Chapter 3: Society and Culture in Provincial America

I. The Colonial Population - nonnative population grew due to continued immigration & natural increase - by 17th century, European & African immigrants dominated Atlantic Coast - early English population very unaristocratic dominant element was laborers

A. Indentured Servitude -voluntarily bound to masters; in return, they received passage, food, shelter & land -headright system: masters received land grants for every servant they imported -some indentures became farmers, trades people or artisans -other males found themselves without land, employment, family or prospects -large floating population of single men threatened social unrest -beginning in 1670s flow of immigrants declined due to a decrease in birth rate and increased English prosperity -after 1700, better opportunities in mid-Atlantic colonies > PA and NY

B. Birth and Death -non-Indian population expanded to over ¼ million -after the 1650s, natural increase became most important source of population -exceptional longevity > men lived to 71, while women lived to 70 -mortality rates for whites in Chesapeake region were higher than anywhere else -white men lived to just over 40 and one in four children died in infancy -by late 17th century, ratio of males to females in colonies was more balanced

C. Medicine in the Colonies -many deaths attributed to infections during childbirth or surgery (unsanitary) -midwives assisted in childbirth & dispensed medical advice; urged patients to use herbs or natural remedies -prevailing assumptions of the time mainly derived from the theory of “humoralism” by Roman physician Galen -principal medical techniques were purging, expulsion, and bleeding -midwives preferred homeopathic treatments -birth of Enlightenment led to acceptance of scientific method

D. Women and Families in the Chesapeake -traditional male-centered family structure of England became difficult to maintain -five out of eight children died in infancy -many widowed wives owned land after husbands died > gained economic power -population and life expectancy increased, indentured servitude declined, natural reproduction became main source of increase in white population

E. Women and Families in New England -in NE, family structure more stable than in Chesapeake, hence more traditional -longer life expectancy in the North in contrast to the South -women lived longer, hence they were less often cast in roles independent of their husbands -for New Englanders, family and status of women defined by religious belief -Anne Hutchinson is an example of both the possibilities and limits of female spiritual power -Puritanism placed high value on family and reinforced the idea of male authority and assumption of female inferiority -women were important to agricultural economy by engaging in farming tasks

F. The Beginnings of Slavery in British America -demand for slaves grew rapidly due to tobacco cultivation -Portuguese dominated in 16th century > later joined by Dutch and French navigators -Middle Passage: transfer of African slaves on terrifying journey to America -turning point in African Americans population increased after Royal African Company’s monopoly was broken -by early 18th century, a rigid distinction between blacks and whites was established -slave codes were established to limit rights of blacks in law to ensure absolute authority to white masters

G. Changing Sources of European Immigration -earliest immigrants were the French Calvinists, or Huguenots -German Protestants suffered similarly from religious policies of their rulers -all Germans, Catholics as well as Protestants suffered from the devastating wars with King Louis XIV - Quaker colony in Pennsylvania became most common destination for Germans -in NJ and Pennsylvania, Presbyterianism was an important religion in the colonies

II. The Colonial Economies -substantial trade developed with native population of North America with French settlers in the north and Spanish colonists in the south and west -farming dominated all areas of Euro and African settlement in 17th & 18th centuries

A. The Southern Economy -tobacco early established itself as basis of the economy -staple crop of the economies of SC and Georgia was rice -SC and Georgia were more dependent on African slaves because they were much better at it than whites and had a greater resistance to malaria -Eliza Lucas discovered an Indian plant (indigo) that could be grown on the high ground of SC -because of cash crops, southern colonies developed less of a commercial or industrial economy -trading in tobacco & rice handled by merchants in London & later in northern colonies B. Northern Economic and Technological Life -NE agriculture was harder to farm because of cold weather and hard rocky soil -NY, PA, and CT River valley were suppliers of wheat to NE and parts of the South -first effort to establish metals industry was ironworks in Saugus, MA after iron ore was discovered -metal works became important part of colonial economy -Iron Act of 1750 restricted metal processing in colonies -biggest obstacle to industrialization in America was inadequate labor supply, small domestic market, inadequate transportation facilities and energy supplies -fur trade was in decline; lumbering, mining, and fishing took its place -most distinctive feature of northern economy was thriving commercial class

C. The Extent and Limits of Technology -half the farmers in the colonies did not even own a plow -many households had few, if any, pots for cooking, guns or rifles and candles because they were unable to afford candle molds or tallow (wax) -the most commonly owned tool on farms was the axe -few colonists were self-sufficient in late 17th and early 18th centuries -few colonial families owned spinning wheels or looms, so most purchased their yarn or clothing from merchants

D. The Rise of Colonial Commerce -shortage of currency > no commonly accepted medium of exchange -second obstacle was imposing order on their trade -experimented with different forms of paper currency like tobacco certificates -vessels stayed at sea for years journeying from one market to another to earn a profit -Triangular Trade in rum, slaves & sugar was a maze of highly diverse trade routes: -between the northern and southern colonies, America and England, America and Africa, and the West Indies and Europe -by mid-18th century, a group of entrepreneurs began to constitute a distinct merchant class concentrated in port cities in the North (Boston, NY & Philadelphia) -commercial sector remained open to newcomers because it was expanding rapidly

E. The Rise of Consumerism -result was a growing preoccupation with consumption of material goods and association of possessions with social status -consumerism was increasing division of American societies by class -growth of consumerism was a product of early stages of industrial revolution -merchants and traders began advertising their goods in journals and newspapers -items that became commonplace household items included tea, linens, glassware, cutlery, crockery, and furniture -Americans strove to develop themselves as witty and educated conversationalists -18th century cities had public squares, parks and boulevards to create public stages for social display III. Patterns of Society -aristocracies emerged that relied less on land ownership and more on a work force -there were opportunities in America for social mobility

A. The Plantation -Charles Carroll of Carrollton, wealthiest man in the colonies, had 40,000 acres and 285 slaves -on the whole, 17th century colonial plantations were relatively small estates -plantations were far from cities, so they often became self-contained communities -there were frequent sexual liaisons between husbands or sons and black women in the slave communities -Southern society was highly stratified -small farmers formed majority of the South, but planters dominated their economy

B. Plantation Slavery -Africans developed a strong family structure as a result of increased life expectancy, gradual equalization of sex ratio, and growth of the population -any family member could be sold at any time, so they created “surrogate” families -African workers developed languages of their own and created a religion blending Christianity with African folklore -most important slave rebellion during the colonial period was the Stono Rebellion -on larger plantations, slaves learned blacksmithing, carpentry, shoemaking, spinning, weaving, sewing, and midwifery

C. The Puritan Community -Puritan settlements drew up a “covenant” among its members, binding all residents in a religious and social commitment -residents held a yearly “town meeting” to decide important questions and to choose a group of “selectmen” who governed -in NE, a father divided up his land among all his sons as opposed to the English system of primogeniture -as towns grew, many people moved out of the town center nearer their lands, but farther from the church -fathers needed their sons, as well as their wives and daughters, as a source of labor

D. Witchcraft Phenomenon -supposed witchcraft in NE caused widespread hysteria in the 1680s and 1690s -most famous outbreak was in Salem, Massachusetts -19 residents were put to death before trials ended in 1692 -research reveals that most of the accused were middle-aged women, often widowed, with few or no children in low social position -Puritan society had little tolerance for “independent” women -reflected the highly religious character of these societies E. Cities -two largest ports in the 1770s were Philadelphia and New York, followed by Boston, Charles Town and Newport -colonial cities served as trading centers for farmers and marts of international trade -social distinctions were most real and visible in urban areas -cities became locations for most advanced schools & sophisticated cultural activities -in addition, there were urban social problems: crime, vice, pollution and epidemics -cities became places where new ideas could circulate and be discussed -revolutionary crisis in 1760’s and 1770’s was first visible in taverns & coffeehouses

IV. Awakenings and Enlightenments -two forces were competing in American intellectual life in18th century -one was traditional outlook with emphasis on personal God -other stressed importance of science & human reason -Enlightenment suggested that people had control over their own lives & society

A. The Pattern of Religions -settlers in America brought with them so many different religious practices that it proved difficult to impose a single religious code on any large area -Church of England was established in VA, MD, NY, the Carolinas and Georgia -New Englanders viewed Catholics as commercial and military rivals and dangerous agents of Rome -Jews established their largest community in NY City -rise of commercial prosperity created secular outlook in urban areas -“Jeremiads” are sermons of despair deploring the signs of waning piety

B. The Great Awakening -by the early 18th century, similar concerns about declining piety and growing secularism were emerging in other regions and among members of other faith -the Great Awakening brought religious fervor to the colonies -appealed to women and younger sons of the third and fourth generations of settlers -powerful evangelists were John and Charles Wesley (Methodism), George Whitefield -most outstanding was Jonathan Edwards who preached traditional Puritan ideas -revivalists were associated with the “New Light” and traditionalists were associated with the “Old Light”

C. The Enlightenment -scientists and other thinkers discovered natural laws that they believed regulated the workings of nature -scientists argued that humans had a moral sense between right and wrong and didn’t always need to turn to God for guidance for decision making -encouraged new emphasis on education and an interest in politics and government -ideas borrowed from abroad form Francis Bacon and John Locke -later Americans as Ben Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, and James Madison made vital contributions to Enlightenment traditions

D. Education -in Massachusetts, a 1647 law required every town to support a public school -by the Revolution, more than half of white men could read and write -in their early years colonial girls often received the same home-based education as boys and their literacy rate was higher than that of their European counterparts -slaves had virtually no access to education -most Indian tribes educated their children in their own way -Harvard, the first American college, was est. in 1636 as training center for ministers -later William and Mary (VA), Yale (CT), and Princeton (NJ) were founded -despite the religious basis of colleges, the curricula included logic, ethics, physics, geometry, astronomy, rhetoric, Latin, Hebrew, and Greek -Penn was a completely secular institution and became first medical school

E. The Spread of Science -most early colleges introduced advanced scientific theories of Europe, including Copernican astronomy and Newtonian physics -leading merchants, planters, and theologians became members of the Royal Society of London, the leading English scientific organization -Benjamin Franklin won international fame with lightning and electricity -Cotton Mather introduced smallpox inoculation, or the practice of deliberately infecting people with mild cases of smallpox to immunize against the deadly disease -by the mid-18th century, inoculation was a common medical procedure in America

F. Concepts of Law and Politics -changes in the law resulted in part from the scarcity of English-trained lawyers -American legal system adopted many of its elements from the English system, like trial by jury -John Peter Zenger won an important case that removed restrictions on freedom of the press -in most colonies, local communities ran their own affairs with minimal interference from higher authorities -in 1763, the English government began tightening its control over American colonies SALUTARY NEGLECT!!!

V. Conclusion -the North was dominated by small farms, growing towns and cities, a thriving commercial class, and an urban culture -the South was dominated by plantations, relied on African workers, and had little other commerce than crops -most white Americans accepted racial inequality -most white colonists believed in basic principles of law and politics