How Are Schools Governed, Influenced, and Financed?

CHAPTER 11 How Are Schools Governed, Influenced, and Financed?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying the chapter, students will be able to 1. define the source of authority and particular responsibilities of the governor, state legislature, state board of education, the chief state school officer, the state department of education, the local school board and superintendent, and the school principal. 2. describe the demographic data relating to school superintendents, principals, and school board members and explain the significance of those data. 3. identify and describe other groups that exercise informal influence in education. 4. describe and explain the advantages and disadvantages of the influence business has had upon public education. 5. discuss the educational impact of Supreme Court rulings in areas such as desegregation, rights of the disabled, gender equity, and so forth. 6. explain the implications of several Supreme Court cases regarding equitable state and local funding of education, including the Serrano case. 7. describe the typical pattern of school funding by local, state, and federal agencies, and explain the relationships among the local economy, tax structure, and the quality of education. 8. describe the trends in federal support of education from the 1960s through the 1990s. 9. discuss the philosophy supporting and the effectiveness of compensatory education programs.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Few prospective teachers probably think at length about the governance, forces of influence, or finance of public schools. To someone enthusiastically learning how to become a teacher, such issues may seem far removed from life in classrooms. Yet issues involving the governance, influence, or finance of schools directly and indirectly affect a teacher’s job because they define the parameters of public education and the roles of those involved in public education. For that reason, we describe some of the features of formal school governance that are common to all the states, as well as some aspects that may differ. We think prospective teachers should know how the organizational structure of a school works and how they, as teachers, will fit into that structure. Their effectiveness as teachers and possible reformers can be enhanced by the knowledge of the forces that shape other formal roles. In addition, we want student readers to be cognizant of the ways informal influences affect school operation. As teachers, they will assume informal authority daily through the decisions they make about their classes. Department chairs, supervisors, and other teacher-administrators will exercise informal authority, often out of necessity. What beginning teachers may be less aware of is the informal

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 131 Chapter 11: How Are Schools Governed, Influenced, and Financed? influence that parents, business groups, and political organizations will try to exert in running the schools. New teachers ought to know what to expect and what limitations are set by law and custom. We also discuss the sources of funding for education. We describe the local, state, and federal contributions to education, also pointing out the historical changes in the federal funding of education. It is important to explain where money for school budgets comes from and what services each funding source has agreed to finance. Finally an overview of compensatory education, including Head Start, is provided, and the increased role of the federal government in educational issues is discussed.

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Who Legally Governs Public Education? A. State Offices and Administrators 1. The Governor and the State Legislature 2. The State Board of Education 3. The Chief State School Officer 4. The State Department of Education B. The Local School District 1. The Local School Board 2. The Superintendent of Schools 3. Superintendents vs. Local School Boards 4. The School Principal II. Who Influences American Public Education? A. Professional Education Organizations B. Parents C. Business 1. Purchasing Pressures? 2. Privatization Efforts D. The Federal Government 1. The Federal Courts 2. The U.S. Department of Education III. How Are Schools Financed? A. School Spending B. State and Local Funding C. School Finance Reform and the Courts D. Federal Funding 1. Funding in the Past 2. Compensatory Education and Title I

SUPPLEMENTARY LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS 1. Changes in financing schools Describe the differences among school financing structures in two states with contrasting funding formulas—one state with an equation that equalizes resources among districts, another state with an equation that allows significant per-pupil variations in expenditures. Explain something about the cost-of-living differences that may account for some of the variations in expenditure among states and the differences in the quality of education. Explain in more detail what “redistribution” of funds would mean. What are the advantages? Disadvantages? How would you explain the inequity in school funding to a low-income parent who hopes that his or her child will have an opportunity to succeed? How would you explain the court decisions to middle- or upper-income parents whose decision to move to a particular town was based on the reputation of its school system? 2. An international comparison Compare the federal government’s role in U.S. education to the government’s role in education in several other industrialized countries. Compare the similarities and differences in financing and in governing the public schools. 3. Superintendent/principal/school board member Invite a local superintendent, principal, and/or school board member to your class to discuss their roles and their perspectives related to topics in this chapter. If you plan this activity so that all three are present at the same time, have each person represent a different school district so that each can talk about his or her position and answer students’ questions without any awkwardness. What are some of the speakers’ greatest satisfactions in their roles? What are some of their greatest frustrations? What do they spend most of their time doing on the job? Ask your students to prepare some questions beforehand for each speaker. 4. Role of the state education agency Describe the role of the state education agency in your state. Name the chief school officer, and tell something about the people and programs that are particularly relevant to the students—for example, the teacher certification or licensure office or the staff development office. Many states are currently offering beginning teacher induction programs. If yours is, perhaps a person from that program could be invited to discuss it or perhaps you could set up a Skype session with several people from the Department of Education who can answer specific categories of questions. Much information on state education agencies is available on the Internet. 5. Role of the PTO Invite the president of a local parent-teacher organization to describe the responsibilities and activities of the group. 6. U.S. Department of Education Describe the budget of the department—the size of the budget in relation to the budgets of other cabinet-level departments and the programs it funds. Identify any programs that affect your college or community. Explain some of the arguments made for and against the continued existence of the department. 7. Property tax If you live in a community that funds schools through property taxes, use the following Property Tax Chart and Formula to walk your students through the calculations that determine mill levy and property tax amount.

JEFFERSON COUNTY COLORADO Property Tax Statement Tax Dist 7015 Schedule No. 408809 2004 TAXES PAYABLE 2005 DOING BUSINESS AS: PROPERTY FIN. INST. LOCATION BLDG 4 UNIT 102 RD SEC.TWN.RNG.QTT SQ,FT. LAND BLK TAX TAX LEVY* TAX AMOUNT LOT KEY BOOK PAGE AUTHORITY JEWELL LAKE CONDOS 4TH SUPP SCHOOL 39.6610 344.65 28 04 69 NE 004 0102 91093779 SCHOOL GEN 10.3000 89.51 RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL BND COUNTY 14.2220 123.57 CNTY GEN’L .5000 4.35 DEV DISABL 3.4130 29.66 R&B SRVCS 2.1160 18.39 SOC SERVCS 2.2040 19.15 CAP’TL EXP 3.5000 30.42 LIBRARY .0230 .20 CNTY OTHER 4.7110 40.94 LKWD 1.7460 15.17 B-CLW&SD 4.0680 35.35 FR&PD .7800 6.78 UDFCD 11.4130 99.18 WMFPD PROPERTY VALUATION DUE FIRST TAX LEVY* FULL AMOUNT HALF 98.6570 DUE APRIL 30 857.32 DUE SECOND HALF ACTUAL LAND AND BUILDING.... FEB 428.66 83,900 ASSESSED LAND AND BUILDING 28 8,690 ASSESSMENT PERCENTAGE ------RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY 10.36% ALL DUE SECOND HALF OTHER PROPERTY 29.00% JUNE 428.66

Example $83,900 x 10.36% x f(98.657/1,000) = Assessed Legislatively Mill Levy Formula: 1 mill = 1/1000 of a dollar Value of set/assessment or A House percentage 1/10 of a cent $83,900 x .1036 x .098657 = 857 = Tax

STUDY GUIDE—CHAPTER 11: HOW ARE SCHOOLS GOVERNED, INFLUENCED, AND FINANCED? Completing this study guide will help you prepare for the major topic areas on an exam; however, it does not cover every piece of information found in the chapter or the test questions. 1. Describe the roles, responsibilities, and relationship between the state board of education, the state department of education, and the chief state school officer.

2. Describe the role of the district superintendent of schools.

3. Identify and describe other informal but powerful influences that affect the decisions made in education.

4. Indicate the three levels of governance that contribute to school funding, the relative amounts they contribute, and their source for these funds.

5. Give an example of privatization in education.

6. Define categorical grants and explain in what ways the “funding source” behind the grant can influence education.

7. To which level of government is the legal responsibility for the governance of schools delegated, and what legal document states this?

8. Describe several ways in which business influences education.

9. Describe the purpose of compensatory education, the students who qualify to participate, and two examples of compensatory programs.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTORS Brimley, Vern Jr., and Rulon R. Grafield. Financing Education in a Climate of Change. 10th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2007. This comprehensive text examines how schools are financed in this country, the role of the federal government, and significant court cases affecting school finance. Center for Education and Employment. U.S. Supreme Court Education Cases. 2005. This text provides an overview of the most influential education cases heard by the United States Supreme Court. Conley, David T. Who Governs Our Schools: Changing Roles and Responsibilities. New York: Teachers College Press, 2003. Part of a series on Critical Roles in Educational Leadership. Examines all aspects of school governance. Epstein, Noel, ed. Who’s In Charge Here. The Tangled Web of School Governance and Policy. Washington, D.C.: Education Commission of the States, 2006. A variety of key researchers and authors in education contribute to this text in which they explore issues such as the pros and cons of federal control over issues of education, how to ensure quality teachers, and the roles of schools. The history of school governance is explored as well as possible alternatives for governing schools today. Kozol, Jonathan. Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools. New York: Harper Perennial, 1992. A portrait of the schooling provided for children in some of America’s most financially depressed cities. A disturbing account and highly recommended reading. Manna, Paul. School’s In: Federalism and the National Education Agenda. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2006. This book explores the role of the federal government in education and education agendas, including providing evidence that this involvement in education has occurred, explanations for why it has occurred, and possible implications from this involvement. Spring, Joel. Conflict of Interests: The Politics of Education. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004. Describes and analyzes how policy is made for American schools. Joel Spring argues that the politics of education is driven by a complex interrelationship between politicians, private foundations and think tanks, teachers’ unions, special-interest groups, educational politicians, school administrators, boards of education, courts, and the knowledge industry. Thompson, David and Faith Crampton. Money and Schools, 4th ed.. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education, 2008. Presents a variety of school finance topics and shows the inter-relationship with student achievement. Case studies allow for application of knowledge in real-world contexts. U.S. Supreme Court. Brown v Board of Education 347 U.S. 483 (1954) (50 Most Cited Cases). Norfolk, VA: Landmark Publications, 2011. Presents landmark cases in school law. Verstegen, Deborah A. “Financing the New Adequacy: Towards New Models of State Education Finance Systems That Support Standards Based Reform.” Journal of Education, Finance 27 (Winter 2002): 749–782. This article reviews proposals for new ways of educational funding. Walser, Nancy. The Essential School Board Book: Better Governance in the Age of Accountability. Boston, Harvard Education Press, 2009. Promotes effective collaboration practices between school boards, superintendents, and communities to improve student achievement. West, Martin and Paul Peterson. School Money Trials: The Legal Pursuit of Educational Adequacy. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute Press, 2007. Presents cases aimed at addressing insufficient resources needed to provide students an education of the level of quality called for in various state constitutions.

Media Resources Children in America’s Schools, with Bill Moyers (South Carolina ETV Marketing, 2 hrs., first 60 min. most informative, 1996). Using Jonathan Kozol’s book, Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools, as a starting point, this video depicts the undeniable inequities in American schools today. Films for the Humanities website: http://ffh.films.com/Subject.aspx?psid=0&SubjectID=711 offers a wide variety of videos for purchase on many of the topics found in this chapter. Insight Media website: http://www.insight-media.com/ offers a wide variety of videos for purchase as well as a large selection of topics available through digital streaming. Many topics found in this chapter are addressed through these video selections. Public Schools, Inc. (Insight Media, 60 min. 2003). A PBS program that explores the concept of “for profit” public education through the history of the Edison schools. Social Institutions: Politics and Education (Insight Media, 30 min, 2002). Shows how politics and education work together. Examines the common characteristics of social institutions. Media distributor contact information is available in Appendix II.

Student Activities

School Observation—A School Board Meeting As part of your field experiences, you’re assigned the task of attending a local school board meeting. You arrive early at the school auditorium where the meeting is taking place. After the Pledge of Allegiance is said and a few housekeeping details are addressed, the chairman of the school board invites the public to comment on a proposed redistricting plan under consideration. High emotions are displayed during the comment session. One African American man denounces the school board for creating a school attendance plan that will require children living in a mainly black neighborhood to ride more than forty minutes each way on the bus to attend their assigned school. Many other African Americans in the audience shout loud support for the speaker’s comments. A white woman then gets up and criticizes the school board and the superintendent because her daughter has to attend a new school even though most of her friends will continue to go to the old one. Another man then denounces the board for its proposed plan because of the additional transportation costs that will be incurred. Finally, two high school students complain that the new school they’ll be required to attend doesn’t have a swimming pool and their competitive swimming program will be ended. By the end of the meeting, you are exhausted by the rancor, shouting, and strong feelings of the 2½-hour meeting. a. What points raised in this textbook can you find illustrated in this vignette? b. Have you experienced a similar situation in any school or school board meetings you’ve attended? If so, describe the issues raised and the various positions taken. c. Write another vignette that you think might realistically illustrate a point made in this chapter. Exchange your vignette with three other students’ vignettes, and discuss the various perspectives that the writings reveal.

Budget Role Play The purpose of this exercise is to simulate the problems that school boards and educators deal with annually to balance the budget. The instructor should divide students into groups of two or three.

Your group should prepare a presentation to the school board requesting them to retain or improve the current level of services for various program areas. You will assume the role of one of the influence groups (students, parents, taxpayers, professional education organizations, and so forth) for your rationale and presentation. BOARD OF EDUCATION (one group of three) a. Elect a chair for the board. b. Evaluate the various presentations to the board. c. Recess, discuss, and vote on the proposals. d. Final decisions must allow only a $6 million increase in the budget. Note to Instructors: Adjust the budget amount if you don’t use all the requests. PRESENTATIONS TO THE BOARD a. Plan a two-minute presentation that gives the best rationale for keeping a program or increasing the services of that program. b. Present alternatives that indicate that you are trying to save the board money or are willing to compromise. COMPUTER LABS Need $0.7 million to keep programs at current levels, or the district will have to a. halt plans for putting a computer lab in each elementary school and for adding new computers at each high school to go with the current computers, which are several years old. INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC Need $0.5 million to maintain elementary music teachers, or the district will have to a. Eliminate one-half of the current music teachers at the elementary school level. b. Eliminate elementary band and orchestra for this year. DROPOUT PROGRAMS Need $0.75 million to retain this program at the current level, or the district will have to a. Cut the dropout prevention staff by 50 percent. b. Eliminate this year’s purchase of additional materials for the high school retention programs. c. Cut the elementary bilingual staff by 25 percent. d. Eliminate the community liaison position. TEACHER SALARY INCREASES Need $2 million to grant the increase, or the district will have to cut the 3.5 percent salary raise that was approved at the last board meeting provided that funds were available at this last round of cuts. If there is no salary raise, this will be the second year in a row.

SPORTS Need $0.75 million to maintain remaining services, or the district will have to a. Eliminate all varsity sports. Community would assume financial support of all continuing sports programs. b. Cut back 15 percent in high school P.E. teachers. c. Cut back 25 percent in elementary P.E. teachers. d. Operate intramurals on a volunteer basis. ARTS Need $0.5 million to keep remaining programs, or the district will have to a. Eliminate all elementary art teachers. b. Cut back 35 percent in secondary art teachers (7–12). FOREIGN LANGUAGE PROGRAMS Need $0.75 million to continue this program, or the district will have to a. Cut junior high teachers by 25 percent. b. Not replace any senior high teachers who leave their positions. GIFTED AND TALENTED Need $0.75 million to a. Establish a part-time pullout program in each elementary school. b. Hire traveling gifted and talented specialists to operate the pullout programs. ELEMENTARY TEACHER AIDES Need $1 million to retain the current ratio of 2 hours a day per teacher, including paperwork, student assistance, and lunch and recess supervision. ELEMENTARY CLASS SIZE REDUCTION Need $1 million to reduce the primary ratio of 1:25 to 1:22, and the intermediate ratio of 1:30 to 1:26. INCLUSION/MAINSTREAMING SUPPORT Need $1.5 million to provide support for the classroom teacher. a. Add teacher aides to assist inclusion of pupils in their regular classrooms. b. Institute a weighing system to reduce pupil-teacher ratios in relation to the additional time and attention required by the number of mainstreamed students in each classroom. Instructors: Allow students to prepare for a few minutes in class or to research their issue from one class period to the next. Allow the board members to study the issues ahead of time and develop a plan or philosophy for decision making. After the presentations, while the board is deliberating, discuss the rationales and tactics used by the various groups. Point out current points of view and issues that students may have omitted. Have the school board members present their decisions, their rationale, and the decision- making process they developed and chose to use.

If time is limited, instead of the role-play above, give each student a list of the budget proposals and the target budget amount. Have them rank-order the proposals individually. Compile the class consensus so that the class can all see the data. Discuss the items that were on everyone’s “must keep” list, and those that most appear willing to sacrifice.

Channel One Analysis Obtain permission for your students to watch several segments of Channel One, and ask them to complete the following: As you watch each segment, note what strikes you. Pay particular attention to the following issues: How many and what kind of commercials are included? How frequently are these commercials shown? What are the underlying messages promoted by the commercials? What kinds of informational programming does Channel One provide? How is it edited and presented for the viewers? After you finish watching, discuss your insights and analysis with your peers. The discussion could also include commercialization of school buses, sporting events, and offerings in the school cafeteria.

Analysis of School Funding and Per-Pupil Spending (for individual or group work) This project is ideally suited to those students in field-site schools. Collect economic and budgetary data from your field-site school. Try to collect the following information: per-pupil expenditure, teachers’ salary scale, and a district graph of split of funds for materials, personnel, capital costs, and so forth. Find out what percentage of the students receive free or reduced lunches. Collect reports on student academic achievement (standardized test scores, percentage who graduate, percentage who attend and who complete postsecondary education, dropout rate, absenteeism rate). Also collect information on the residential and commercial property tax rate. Ask what the percentage of the school district budget is supplied through other sources: corporate taxes, state and federal funding, and so on. What kinds of grants has the school applied for? What other fund-raising projects are being pursued by student or parent groups? What kinds of programs will they support? What kinds of findings do you have? How does your field-site school compare to neighboring districts? Present your findings to the class in a chart or in table form.

Alternative Funding Schemes for Schools (for individual or group work) Research in greater detail the court cases concerning school funding in New Jersey, Kentucky, Texas, or, most recently, New Hampshire. What is the background of the state’s school funding? What were the results? Based upon the court ruling, what are the alternative funding schemes being proposed or implemented? Or look at the public school funding in Michigan, closely examining the background of this issue and how Michigan has chosen to fund its public schools.

Report on School Board Meeting (for individual or group work) The school board plays an important role in local government. Each school district has different priorities, and they often reflect the interests of the school board members. Meetings are open to the public and are usually held monthly. Find out when the local school board meets, and attend one meeting. If a printed agenda is provided, ask students to add to it their own notes on any hidden agenda items. After the meeting, analyze the various concerns raised, the issues presented, and the factions (if applicable). Also try to assess the relationship between the school board and the superintendent. Present your analysis to the whole class.

Student Assignments The following activities are suggestions for student portfolio activities. They are a means of providing alternative assessment of the students’ capabilities.

Independent Reading Read and respond to any of the selections noted on the chapter/article correlation list found on the Instructor’s Companion Website for Ryan/Cooper, Kaleidoscope: Readings in Education (Cengage Learning, 2013). You may want to use the Article Review Form in Kaleidoscope.

Reflective Papers Choose one of the following topics to write a reflective paper (2–5 pages). The purpose of the paper is to help you assimilate new knowledge by blending it with your previous knowledge and experiences. 1. Select a recent example of commercialization in the schools in your community, and present your understanding of the issues involved. Explain your position. 2. In many respects, local control is guaranteed over public schools as long as property taxes fund such a large percentage of the school budget. Any attempt to equalize educational spending across districts, some argue, diminishes local control and ultimately parents’ freedom to select schooling for their own child. Others vehemently disagree, claiming that the per-pupil spending disparity among school districts is grossly unfair; therefore, the funding of schools needs to be dramatically changed. What do you think? Discuss the issue carefully, using resources to support your points.

Journal Reflections Suggestions for journal topics for students’ selection: 1. Describe how you think the inequities in school funding could be resolved. 2. What do you think is the relationship between school funding and student achievement? Why? 3. Outside of a teacher position, in which of the governing roles (legislator, principal, superintendent, school board member) would you most like to serve? Why?