1 - 10 audience. In both the cases, there is often an implied promise of truthfulness that is inherent.21

Religion in most cultures is seen as a means to bring about peace and harmony within individuals and society. But in the Indian pluralistic context, religion, among other things, has been used, more effectively, as a demonic force to divide and destroy people, rather than to unite. Journalists need to recognise the ethical norms in other religions, including Christianity, to motivate and empower people to become agents of ‘peace-making.’

Jeyapragasam, a Hindu religious scholar from Madurai, India, while admitting, “ Hinduism, like any other religion, has been used as a tool by the dominant and exploitative class to achieve its goal from time to time,” says, “Religion today, if unchecked, may become a tool of the market forces and consumerist and violence oriented unjust society.” 22

Ethics is the cement that binds a society. Christianity is not only the ‘truth’ about religion, but about the good news of Christ Jesus. Christian ethics, should, therefore, lead us to realisation of truth about life and moral constitution.

The Bible challenges: “ Instead, by speaking the truth in a spirit of love, we must grow up in every way to Christ, who is the head. Under his control all the different parts of the body fit together, and the whole body is held together by every joint with which it is provided. So when each separate part works as it should, the whole body grows and builds itself up through love.” Ephesians 4:15-16 [Today’s English Version]

It is through the virtue of truth in a spirit of love that the Indian Christian Church can help build a harmonious community- A new creation, where there is justice, peace and unity.

21 Gross, Larry., Katz, John Stuart., & Ruby, Jay., eds, ‘Image Ethics: The Moral Rights of Subjects in Photographs, Film and Television,’ New York: Oxford University Press, 1988, p.20. 22 Jeyapragasam, S., ‘A Hindu Presentation,’ in Turn Around: Called to Witness Together Amidst Asian Plurality, Asia Mission Conference, 1994, Hong Kong: Christian Conference of Asia, 1995, p.135.

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3. Photojournalism

3.1 The Secret is the Fusion

Photojournalism, as the word implies, is a visual expansion of journalism. The basic unit of photojournalism is picture with words. The term was first invented by Frank Mott, in 1942.23

Modern photojournalism, is manifested in most newspaper stories, photo-reportage, photo-stories, and illustrated magazines.

Human beings, in understanding what happens around them depend primarily on their sight, and secondarily on their hearing. In journalism which makes use of words only, the words bear the entire burden of recreating for the reader an experience undergone by someone else.

In journalism which makes use of words and pictures, to the stimuli of sound symbols there are added the stimuli of the forms of reality represented in the photograph. Together these stimuli call forth a collaboration of the two senses by which the quality of a re-created experience is greatly increased and brought much closer to actual experience. This particular coming together of the verbal and visual mediums of communication is, in a word, photojournalism.

The precise intent of photojournalism is to create, through combined use of the dissimilar visual and verbal mediums, a oneness of communicative result.

A fusion of the mediums, should occur, not on the printed page, but in the reader’s mind. Photojournalism in the true sense would mean:

[A] unity of effect within the reader’s consciousness. In a single expressive statement it is essential that the complementary relation between picture and words, in terms of subject matter, be fully realised. Unity of effect could be obtained by a use of words in counterpoint to picture.24

But if picture and words are used irresponsibly, they fail to complement each other. Sometimes their meaning can change, when put together, or can change due to editorialising.

23 Lester, Paul., ‘Photojournalism: An Ethical Approach,’ Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1991, p.4. 24 Hicks, Wilson., ‘Words and Pictures,’ reprinted, New York: Arnos Press 1973, p.5.

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Ideally, in the re-creation of an experience in photojournalism, pictures and words together should perform a more effective function than either can perform individually. In some cases the picture can have a better value in excess of the accompanying words, in other instances the opposite could be true.25

An average reader can logically understand a news-story better if pictures help develop it. As a proverb puts it, “A single picture is often worth ten thousand words.” The essential context of the photo reportage are accompanying text, and corresponding layout of picture/s. Thus, the editor of a newspaper or an illustrated magazine should be a genuine creative artist, who will not only add/subtract, but will also gives basic concept to the photograph.

3.2 Towards Digitalized Image

From the optical and chemical photography to digitalized image, the world of photographs has travelled a long way. It has been claimed that new digital imaging technologies will precipitate radical changes in perception, in consciousness, and ultimately in society. Not only will we never see the world in the same way again, it will never be the same again.26 Jonathan Crary looks at the new order of digitalized image in terms of a new ‘model of vision’:

The rapid development in little more than a decade of a vast array of computer graphics techniques is part of a sweeping reconfiguration of relations between an observing subject and modes of representation that effectively nullifies most of the culturally established meanings of the terms observer and representation.27

Photographers of the optical and chemical technologies were mere recorders of reality. But the emergence of ‘digital cameras,’ will bring technological revolution and revolutionary implications for those who produce and consume images.

25 Gidal, Nachum., ‘Modern Photojournalism,’ New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., 1973, p.5. 26 Henning, Michelle., ‘Digital Encounters: Mythical Pasts and Electronic Presence,’ in Lister, Martin, ed.,The Photographic Image in Digital Culture, London: Routledge, 1995, p. 219. 27 Robins, Kevin.,‘Will Image Move us Still?,’ in Lister, Martin, ed., The Photographic Image in Digital Culture, London: Routledge, 1995, pp 30-31.

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In the future, the digital electronic technologies will give the photographer a greater control over computer-generated images-images independent of referents in the real world that will transform our concept of reality, knowledge and truth.

The medium of photojournalism will be affected by the emergence of a wholly new kind of visual discourse, a new ‘image culture,’ where the post-photographer will have a greater control over creating images with or without any reference to reality.

Will image still move us then? Is the future of images technologically determined? Will the notion, ‘death of photography,’ hold true? Images are important because they carry meanings for us. For some, the use of digital electronic technologies will help promote justice and peace, build love trust and respect among communities. To adapt Raymond Williams’s phrase:

[I]mage culture remains ordinary. Images will continue to be important-‘technological revolution’ notwithstanding - because they mediate so effectively, and often movingly, between inner and outer realities.28

28 Ibid., p.48.

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