The Ancient and Medieval World

Chapter 15

THE ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL WORLD

BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE Stone Age Art Sumerian Art Egyptian Art Early Chinese Art Minoan Art Greek Art Roman Art Art of the Chinese Empire The Medieval World Early Christian and Byzantine Art Buddhist Art Romanesque Art Islamic Art Gothic Art Hindu Art in Southeast Asia

KEY TERMS aisles ambulatory apse arcades basilica buttress chancel choir clerestory coffers cuneiform entasis flying buttress gallery hieroglyphics ideographic writing illumination mihrab minaret mosaics mosque nave oculus pyramid

124 rotunda stupa transcept triforium tympanum ziggurat

ARTISTS AND IMAGES Fig 15-1 Handprints, Cosquer Cave, France Fig 15-2 Ibex engraved over two horses, Cosquer Cave, France Fig 15-3 Venus from Dolní Vestonice Fig 15-4 Round Tower, Tel-el-Sultan Fig 15-5 Ziggurat, Ur, Iraq Fig 15-6 [Sumerian], Statuettes from the Abu Temple Fig 15-7 [Egyptian], Great Pyramids of Giza Fig 15-8 [Egyptian], Mycerinus and Kha-merer II Fig 15-9 [Egyptian], north wall of King Tutankhamen’s tomb Fig 15-10 [Chinese], ritual wine vessel: yu Fig 15-11 [Minoan], view of the interior of palace at Knossos and plan of palace Fig 15-12 [Minoan], Bull Leaping, from palace at Knossos Fig 15-13 [Mycenaean], Lion Gate Fig 15-14 The Acropolis Fig 15-15 Iktinos and Kallikrates, Parthenon, exterior, refinements, proportions, and plan Artist at Work: Phidias, A Lapith Triumphing Over a Wounded Centaur and Horsemen, from Parthenon frieze Fig 15-16 [Greek], Zeus (or Poseidon?) Fig 15-17 [Greek], The Battle Between the Greeks and Amazons, red-figured volute krater Fig 15-18 Pantheon, exterior and section Fig 15-19 Giovanni Paolo Pannini, The Interior of the Pantheon, Rome Fig 15-20 [Roman], Portrait of Augustus as general Fig 15-21 [Roman], portrait of Emperor Caracalla Fig 15-22 [Roman], Portrait of a Young Man Fig 15-23 [Roman], Woman with a Veil Fig 15-24 [Chinese], Great Wall Fig 15-25 [Chinese], Bodyguards of the First Emperor of China Fig 15-26 [Early Christian], Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, interior and plan Fig 15-27 [Early Christian and Byzantine], San Vitale, Ravenna, interior and plan Fig 15-28 [Byzantine], Justinian and Attendants, mosaic from the chancel of San Vitale Fig 15-29 [Byzantine], Theodora and Attendants, mosaic from the chancel of San Vitale Fig 15-30 [Buddhist], The Great Stupa, Sanchi, India Fig 15-31 [Chinese, Northern Wei dynasty], Standing Buddha Fig 15-32 [French Romanesque], Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France, interior, plan, and section Fig 15-33 [French Romanesque], The Ascension of Christ and the Mission of the Apostles, from the narthex portal of La Madeleine, Vézelay, France

125 Fig 15-34 [Islamic], Great Mosque, Córdoba, Spain, interior and present plan Fig 15-35 [Islamic], Great Mosque, dome before the mihrab, Córdoba, Spain Fig 15-36 [Islamic], Mihrab, from Madrasa Imami, Isfahan (Iran) Fig 15-37 Robert de Luzarches, Thomas de Cormont, and Renaud de Cormont, Amiens Cathedral, exterior Fig 15-38 Robert de Luzarches, Thomas de Cormont, and Renaud de Cormont, Amiens Cathedral, interior and plan Fig 15-39 [French Gothic], Beau Dieu, from porch of south transept, Chartres Cathedral, France Artist at Work: The Architect in the Middle Ages, as pictured in a manuscript illumination and page from notebook of Villard de Honnecourt Fig 15-40 [French Gothic], Balaam and His Ass, from Psalter of St. Louis Fig 15-41 [Khmer], view of temple complex near Siemréab, including Vishnu temple of Angkor Wat, Cambodia, and plan Fig 15-42 [Khmer], Churning of the Sea of Milk, from Angkor Wat, Cambodia

LECTURE OUTLINE I. Stone Age Art It is theorized that early art functioned as some kind of divination or mystical purpose. The cave drawings found at the underwater Cosquer Cave in France (figures 15-1 and 15-2) are radiocarbon dated to be about 25,000 BCE, while other images are dated at the later date of 17,000 to 16,000 BCE. Prehistoric Venus figurines, such as the Venus from Dolní Vestonice (figure 15-3), have been found that date from about 25,000 BCE and may function not as a symbol of beauty but as a fertility charm or serve some kind of ritualistic purpose. Agriculture and more permanent settlements appeared at around 8000 BCE, and early people built homes and defenses, such as the Tower of Jericho (figure 15-4), around fertile valleys and waterways.

II. Sumerian Art Sumerians settled into the region between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and developed an early form of writing called cuneiform. The Sumerians built mountainous temples of mud brick and kiln-hardened burnt brick called ziggurats, such as the one at Ur (figure 15-5). Sumerians also created religious figurines, such as the statuettes from the Abu Temple in Tell Asmar (figure 15-6), depicting their gods or priest larger than the worshippers and creating all with large, wide open eyes.

III. Egyptian Art Egyptian civilization arose in the Nile River Valley at approximately the same time as did civilization along the Tigris and Euphrates, but Egyptian culture experienced a continuous longevity of approximately three thousand years. Constancy and stability of art, culture, political rule, and the patterns of the Nile River marked this longevity, a longevity that was also reflected in the afterlife, where the ka or spiritual alternate would continue to exist and inhabit the mummified body or statuettes of the deceased. Another indication of permanence was the pyramids, or tomb architecture, that contained the mummified remains of pharaohs and the wealthy as well as much of Egyptian art since it was in an enclosed structure. The Great Pyramids of Giza (figure 15-7) consist of three

126 pyramids. The largest, the Great Pyramid of Cheops, measures 481 feet high, has four sides of approximate equal value at 755 feet long, and consists of approximately two million blocks of stone weighing an average of five thousand pounds each. Permanence and stability is seen also in Egyptian statues, as in the rigid pose and solid mass of Mycerinus and Kha-merer II (figure 15-8). Tomb paintings, such as the burial painting of King Tutankhamen (figure 15-9), further the rigid and solid figural depictions using a flattened sense of space and limiting colors to red, yellow, blue, green, black, and white. Egyptian writing consisting of symbols and pictures, or hieroglyphics, also appears on tomb walls.

IV. Early Chinese Art Ancient China originally consisted of individual areas governed by separate governments until the creation of the Shang dynasty in 1750 BCE. After that date, China was unified by dynasties until the modern day. China is credited with the inventions of gun powder, paper, silk, and one of the earliest systems of writing: ideographic writing, which uses thousands of symbols as characters written in calligraphic form. Although much of the art and architecture have been lost, bronze vessels, such as the ritual wine vessel, or yu, found in North China from the Western Zhou period (figure 15-10), were able to survive over thousands of years. Like the Egyptians, the Chinese buried items with the deceased in tombs.

V. Minoan Art North of Egypt in the Mediterranean Sea from 1600 to 1400 BCE lay the Minoan culture represented in the Palace of Knossos (figure 15-11) and its frescoes, such as Bull Leaping (figure 15-12). The plan of the Palace was so complex it appeared like a labyrinth, creating the Greek legend of the Minotaur kept by King Minos. Because it was an island nation, Minoan civilization was protected by sea and its inhabitants were seafarers, trading and spreading aspects of their civilization throughout the Aegean Sea and to the mainland. After an earthquake destroyed Minoan civilization, the mainland Mycenaeans rose to prominence. The Mycenaeans built heavily fortified structures, such as the Lion Gate (figure 15-13), which was turned into myth by later Greeks, who believed that the giant Cyclopes had created the massive structures. Mycenae was short lived, lasting only until 1100 BCE.

VI. Greek Art The Greek mainland in the fifth century BCE consisted of many independent city- states, but the prominent culture was in Athens. Athens was the birthplace of noted people, such as philosophers and artists, and a democratic form of government, and it was the epitome of what civic and religious centers should be. Fifth century BCE Greece is known as classical in that not only has the art and architecture stood the test of time for its beauty, but it also is considered the high point of Greek art and culture and helped establish the norms for subsequent cultures. Pericles developed the Acropolis (figure 15- 14) as the city center and citadel of Athens, and it contains the most noted classical Greek structure, the Parthenon (figure 15-15). The Parthenon was a temple dedicated to the patroness of Athens, the goddess Athena, whose gold and ivory statue, created by Phidias, was once the emphasis of the temple’s interior but no longer remains. The

127 majority of the art of the Parthenon was on the exterior and was overseen by Phidias who also developed the unifying iconography of the sculptures. The architects Iktinos and Kallicrates created the Doric ordered Parthenon from 448–432 BCE to be beautiful and in harmonious proportions, so they avoided the use of harsh straight lines. Curved lines abound in the Parthenon: on the foundation platform, in the entablature, in the bulged entasis of the columns, in how the columns angle slightly to the center of the building, and in the slightly wider and closer placed end columns. The harmonious proportions of 4:9 are also noted in the Parthenon, since it was believed that numerical relationships were basic to the laws of the universe. Greek sculpture also exhibits harmony and perfection by using man as a measure of all things, including gods such as Zeus (or Poseidon?) (figure 15-16). Polyclitus, a noted Greek sculptor (see Spearbearer, figure 2- 7), used a system of proportions in his sculptures to achieve harmony and perfection, so much so that his figures end up representing the ideal of man rather than an exact likeness of one. Paintings in Greece did not survive over time, so the only Greek paintings to refer to are on ceramic vessels, such as the red-figured volute krater (figure 15-17), which depicts a scene from myth The Battle Between the Greeks and Amazons.

VII. Roman Art The Romans were part of a small city that rose in strength during the Republic BCE and reached a high point in art, architecture, and territorial domination during the Empire in the first few centuries CE. Although the Romans borrowed heavily from the Greeks, as reflected in Roman architecture and sculpture, they are noted for innovations in developing the arch and using concrete in civil engineering projects of roads, aqueducts, and buildings. While the Greeks were concerned with the exterior of their structures, the Romans emphasized the interior of their structures. The Pantheon (figure 15-18), built in ca. 118–125, blends a Greek styled portico or entryway with the Roman innovated rotunda (a circular building) and dome on the interior. The rotunda opened up to a large spherical dome made possible with concrete and textured with coffers or sunken squares. A large circular opening, or oculus, at the top of the dome allowed the only source of light to flood the interior, as seen in the eighteenth-century painting by Pannini (figure 15-19). The Pantheon was a temple of all the planetary gods, and the shape of the dome was the “dome to the universe.” Roman sculpture also was influenced by Greek sculpture, and much of what is considered Greek sculpture is actually Roman made copies or reproductions of the original. The portrait of Augustus as general (figure 15-20) is similar to Greek figurative work in its posture and proportions but is decidedly Roman in its determined stance and more realistic facial features. The portrait of Emperor Caracalla (figure 15-21), made over two hundred years after the portrait of Augustus, stresses the realism of facial expressions. Only some examples of Roman painting were able to survive over time due to unusual environmental conditions. For example, the encaustic painting Portrait of a Young Man (figure 15-22) survived in the dry desert climate of Fayym, Egypt, preserved with a mummy of an ordinary person of the Roman Empire. The wall frescoes in Pompeii, Italy, such as Woman with a Veil (figure 15-23), were able to survive because the volcanic eruption of Mt. Vesuvius left the entire city buried in ash for centuries.

128 VIII. Art of the Chinese Empire Returning to China, in 221 BCE, the first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huangdi created the Great Wall (figure 15-24) and staffed the fifteen-hundred-mile wall with armies to protect China from barbaric invasions. Qin Shi Huangdi also wanted to be protected in death, so he was buried with a ceramic army of seven thousand in addition to horses and chariots (figure 15-25).

IX. The Medieval World The Middle Ages in Western Europe, from approximately the fifth through the fifteenth centuries, are so named because it is thought that they were a middle ground, or the “dark ages,” between Roman culture and the Renaissance. Around the world, a variety of religions, such as Christianity, Islam and Buddhism, were being established.

X. Early Christian and Byzantine Art After the Roman emperor Constantine allowed Christianity to be an official religion in the Roman Empire in 313 CE, Christians needed a place to worship together. The first Christian churches were built in the style of the Roman basilica, a large covered meeting hall, which allowed for a large congregation to worship in the nave, or central area, seen in the interior of Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo (figure 15-26). In 330 CE, the Roman emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium and changed the name of the city to Constantinople (now Istanbul). After the fall of Rome in 410, Constantinople remained strong for approximately a thousand years, and a new style of art and architecture emerged in the Byzantine style. The architecture from Ravenna, Italy, in the late fifth century and early sixth century features the two distinct styles: Early Christian and Byzantine. The Early Christian church Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo is an elongated basilica shape, which became the standard for Christian churches in the Middle Ages and continues to apply to today’s Christian churches. The Byzantine church San Vitale (figure 15-27) is built in a more octagonal shape with a central dome, and set the standard for Byzantine and Eastern Orthodox Christian churches. Mosaics are characteristic of Byzantine churches, and are found in the chancel, or altar, mosaics in San Vitale. These pictures made of small pieces of stone and veneers of colored marble depict the emperor Justinian and the empress Theodora (figures 15-28 and 15-29) as spiritual leaders in a flat representation. The reflective gold tiles illuminate the interior and symbolize the heavens.

XI. Buddhist Art Buddha, born in Nepal five hundred years before Christ, guided followers on the path to enlightenment to achieve nirvana, or perfect peace, through meditation and good deeds. Buddhism spread throughout Southeast Asia. Early and typical Buddhist structures are stupas, like the Great Stupa in Sanchi, India (figure 15-30), which have a large, hemispherical mass at the center that symbolizes the World Mountain and may originally have contained the relics of Buddha. The three umbrellas at the peak of the mass symbolize the three aspects of Buddhism: Buddha, the Buddha’s Law, and Order. The Chinese figure of Standing Buddha (figure 15-31) symbolizes the Buddha of the future.

129 XIII. Romanesque Art In Western Europe after the fall of Rome, civilization was turbulent, barbaric invasions were frequent, and many went without adequate shelter and care. The Christian church remained stable, however, and churches, as well as feudal estates, became the center of medieval life. People often made pilgrimages to shrines and certain churches where important spiritual leaders were buried and relics were housed. Saint-Sernin in Toulouse, France (figure 15-32), was such a pilgrimage church and was built in the Romanesque style of architecture, utilizing aspects of Roman architecture such as the barrel vault and heavy round arches. Saint-Sernin follows the basilica plan, but adds the new dimensions of the transept, which crosses the nave perpendicularly like a cross, and the gallery with clerestory windows. Romanesque sculpture was not free-standing but rather was incorporated into the architecture and design of the church. The tympanum, a carved semicircle over the inner door, of the church of La Madeleine at Vézelay, France (figures 15-33 and 3-8), depicts inset relief sculptures of Christ during the resurrection.

XIV. Islamic Art Islam is based on the preaching of Muhammad, a prophet or spokesman for Allah born in Mecca. His preaching was written in the Koran in the early seventh century. Islam spread throughout the Near East, North Africa, and Spain. The Great Mosque in Córdoba, Spain (figures 15-34 and 15-35), is characteristic of an Islamic place of worship. It contains a minaret, where the muezzin or Muslim crier would call the faithful to prayer five times a day, and a mihrab or niche that faces towards Mecca (an example of a mihrab, figure 15-36, is from Madrasa Imami). Calligraphy and decorative patterns are used to embellish the mosque because depictions of animals or humans are forbidden in the Koran.

XV. Gothic Art Gothic art began in the twelfth century, but was named “gothic” during the Renaissance as an insult because it was thought the Goths or barbarians during the “dark ages” constructed the elaborate works. During the twelfth century, the economy of Europe began to increase, and churches began elaborate building programs, enabling guilds of artists to form so they could carry out the tasks required to construct these buildings. Architects during the Middle Ages were trained as apprentices to learn all aspects of architecture, such as stone cutting and building planning. Cathedrals such as Chartres (figure 14-1) and Amiens (15-37 and 15-38) reflect this new style of architecture, which created a larger nave, repositioned the transept about half-way down the nave, used a lightweight ribbing construction technique including pointed arches, liberally used stained glass, placed buttresses and flying buttresses on the exterior, and created sculptures in the round. Gothic sculptures, such as Beau Dieu from the porch of the south transept of Chartres Cathedral (figure 15-39), have an increased realism over earlier medieval sculptures. Paintings in the Middle Ages consists of small illuminations, or illustrated text, for books, especially scripture and other holy works, as seen in the illumination Balaam and His Ass from the Psalter of St. Louis (figure 15-40).

130 XVI. Hindu Art in Southeast Asia Hinduism began in prehistoric India, assimilating cultural beliefs as the religion spread. Hinduism consists of many gods and many sacred texts. Angkor Wat (figures 15-41 and 15-42) is the largest temple in Angkor (meaning city or capital) and is dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu. The five towers of Angkor Wat symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru, home of the gods and center of the universe. The outer walls, filled with relief sculpture depicting the stories of Vishnu, Krishna, and Rama, symbolize the mountains at the edge of the world.

LECTURE/DISCUSSION SUGGESTIONS 1. Prehistoric Art Since prehistoric art was created before written accounts, historians and anthropologists can only theorize why early people created images such as those found in Cosquer Cave (figures 15-1 and 15-2) and Lascaux Cave (figure 2-13) and figurines such as Venus from Dolní Vestonice (figure 15-3) and Venus of Willendorf (figure 12-9). Discuss what you think about who made these works and why.

2. All about Architecture Compare architecture of a variety of ancient and medieval cultures such as the Prehistoric Tower of Jericho (figure 15-4), Sumerian Ziggurat (figure 15-5), Egyptian Pyramids at Giza (figure 15-7), Greek Parthenon (figure 15-15), Roman Pantheon (figure 15-18), Buddhist Stupa in India (figure 15-30), medieval Amiens Cathedral (figure 15-37), and Hindu Angkor Wat in Cambodia (figure 15-41). For what purpose was each made? How do they differ physically? How does the purpose affect the look of the structure?

3. Go Figure Compare the figurative sculptures from a variety of ancient cultures such as the Prehistoric Venus from Dolní Vestonice (figure 15-3), Sumerian Statuettes (figure 15- 6), Egyptian figures of Mycerinus and Kha-merer II (figure 15-8), Greek Zeus (figure 15- 16), Roman portrait of Augustus as general (figure 15-20), Chinese bodyguards of the first emperor of China (figure 15-25), and Standing Buddha from China (figure 15-31). What was each figurative sculpture made of? For what purpose was each made? Describe each figure physically. Consider how clothing and facial features are depicted and whether the figures are abstract or realistic. How do they differ?

4. 2-D Works Compare the two-dimensional works from a variety of ancient and medieval cultures: the Prehistoric Ibex engraving at Cosquer (figure 15-2), the Egyptian wall paintings in King Tutankhamen’s tomb (figure 15-9), the Minoan Bull Leaping from the palace at Knossos (figure 15-12), the Greek ceramic painting The Battle Between the Greeks and Amazons (figure 15-17), the Rome painting Woman with a Veil from Pompeii (figure 15-23), Byzantine mosaics from San Vitale (figures 15-28 and 15-29), and a medieval illuminated manuscript (figure 15-40). How was each two-dimensional work made? Where was it located? Describe the style. What purpose did each serve?

5. Preservation of Ancient Works The art and architecture found from ancient cultures have been able to survive for thousands of years. The works may not necessarily represent the best from that culture, but it is the only evidence that we have from that culture or civilization. Analyze the art and architecture discussed in Chapter 15 to

131 brainstorm a list of common factors that enabled these works to survive for thousands of years.

6. Classical Sculpture Compare Greek figurative sculpture from the entire text. Use Zeus (figure 15-16) to base your discussion. For comparison, Polyclitus’s Spearbearer (Doryphoros) (figure 2-7) is the most direct example cited in Chapter 15, but also look at Praxiteles Aphrodite of Knidos (figure 2-9) and Riace Warrior (figure 3-15). Describe the styling and the system of proportions. Also note the difference between Greek and Roman sculpture using Spearbearer and portrait of Augustus (figure 15-20).

7. Ravenna Works Ravenna, Italy, is home to Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo, a Christian church built in the basilica style, and San Vitale, which is typical of Byzantine architecture. Find other images of the exterior of each church and more images of the interior. Compare the two styles of architecture. What are the unique characteristics of each? If possible, compare to Christian churches today in your community.

STUDENT ACTIVITIES 1. Journal Topic: Pick and Choose Choose two works from this chapter, each from a different culture. Choose works that are similar in format, such as architecture, sculpture, or painting. Describe each thoroughly and note the location and date. What was the purpose of each? How are they similar? How are they different?

2. Egyptian Painting Ancient Egyptians painted on tomb walls in a very specific way, standardizing figural proportions and limiting their color palette. Refer to Offering Bearers (figure 5-9) and the north wall of King Tutankhamen’s tomb (figure 15-9). Create a painting in this style. Include at least two figures using the Egyptian canon of proportions which is 18 units tall, with the knee falling at 6 units and the elbow at 12, and the shoulder’s of a man 6 units wide. Figures should be in profile for head and legs, while shoulders and torso should face front. Limit color selection to the primaries of red, yellow, and blue, as well as green, black and white. Outline figures and features and place on baseline to give the feeling of flatness.

3. Exploratory Writing Research the three different written languages discussed in the text: Sumerian cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphics, and Chinese ideographic writing. Explore each of these forms, writing a simple sentence or your name in each of the three styles.

4. Athena Parthenos In 1990, Alan LeQuire completed a full-scale replica of the Athena Parthenos, a classical Greek sculpture of the patron goddess of Athens destroyed over a thousand years ago. This replica stands over 41 feet tall and is the largest indoor sculpture in the Western world, residing in the recreated Parthenon in Memphis, Tennessee. Find out more about the contemporary artist who built Athena and more specifics about the sculpture itself. See websites such as http://alanlequire.com/athena.html and http://www.nashville.gov/parthenon/Athena.htm.

132 5. A Sense of Place Use the maps contained in Chapter 15 to chart where the art and architecture was found for each culture. Choose one item from the chapter. Research the climate, geographical features, availability of materials, and the overall environment of that selected culture. How did the geography affect the culture, society, and the art? Present your findings to the class.

6. Illumination! Create your own illumination, such as Balaam and His Ass from the Psalter of St. Louis (figure 15-40). Illustrate a story of myth or legend, from scripture, a modern tale (urban myth?), a poem, or a song. The illustrations should be no larger than half a sheet of paper (8 ½” by 6”) and should fill up the entire page. Depictions should be flat and decorative with rich colors. Optional: you may add a paragraph of text to your story.

7. Mosaics Create a mosaic similar to the Byzantine mosaics of Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora at San Vitale. Instead of small stones and veneered glass, use cut paper and glue onto a solid colored paper. Place the small squares of paper close together to replicate the mosaics at San Vitale.

SUGGESTED READINGS, WEB RESOURCES, AND BOOKS BOOKS AND PRINT MEDIA Alexander, Jonathon. 1994. Medieval Illuminators and Their Methods of Work. Yale University Press.

Castleden, Rodney. 1989. The Knossos Labyrinth: A New View of the ‘Palace of Minos’ at Knossos. Routledge.

Ciarla, Roberto and Araldo de Luca (photographer). 2005. The Eternal Army: The Terracotta Army of the First Chinese Emperor. White Star.

Gazda, Elaine (editor). 2001. The Villa of the Mysteries of Pompeii: Ancient Ritual, Modern Muse. Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, University of Michigan Museum of Art.

Higgins, Reynold. 1997 (revised 2nd edition). Minoan and Mycenaen Art. Thames & Hudson.

Krautheimer, Richard. 1984 (4th ed.). Early Christian and Byzantive Architecture. Yale University Press.

Martindale, Andrew. 1985 (reprinted 1996). Gothic Art. Thames and Hudson Ltd.

Shaw, Ian (editor). 2002. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press.

Siliotti, Alberto. 2000. Dwellings of Eternity. White Star S.r.l. Well illustrated book on burial places, including the Pyramid of Cheops, the Great Stupa at Sanchi, Angkor Wat, and the tomb of the Qin Dynasty, the first emperor of China.

133 Snyder, James. 1989. Medieval Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture 4 th – 14 th Century. Henry Abrams.

INTERNET RESOURCES Athena Parthenos replica made by Alan LeQuire in Memphis, Tennessee http://www.nashville.gov/parthenon/Athena.htm http://alanlequire.com/athena.html

Virtual visit of Cosquer Cave http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/archeosm/en/fr-cosqu1.htm

Radio Carbon Dating Web-Info http://www.c14dating.com/

The Oriental Institute Museum at the University of Chicago http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/OI_Museum.html

University of Pennsylvania Museum website on Cuneiform Writing http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/Games/cuneiform.shtml

PBS Nova On-line Adventure of the Pyramids http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/pyramid/

Hieroglyphics at Great Scott! http://www.greatscott.com/hiero/

Chinese character analysis and calligraphy writing http://www.chinavoc.com/arts/calligraphy/analysis.asp

Ancient Scripts, writing systems and phonetics http://www.ancientscripts.com/ws_types.html

FILM AND VIDEO Medieval Manuscripts, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. 30 min. Journey Through Ancient Pompeii, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. 31 min. Late Gothic Art and Architecture, Films for the Humanities and Sciences. 50 min. Ancient Greece: 800 B.C. – 146 B.C., Part I, Clearvue. 50 min. (1992) Sacred Art of Angkor, National Gallery of Art. 18 min. (1997) Byzantium: From Splendor to Ruin, Foth. 43 min. (1989) Ancient Greek Art and Architecture, Educational Video Network. 21 min. (2004) Parthenon: Design and Architecture, Discovery Channel School. (c.2002) Art of the Western World: The Classical Ideal, Program 1, WNET. 60 min. (1989) The Mystery of the Master Builders, WGBH. 58 min. (1988) Secrets of the Great Wall, Discovery Channel Video. 52 min. (1999)