Global Information Policy

GLOBAL INFORMATION POLICY

a class project of Fairleigh Dickinson University

Sulay-Manah Kpukumu Mohammad Wali Naeemi Mara Judith A. Francisco Andry Olivier Zinsou Julián G. Hernández Aboubacar A. Ibrahim Fuad Al-Hinai Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan Victoria Mangay Sulimani Chief Phesheya M. Dlamini

Editor Ahmad Kamal Published by : Fairleigh Dickinson University 1000 River Road Teaneck NJ 07666 USA

May 2007 ISBN: 978-1-60402-358-9

The opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of Fairleigh Dickinson University.

PREFACE

This collection of reports represents the output of the Spring 2007 Semester participants of the Global Information Policy class at Fairleigh Dickinson University.

It first examines the components of Information Policy, its parameters, its potentials, its shortcomings, and leads into the essentials of the direction that improvements must take.

It then examines specific Case Studies in ten countries, namely, Afghanistan, Angola, Benin, Colombia, Niger, Oman, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Sudan, and Swaziland. In each case, it details the relevant basic statistics, and then analyses the current situation of Information Policy in the country, before going into specific recommendations for the future.

Fairleigh Dickinson University is proud to have helped produce a work of such topical importance, which will no doubt be read and appreciated by decision makers in each of the listed countries. The participants are to be congratulated for the quality of their research, and the maturity of their opinions.

(Ahmad Kamal) BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

Sulay-Manah Kpukumu is the First Secretary at the Permanent Mission of Sierra Leone to the United Nations. Mohammad Wali Naeemi is the Counsellor at the Permanent Mission of Afghanistan to the United Nations. Mara Judith A. Francisco is the Advisor at the Permanent Mission of Angola to the United Nations. Andry Olivier Zinsou is a full-time student from Benin. Julián G. Hernández is an International Civil Servant at the United Nations. Fuad Al-Hinai is the Ambassador and Permanent Representative of Oman to the United Nations. Aboubacar A. Ibrahim is the Ambassador and Permanent Representative of Niger to the United Nations. Victoria Mangay Sulimani is the First Secretary at the Permanent Mission of Sierra Leone to the United Nations. Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera is the Counsellor at the Permanent Mission of Sri Lanka to the United Nations. Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan is the Minister Plenipotentiary at the Permanent Mission of Sudan to the United Nations. Chief Phesheya M. Dlamini is the Ambassador and Permanent Representative of Swaziland to the United Nations. Ahmad Kamal is the former Ambassador and Permanent Representative of Pakistan to the United Nations, and currently a Senior Fellow at the United Nations Institute for Training and Research. INDEX

Global Information Policy, Suley-Manah Kpumuku 01

Case Study - Afghanistan, Mohammad Wali Naeemi 25

Case Study - Angola, Mara Judith A. Francisco 51

Case Study - Benin, Andry Olivier Zinsou 67

Case Study - Colombia, Julián G. Hernández 95

Case Study - Niger, Aboubacar A. Ibrahim 117

Case Study - Oman, Fuad Al-Hinai 139

Case Study - Sierra Leone, Victoria Mangay Sulimani 169

Case Study - Sri Lanka, Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera 189

Case Study - Sudan, Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan 221

Case Study - Swaziland, Chief Phesheya M. Dlamini 239

Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

GLOBAL INFORMATION POLICY by Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

INTRODUCTION

The advent of information technology, commonly referred to as the Information and Communications Technology (ICT), and its explosive growth in the last quarter century, has transformed developed countries into knowledge-based economies. This transformation is the consequence of the rapid progress in the digital technology and the use of the Internet. At the global level, the new information age has led to a significant change in almost every sphere of human endeavours and to a large extent, a compelling network of interactions involving governments, businesses and individuals. Manual Castells, the author of the Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture graphically depicted the multidimensional changes and trends associated with information technology in the following: “ In the last quarter of this fading century a technological revolution, centered around information, has transformed the way we think, we produce, we consume, we trade, we manage, we communicate, we live, we die, we make war, and we make love. A dynamic global economy has been constituted around the planet linking up valuable people and activities all around the world while switching off from the network of Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

power and wealth people and territories dubbed as irrelevant from the perspective of dominant interests: a fundamental transformation of the macro-political and macro-social contexts that shape and condition social actors and experiences around the world”1

As a key agent of globalization and knowledge-based world, the effects of the digital revolution are far-reaching on the ever-shrinking geographical demarcation of communities and societies. New concepts and patterns of inter- relationships have emerged from this borderless and democratic flow of information. Today, peoples around the world are rudely woken up to the horrors of wars and natural calamities in far away and remote places, in the comforts of their living rooms and in real time. The world has become much flatter; the worldwide web of interactions, via the ‘information superhighway’, is rapidly replacing the lineal relationship that characterized the analogue era. Information technologies have opened new choices and opportunities for those with access to them.

Despite the transformation of developed countries into knowledge-based economies or a virtual world, developing countries are still grappling with reaping the benefits of the digital revolution. The stack reality is that whereas digital technologies are more readily accessible to the countries of the north and much of South-East Asia, the rest of the world, particularly, Africa South Asia, the Middle East and Latin America still grope in the digital twilight, albeit in varying degrees. This divide limits the opportunities available to the less privileged and further widens the gap between the rich and the poor.

1 Prof Robert Falk, The Role of Knowledge in the Cyber Age of Globalisation in Knowledge and Diplomacy (Ed. ) Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

The progressive transformation of human society from nomadic to the sedentary agricultural and industrial or technology and knowledge-based economies or systems is a correlation of the human capacity to generate knowledge. Many schools of thought have developed around the concept of social and cultural evolution (the stages of human history) however, for the purpose of this study, a passing reference will be focused on some interesting analysis propounded by Leslie White and the author of Future Shock, Alvin Toffler.

Leslie White portends that rather than specific inventions the measure by which to judge the evolution of culture was energy. For him, "the primary function of culture" is to "harness and control energy." He differentiates between five stages of human development: In the first, people use energy of their own muscles. In the second, they use energy of domesticated animals In the third, they use the energy of plants (agricultural revolution). In the fourth, they learn to use the energy of natural resources: coal, oil, gas. In the fifth, they harness nuclear energy.2

From a more advanced point of view, Toffler argues that society is undergoing an enormous structural change, a revolution from an industrial society to a “super-industrial society". He clearly points that this change will overwhelm people while also inferring that the accelerated rate of technological and social change will leave them disconnected, suffering from "shattering stress and disorientation", which he aptly describes as ‘future shocked’.3 With the advent of computers, the global community has been catapulted into what Toffler coined as the “information overload”4, a phenomenon characterised by a dual global community of information “haves” and “have

2 Wikipedia, History of Technology 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu nots”. The relevance of the concept lies in the fact that the impacts of the ICTs and digital revolution have gone far beyond the economic sphere to encompass the field of education, health, politics, public administration, science as well as social, cultural and religious activities.

The world has made significant progress in achieving many of the Goals . The 2005 Report on the Millennium Project to the Secretary-General of the United Nations revealed that between 1990 and 2002 average overall incomes increased by approximately 21 percent. The number of people living in extreme poverty declined by an estimated 130 million. Child mortality rate fell from 103 to 88 deaths per 1000 live births; life expectancy rose from 63 to nearly 65 years; while 8 percent of the developing world’s people received access to water, some 15 percent acquired access to improved sanitation services.5

However, progress has been far from uniform across the world; huge disparities abound across and within countries. Whereas urban poverty is extensive and growing, the phenomenon is greatest in urban areas. At the heart of this crisis is the home of 34 of the 50 Least Developed Countries, Sub-Sahara Africa where there is a continuing rise in extreme poverty, food insecurity, stunningly high maternal and child mortality rates, a high rate of prevalence of the HIV/AIDS pandemic and a huge proportion of people living in slums.

Despite its hundreds of millions of people living in extreme poverty, the region which has recorded the fastest progress is Asia. Studies reveal that with the exception of countries in South Asia, the trend has significantly been encouraging in

5 Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals (Millennium Project to the UN Secretary-General) 2005 Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

West Asia, Oceania the Commonwealth of Independent States and the middle income countries such those in Latin America, North Africa, the Middle East and the transition economies. These economies have recorded a reduction in the proportion of undernourished people and progress in primary education among others variables. However, the fact remains that the slow progress on some of the Millennium and other Internationally Agreed Goals and pervasive inequalities continue to undermine progress on others. Prominent among these is what has come to be known as the ‘digital divide’. The invading nature of the concept of globalization and its agent, the Information Technology continues to deepen poverty and deprivation in developing countries due to the lack of basic infrastructures such as telephone lines, electricity grid, road networks, the ill-affordability of computers and lack of access to the Internet by a greater proportion of populations in the countries under review. Those with the access to information technology are more favourably empowered to obtain highly rewarded skills, attract investment opportunities, outsourcing of jobs and therefore create more wealth to attain better standards of living.

There is an important correlation between access to information and the creation of wealth. Information empowers people from all walks of life to tap into all available potentials and opportunities to improve their standards of standard of living. This explains the reasons for the increasing tempo of debate on the role and potential benefits of an increased use of information and communication technology (ICT), particularly in supporting developing countries in their efforts to catch up with the digital revolution.

Thus, governments around the world are investigating ways of integrating Information Technology (IT) into their Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu strategies for social and economic development. This study aims at providing information to governments that are considering designing and implementing IT policies to support national development goals.

According to scholars and practitioners in the field of development any success in reaching the MDGs depends not just on faster economic growth and the flow of resources, but on the ability of Governments to translate those resources into basic services, such as health, education, trade, water and sanitation for the benefit of their citizenry.

Strictly speaking, in many developing countries, the delivery of services continues to fall far short of the expected targets in meeting the needs of the poor, due primarily to the direct involvement of Government, lack of incentives for performance, misplacement of national priorities, corruption, ineffective monitoring, and administrative bottlenecks.

Those countries that have succeeded in addressing those problems have done so by adopting appropriate policy measures and by involving poor people in service delivery. For instance, the adoption of accountability measures like giving parents voice over their children's education; patients a say over the management of hospitals and making budgetary policies and decisions transparent can significantly contribute to improving outcomes in human capital development.

The global trends in the GDP/GNI growth reflect some alarming disparities between the countries of the North and those of the South and further still, the gap is even more glaring within those of the South. The global Human Development Index (HDI) clearly illustrates this inequality Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu dilemma, aptly referred to by Franz Fanon, as “The Wretched of the Earth”. In Africa south of the Sahara, the GDP growth rate and the pace of development are sluggishly slow, due to external and internal factors.

The increasing integration of the world economy dictates that success in programmes targeted at reducing poverty critically depends on the international economic and financial policies and their linkages with national policies. There is a wide gap between poverty programmes and national as well as multilateral policy-making on trade and finance. Debt remains one of the major hindrances to poverty reduction and development. According to the 2000 Poverty Report of the United Nations Development Programme; “ Every day more than $1.5 trillion is exchanged in the world's currency markets, and every year nearly a fifth of the world's goods and services are traded. Foreign direct investment topped $400 billion at the end of the 1990s. But the benefits of these global economic transactions are being spread inequitably among countries and, within them, between rich and poor. About a fifth of developing countries receive four-fifths of total private capital flows, and official development assistance, which is supposed to counterbalance the effects of market forces, is now a third lower than in 1990 in real terms - and shows no prospects of recovering.”6

Many developing countries in Sub-Sahara Africa and South Asia among others continue to register modest and declining income as a result of the unequal trade regimes emanating from declining commodity prices and unsustainable debt burdens. Opening markets to developing countries’ exports 6 UNDP Poverty Report 2000 (Chapter 4) Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu and implementing the Enhanced Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative to free resources for poverty reduction are critical for reversing the trend.

The development of human capital constitutes one of the major policy challenges facing governments around the globe. Whereas, countries of the North (the OECD members) have continued to step up efforts to develop their educational systems both quantitatively and qualitatively through increased public expenditure, the task has been daunting for many of the countries of the South, with few exceptions. The progress made by the Asian Tigers in harnessing the human capital resources, and to the extent of establishing themselves as “intelligent states”, has been commendable and worthy of emulation by their peers of the South.

World Bank estimates indicate that the percentages of populations living below the $ 1.00 purchasing power poverty per day range from almost 20 % in the developing countries to less than 2 % in the developed countries. Beyond these averages, Sub-Saharan Africa comes out as most serious, with 44 % of the populations below this figure of $ 1.00 per day. Southern Asia fares slightly better at 31 %, Latin America and the Caribbean at 9 %, and the transition countries of Eastern Europe at just under 2 %.

There is a critical gap in both the global and national literacy rates. In many developing countries, particularly the category of Least Developed Countries (LDCs), the illiteracy rate is woefully alarming. The reason for this is that very little attention has been given to the educational needs of these countries. Problems of under-funding, infrastructure, personnel, priority and perception (for example in the area of gender bias) rank very high on the scale of hindrances toward the achievement of universal primary education, as projected in the 2000 Millennium Declaration. Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

The global educational statistics of the various regions of the world indicate that the gap between the countries of the north and those of the south is wide. In most poor countries, only some 50 % of the children of secondary school age are enrolled in education. In Sub-Saharan Africa this percentage falls to just above 20 %

The use of computers has become a fact of life. It has become a tool in every sphere of human endeavour, ranging from management information, decision support, warfare, education, commerce, medicine, etc to governance. Interestingly, the more sophisticated the technology becomes, the cheaper and less prohibitive it gets. Paradoxically however, critical masses of populations remain in dire want of accessibility, which has generally come to be conveniently referred to as the ‘digital divide’.

There is a striking international divide in access to computers and the Internet that adversely affects the capacity of non- industrialized economies to improve the living standards and productivity of their populations in relation to those of the industrialized world where there has been an explosive growth of personal computers. Also of interest to this study is the fact that the divide is similarly visible in the industrialized economies too, where a majority of the poor in those societies are also lacking in access to personal computers and the Internet even with the possibility of an ‘affordable’ rate of acquisition.

According to Chinn and Fairlie, "There were only 2.5 personal computers per 100 people in the world in 1990. By 2001, the number had climbed to nearly 9. Internet use Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu grew from essentially zero in early 1990s to 8.1 percent of the world's population by 2001".7

Chinn and Fairlie further argued that global to access to computers was grossly uneven between regions of the world. According to a survey conducted by them, “in 2001, there were 61 computers per hundred people in North America, and only 1 per 100 people in sub-Saharan Africa and 0.5 per 100 in South Asia. ” 8

The trends in the global use of personal computers and Internet in the decade 1990–2000 indicate that the use was only limited to few people during the early stages of the Internet in 1990, access has grown rapidly in the industrialized world. Invariably, the number of Personal Computers (PCs) per 100 people follows a similar progression as Internet use, although a disparity of use was already prevalent in 1990 with a high concentration of PCs in the OECD countries in the West. As of 2002, statistics show that more than half the populations in Australia, Denmark, Norway, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States were in possession of PCs. By contrast however, countries in the developing world depicted a huge disparity in the dispersion of PCs in the populations. For example, with exception of South Africa, Namibia, and Zambia where there has been some increases from 1 percent of penetration rates of the population to between 5 and 15 per cent, there has not been any significant increase in the number of PCs in much of Africa since 1990. By 2001 there has only been an overall computer penetration rate of below 2 per 1000 people in the sub-Saharan region of Africa.

7 Chinn, Menzie D. , Robert W. Fairlie. 2004. "The Determinants of the Global Digital Divide: A Cross-Country Analysis of Computer and Internet 8 Ibid. Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

Recent developments have however led Menzie Chinn and Robert Fairlie to empathize with United Nations claims that the growth rate for PC and Internet use has been on the increase] in developing countries, which now account for 34 percent of all Internet users since 2002. This reflects a dramatic increase in relation to the 1991 2 percent share. Nonetheless, a substantial disparity still exists for developing nations to 'catch up' with the growing investment in information technology.

The 2007 World Internet Usage and Population Statistics indicate that the current online penetration barely accounts for 16 % of the global population. This huge gap in Internet accessibility creates a tremendous potential for investment in the new Internet economy for Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and Broadband Service Providers (BSPs).

ISPs proliferate in areas where the complementary technologies upon which the Internet infrastructure depends for success are readily available. Despite the use of the Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) in the developing world, the cost of international Internet interconnection remains comparatively prohibitive.

Whereas access is growing in much of Asia, and Latin America; in West, Central and sub-Saharan Africa there is a limited penetration of personal computers and few users of the Internet, the lack of the necessary infrastructures coupled with high level of illiteracy and the prohibitive cost of IT equipment, accessories and software required for the success of this new technology undermines the need to develop ISPs. In counties like Malaysia and the industrialized nations, where such hindrances are a far cry, nearly half or a third of the populations have access to computers and the Internet and, at affordable rates. Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

According to experts in the field of the Information and Communications Technologies, the disparities between countries in the rate of ICT diffusion and network readiness index are directly linked with the level of socio-economic development as evident in per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Research and Development (R&D) expenditures and levels of human development. “This implies that for developing countries to obtain ICT-induced development, they must attain high per capita income growth and human development. Invariably, low per capita income relates proportionately to the low level of ICT readiness and diffusion in many of the countries of the South.”9

The ownership and access to computers and the Internet, to a large extent, has a direct linkage with education and income levels. However, inequalities in the level of consumption of the Information and Communication Technology do not only differ in relation to education and income levels but also, in accordance with such variables as age, race, gender and geography.

The statistics of global Internet usage also show wide variations, as could be expected. North America ranks first at 70 % of the population, Oceania at 54 %, Europe at 40 %, Latin America at 17 %, Asia at 10 %, and Africa at 4 %. Growth statistics over the past seven years are more promising, with Africa ranking first at 640 %, the Middle East at 500 %, Latin America at 450 %, Asia at 250 %, Europe at 200 %, Oceania at 140 %, and North America at 115 %.

Clearly, both the Internet and Personal Computer penetration rates are essentially influenced by the GDP per capita income, but there is hope that, as these incomes rise, the growth can be impressive.

9 http://www. Internetworldstats. com/stats. htm Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

According to a survey conducted by Microsoft, “household income, education, employment status, age, gender, family size, and attitudes toward technology are all important determinants of computer use among working-age adults… Working-age adults with lower levels of education and household income are less likely to use computers at both home and work than are those with higher levels of education and household income. ”10

Though the survey must have been conducted in an industrialized environment; the findings equally speak for what obtains in the developing world as well. Like the income brackets, the level of education affects the penetration rates, generally, the higher the level educational attainment, the greater the likelihood for those falling with that category to have a phone, PC, or modem. Those with college degrees are far more likely than those without any high school education An interesting caveat worth mentioning is that s the situation is even more challenging in the developing world because of the high level and degree of inequalities in educational attainment and income levels prevalent in those societies. Equally so attitude and the lack of computer experience and confidence generally prevent many individuals from using accessible technology.

The private sector plays a leading role in the promotion, manufacture and consumption of computers and of course, the Internet. Granted that the earliest and most recognized consumer of the Information Technology (IT) products was the (US) military but today, the most extensive and effective use of the products is the private sector. Key among the reasons for this development is the private sector appears to be investing in research and development far more than the

10 Accessible Technology in Computing (Research Studies) www. microsoft. com Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu public sector. Surveys indicate that for-profit programs are successfully expanding access to technology to increasingly larger groups, though they fail to adequately address the needs of the poorest countries, and the poor citizens within countries.

The dot-com bust and the emergence of new global enterprise networks including the pace of outsourcing already in high gear clearly indicate the imbalance between the use of technology in private and public sectors. Certainly, the private sector is more highly involved in this activity, since the expertise needed by governments to achieve successful digitalization resides in the private sector. Thus, eGovernment is the major way which technological innovation and managerial expertise of the private sector is being transferred to governments. “These technologies have generated significant changes in the nature, and operation of communication and delivery of services by the private sector increasing the impetus to accelerate adoption of these technologies in the public sector”11

In support of the argument for the primacy of the private sector in the IT revolution, the University of Michigan management theorist, C. K. Prahalad cogently asserts that; “The public sector has neither the expertise nor the resources to provide goods and services on a scale sufficient to reach the four billion people who currently earn less than $2,000. The private sector has both. Why not put them to use addressing the real needs - and real opportunities - at the bottom of the pyramid. . .

11 Paul M. A. Baker, Policy Bridges for the Digital Divide: Assessing Landscape and Gauging Dimensions http://www. firstmonday. org/issues/issue6_5/baker/ Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

The fact is that the private sector is better suited to serve as a catalyst for development than government.”12

However, studies have also proven a different trend in developing countries where government represents the major customer for ICT industries. The Gartner Dataquest reveals that public sector consumption is growing by 20 % per year

For instance in Asia, the government sector has a deeper reach into society than in the West, so the digitalization of government has huge implications that affects schools, health care, environmental stewardship and the biggest issue of all: security. It concerns not only the normal operations of government, like collecting taxes and awarding permits, but also addressing the ways services are delivered, how services are integrated, and it allows new bottoms-up as well as top-down interactions between government and citizens. Although experience has shown that eGovernment is capable of threatening some entrenched political forces, its greatest merit is it can effectively strengthen the machinery. Thus, the level and speed of the digitalization drive of governments are clearly indicative of the political importance they attached to the process. It means governments have to weigh the costs and benefits of digitalization against other alternative public investments, like building dams or providing direct subsidy to the poor.

ANALYSIS

In order to close the digital gap and propel developing countries into high performance gear, Governments in digitally disadvantaged societies should play a pivotal role in transforming divide into dividend. The way forward is, by

12 Accessible Technology in Computing (Research Studies) www. microsoft. com Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu certainly creating the appropriate environment for the growth and widespread utilization of the ICT and the corresponding benefits. In the first place Governments have no reason to be directly involved in managing the telecommunication sector, empirical evidence show that liberalizing the sector can double telephone penetration. After several decades of state management of telephony, fixed line infrastructures remained sluggish, expensive and limited to main cities of many developing economies.

Analysts argue that the fight against poverty goes way beyond transferring money to the poor or creating jobs for them, it is about empowering citizens to be more productive. Governments must create the appropriate policy space and regulatory framework to attract investments on the one hand, and to provide opportunities for citizens to acquire basic universal education and competitive skills training that can enhance their capacity to compete on the global job market. There is therefore an increasing demand on Governments to make portals, wireless and privacy top priorities.

The road to a full membership of the ‘global information society’ has been a daunting one for the developing countries. Those in the developing world that have succeeded in their transition to a digital information society are tapping into the tangible opportunities within reach of the industrialized world. The last decade has witnessed significant leap in the usage, development and liberalization of the information technology by quite a few of the developing economies, especially those in South East Asia and parts of Latin America. The digitization of these economies has significantly propelled these economies into the global market place.

The bigger and gloomy picture however is that while these fast growing economies like Brazil, India, Malaysia and Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

Singapore among few others, continue to reap the benefits of globalization, the majority of their peers in the developing world continue to grope in the slumber of digital retardation, making it extremely difficult for them to integrate their economies into the global information society. IT plays a strategic role in the long-term survival of a firm. It is thus a necessity as opposed to a luxury or option. While many people in the developed world enjoy easy access to information through the Internet, e-mail, and telephony, billions in the developing world do not.

The absence of conducive macroeconomic ground rules and appropriate regulatory framework, skills and agencies that create the conducive institutional and market environments in these countries undermine their capacity to generate adequate funding for the construction, maintenance and expansion of the basic telecommunications and other converging technologies. Adopting new technologies is essential for sustained competitive advantage in all industries and produces tangible market benefits.

Despite the deficiencies, the speed of invasion by the information and communications technologies and their widespread use in an increasingly borderless global village in the last decade, opens window of opportunity for many developing countries. In an effort to catch up with trend, the United Nations Regional Economic Commissions (RECs) in Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean and South Asia and the Pacific are currently engaging Governments in those Regions to formulate national information and communications initiatives as part of their overall national strategic policy framework.

At the global level, the two processes of the World Summit on Information Society (WSIS) in Geneva and Tunis were landmark occasions in the search for a formula to harness the Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu market forces, which shape the direction and diffusion of the new technology to narrow the Digital Divide in developing countries. These processes were challenged by the controversy between the group of developing countries (G77) and the industrialized countries over the control of the IT industry. Whereas the former advocated for the new technology to be brought under the control of intergovernmental organizations, the OECD countries opted for a multi-stakeholder approach requiring IT Corporations that possess the technical know-how and resources to take the lead. This drawback consequently resulted in the failure to create the proposed trust fund that intended to help developing countries to close the divide.

The new wave of private sector involvement particularly in mobile telephony has led to a dramatic transformation of the communication network in many countries. Furthermore, the current trend of offshore investments favourably positions developing countries for this out-sourcing, which further helps to reduce the strain on their governmental machineries that turn out to be main employer of its labour force. Also of concern are the dangers of cyber-security technical vulnerability, which pose new security challenges in dealing in Internet governance. Contemporary threats like malicious code authors with their viruses and spams are increasing their attacks against the Internet, computers and mobile electronic devices.

It self evident that spreading and accelerating the use of the Information and Communications Technology has a great potential of increasing worker productivity and reducing economic disparities. Countries that are prepared to adopt and implement complex and bold policy changes have succeeded in accelerating the process of transformation of their economies into ‘information societies’. Some classical examples include the Asian Tigers of India, Malaysia and Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

Singapore, where high-tech multinationals have devoted their research and development facilities and marketing activities to generate the demand for IT and to lead the poor through the process of ‘learning and earning’. Such policy orientation has led to an explosion in offshore investments and an improvement in the living standards in those economies.

On the contrary, the slow pace of transformation in the Information Technology policy and other regulatory frameworks in many developing countries, including those under review, continues to deepen the digital divide and its attendant flight of the skilled human capital that could energize those economies. This phenomenon tends to stifle the growth of the private sector, which helps governments in reforming the educational, environmental and heath-care services of the poor. It is therefore no gainsaying that developing countries are woefully missing out in the e-sector and that ICT initiatives can only thrive in developing countries, on a wider scale, when all of the other components necessary for the effective integration of ICT into society are in place.

Governments have a critical role to play in creating the appropriate environment to promote technology use by encouraging investment in ICT infrastructure and harnessing a skilled workforce to enhance sustainable development and reduce poverty. Taking bold steps to formulate and implement of policies in this direction empowers Governments to balance the needs of their citizens for long- term economic growth and social prosperity. But as Teresa Peters rightly asserts: “translating a vision into practical steps that fit the local context is not a simple matter.”

According to her, “leaders need to have a realistic appreciation for what ICT can - and cannot - do for their Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu countries and communities, and they must lead effectively and bolster public confidence in the path they take.”13 The reasons that fundamentally account, among other things, for the missed potential in developing countries are rooted in some or all of the following deficiencies:

 The lack of resources and/or failure of governments to invest in a meaningful way to maintain, modernize and expand complementary technology infrastructures like electricity and fixed telephone lines to effectively service the length and breadth of these economies;  The capacity gap arising from high level of illiteracy as well as the lack of adequate resources and support to enhance basic universal education and the training and skills necessary for effective technology use;  The lack of political will in government to do what is needed or to even embrace a multi-stakeholder approach to facilitate the integration of technology throughout society;  The failure to engage in a serious debate on global technological developments runs the risk of deepening the loss of economies of scale in the ICT equipment production, with its attendant increase in IT product prices and the missed opportunities for ensuring interoperability capacity in the technology’s evolutionary path;  The absence of an appropriate legal and regulatory framework capable of creating an enabling environment significantly undermines the possibility attracting investments to tap into the benefits of the new technology.

13 Teresa Peters, Executive Director of Bridges. org Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

Getting government policy right is also critical for creating an environment that promotes and encourage technology use and investment in ICT infrastructure. Even though the price of IT related gadgets including computers continue to drop to affordable levels in the north, prices still remain prohibitive in the south. This is because governments mainly subscribe to non-homegrown IT strategies and, often time they lack the real political will to bring about change largely because government officials fail to engage stakeholders in framing the e-strategies. Additionally, as long the public does not buy into public policy initiatives, they are doomed to fail.

Studies have revealed that while ICT "have" countries and groups increase their access and use, ICT "have-nots" are continually sinking into an abyss of exclusion from jobs, participation in governance and other processes that affect their lives, which leave them politically and economically powerless. The imbalances in the distribution of the cost of international Internet interconnection systems are at the heart of the unfairly high cost for developing country ISPs.

The decentralized and international character of the Internet renders its control completely out of the reach of any single nation-state. This freedom from state regulation is central to its to its success as over-regulation could certainly stifle the innovative and entrepreneurial nature of the world-wide web. However despite this merit, the Internet clearly needs to be protected from those determined to take advantage of its seeming anarchy to abuse the network. Certainly, the Internet is highly vulnerable, it can easily be attacked with various forms of abuses ranging from spam, unwanted emails, and pedophilia websites to identity theft and cyber- terrorism. This raises the issue of Internet governance, while the controversy between ICANN and ITU over the control of the allocation of Domain Names still lingers on, States continue to grapple with the need to effect cross- Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu jurisdictional harmonization of laws regulating intellectual property rights, online gambling, pornography and identity theft as well as limiting the proliferation of viruses on the world-wide web.

CONCLUSION

Technology accounts for the wide economic development discrepancy observed between the developing and developed nations. Although information and communications technology (ICT) is a key driver of economic growth, ICT access remains a serious problem throughout Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, the Middle East and parts of Asia. The flows of foreign direct investments in these regions are sluggish, selective or not forthcoming at all.

Governments should adopt a multi-stakeholder approach favouring collaboration with the private sector and civil society to strengthen existing efforts and projects, public centers to facilitate the access of the poor to telephones, computers and other innovative technology through small business applications. This way, it will further help in creating an enabling environment and innovative business model for pro-poor investment, entrepreneurship and growth for empowering people living in poverty and promoting bottom up development while effectively responding to the digital divide

Governments should also encourage the divestiture of all incompetent, corrupt and wastefully managed basic services infrastructures with view to transforming such parastatal (state-run) enterprises into competitive and effective agencies for providing efficient and affordable services to the poor. The former Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations, Mr. Mark Malloch Brown graphically highlighted the problems of the Global Information Policy words: Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

… just as the world faces ‘problems without passport’… so de we, in the form of ICT, have opportunities without borders. It is not borders that fetter the use of ICT and holds people back; it is the absence of infrastructure and equipment; it is the lack of supportive policies; it is the lack of relevant applications in appropriate languages; it is inexperience with mobile phones, PCs and other technologies. If we could surmount these obstacles, millions, even billions of lives could be enriched in untold ways. And the most effective way to overcome the obstacles is through partnership 14

The unrelenting pace at which globalization is closing in on almost every aspect of human endeavours and the inevitability of a ‘virtual world’ dictates a compelling acquiescence of humanity to the new information age. At both the national and international levels, the information ‘haves’ are more favoured to reap the benefits of globalization than the information ‘have-nots’. The dynamic, profitable, fast growing use of ICT in businesses (such as the Business Process Outsourcing) are continually eluding a large majority of the developing world thus, the road ahead is for governments in the developing world to accelerate ICT diffusion and support the beneficial economic and social impacts at the same time. The speed of the new global paradigm calls for a corresponding rate of acceleration in the adoption of policy orientations at both the national and the global levels, if the digital divide has to be bridged to allow

14 Mark Malloch Brown, former Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations, Opening Statement at the Ceremonial Launching of the Global Alliance for ICT and Development, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, June 19 2006 Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu developing countries to reduce poverty to meet the Internationally Agreed Goals and integrate their economies into the wider global economy.

A propos, this project examines the information policies of a selected group of developing countries from the Middle East, Central and South Asia, Latin America, West and Southern Africa. This study will, among other things, certainly break a new ground in academia by virtue of the wide-ranging characterizations of the countries under review. The nine countries namely, Afghanistan, Angola, Benin, Columbia, Niger, Oman, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Sudan and Swaziland are a representative blend of middle income, least developed, post-conflict mineral- and oil-rich developing countries. The various contributions provide analytical insights into the respective Information Technology Policies of each of these countries by assessing strengths, weaknesses, gaps and making recommendations on what the Governments need to do to propel these countries into the global information society and to lift their people out of poverty.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Celik, Aliye P. , Foundations of the Global Alliance for ICT and Development (Ed. ), New York 2007 Chinn, Menzie D. and Fairlie Robert, The Determinants of the Global Digital Divide: A Cross-Country Analysis of Computer and Internet Penetration, 2004 Kamal, Ahmad, The Law of Cyber-Space: An Invitation to the Table of Negotiations, Geneva 2005 Kurbaliya, Jovan, Knowledge and Diplomacy (Ed. ), DiploProjects, Malta 1999 MacLean, Don, Internet Governance: E Grand Collaboration (Ed. ), New York 2004 Global Information Policy Sulay-Manah Kpukumu

Stiglitz, Joseph, Globalization and Its Discontents, Penguin Press 2002 Cooperation South 2005: Eliminating Extreme Poverty, UNDP publication E-Government Strategy and Action Plan for Carbbean, Project Proposal 2002, http://unpan1. un. org/intradoc/groups/public/documentss Gatner Dataquest, http://www. gartner. com. Bridges. org, http://www. bridges. org/ First Monday: Peer Review Journal on the Internet, http://www. firstmonday. org/issues Accessible Technology in Computing (Research Studies) www. microsoft. com. Wikipedia, www. wilkipedia. com World Internet Usage Statistics, http://www. Internetworldstats. com/stats. htm Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

AFGHANISTAN by Mohammad Wali Naeemi

INTRODUCTION

Size and Location of the country

Afghanistan is located in the heart of Asia, north of Pakistan, east of Iran. The total size of Afghanistan is 647,500 square kilometers. Afghanistan is a land locked country, and has no access to water. Afghanistan also has a share border with Pakistan (2430 square kilometers), Iran (936 square kilometers), Tajikistan (1206 square kilometers), Turkmenistan (744square kilometers), Uzbekistan (137 square kilometers) and China (76 square kilometers).

Afghanistan as a landlocked country is playing a transit role in the area of trade in the region. Most of the newly independent central Asian countries have a huge amount of natural resources with large number of population and limited sources. Therefore, these countries could be one of the best markets for industrial developing countries in the region. Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

Afghanistan has mostly rugged mountains and plains in the north and southwest. The Hindu Kush Mountains are in the heart of Afghanistan and playing crucial role in the country. Some of the peak points of the Hindu Kush Mountains (Teraj Meer with its height of 7,160 meters from surface and Shah Foladi with its height of 5,184 meters) are mostly keeping snow from one season or another.1 About twelve percent of the land of the country is arable and less than one percent for permanent crops.

The capital is Kabul, with a huge population, (more than 3 million people are living in this small and war ravaged city) and the country has 34 provinces that are as follows: Bamian, Daykondi, Farah, Faryab, Ghazni, Ghowr, Helmand, Herat, Jowzjan, Kabul, Kandahar, Kapisa, Khowst, Konar, Kondoz, Laghman, Lowgar, Nangarhar, Nimruz, Nurestan, Oruzgan, Paktia, Paktika, Panjshir, Parvan, Samangan, Sar-e Pol, Takhar, Vardak, and Zabol.

The name of the government of Afghanistan is “Islamic Republic of Afghanistan”. The national holiday is on August 19 to celebrate the independence of Afghanistan in 1919. The new constitution of Afghanistan was adopted on 14 December 2003.

Population size and diversity, including rural to urban areas.

In July 2006 the population of Afghanistan was estimated about 31,056,997. There has been 2.67 percent population growth in the year 2006 the birth rate is 46.6 births per population of 1000 and the infant mortality rate is 160 deaths per 1000 live births.

1 http://www. infoplease. com/ipa/A0107264. html Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

According to the demographics of Afghanistan and the statistic department of the government of the Islamic State of Afghanistan, the live expectancy rate in Afghanistan is: 44.6 % are 0-14 years of age in which 7,095,117 are male and 6,736,759 are female, 53 % are 15-64 years of age which includes 8,436,716 male and 8,008,463 female, 2.4 % are above 65 years According to the latest statistics, these consist of 366,462 males and 386,300 females. (2006 est.)2

Afghanistan’s ethnic groups include Pashtun 49 % from which 42 % are Pashto speaking people and 7 % of them are not speaking Pashtu but, they are pashtun . Tajik 27 %, Hazara 9 %, Uzbek 9 %, Aimak 4 %, Turkmen 3 %, Baloch 2 %, and other 4 %. Islam is the religion of the majority (99 % of the population): 85 percent of Afghans are Sunni Muslims, 14 percent Shia and 1 percent follow a religion other than Islam. The official languages are Pashto and Dari. However, those are not the only languages spoken; other languages spoken include Uzbeki, Turkmen, Balochi, and Pashai. The literacy rate is 36 percent overall, with 51 percent males and 21 percent females.

The stages of human history

Afghanistan is an agricultural country about 85 % of its people in rural areas are depends on agriculture to their livelihood. Despite the obstacles, and challenges Are still exist in the country, Afghanistan is progressing politically, socially, economically, and particularly in the area of information and communication technology since December 2001 (when the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan came into being). The Government has moved towards consolidating its power, bringing security and a national unity, stabilizing the economy and establishing the rule of law in the country. Today, a new constitution is helping the

2 Book: Facts of the World Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi country in providing a balanced government, joining the country back with the world and recommitting it’s self to the international obligations. For the first time in history, Afghanistan has an elected President. The national election for President and parliament took place in 2004 and United Nations and other International Organizations for its transparency observed the election. For the first time in the History of Afghanistan, more than 60 women from 34 provinces are positioned in the parliament.

As far as the high levels of voting in the Presidential elections concern, the people of Afghanistan now have high expectations from their elected Government to deliver security and reconstruction, and to improve the rule of law and a commitment to the transparency and accountability in state institutions. Afghanistan has once again restored its status in the international community, which in turn has reaffirmed its support for the reconstruction efforts through generous pledges committed at the Donor Conference in Berlin in 2003 and in London in 2005.1 The Human Development Index value calculated nationally puts Afghanistan at the miserable position of 173 out of 178 countries worldwide. President Hamid Karzai has presented the first National Human Development Report of Afghanistan, since 1990 to the United Nations. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) has produced annual global Human Development Reports as analytical and policy tools designed to promote the concept of human development. Each year, these reports calculate the Human Development Index and rank about 175 participating countries; unfortunately, Afghanistan has not been included since 1996 due to the unavailability of data. Afghanistan now has ANDS (Afghanistan National Development Strategy) which was established in December 2005 that has been sponsored internationally and adopted by both the

1 International Donor Conference, December 28, 2005 London Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

General Assembly and Security Council of the United Nations in 2006. ANDS covers development of all sectors including hunting, agriculture, industry, services, knowledge, Technology and includes everything that is going to help the country to develop.

Afghanistan is an agricultural country about 85 % of its people in rural areas depends on agriculture to their livelihood. In the result of imposed war, prolonged conflict and long time drought, have several affect on the agricultural sector of Afghanistan that forced farmers to displace internally and to migrate to neighboring countries. Most of the Agricultural and water sanitation system is collapsed. The Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation has set up a plan for five years that will target a six percent annual growth rate by 2009 in consistence with Afghanistan National Development Strategy. The Master Plan has identified seven goals, which incorporate the objectives in ANDS for which the MAI (Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation) is responsible to achieve. Three priorities have been identified: 1. to assure food security. 2. Promote agriculture for export and expand livestock production. The Master Plan goals and the ANDS objectives are supported by a five-year investment program which may reach up to $2.5 billion in ten years.

Drought conditions in the east, south and southwest have resulted in a far smaller cereals harvest than ever expected. Afghanistan suffers from a 1.2 million ton deficit in cereals due to extremely low yields, and this year’s drought. In addition, increasing yields from 2 to 4 tons per hectare annually would permit Afghanistan, to lower the cereals deficit and increase the use of land for higher value horticulture and live stock production. Together with government and other UN agencies, WFP (World food Program) is responding to the drought, intending to provide Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi food assistance to an average 1.7 million people each month in 2007 harvest.1

The speed of change in the world

The speed of change in technology in the world is massive. Not even a decade ago, the only way to send letters or information was mail, now, due to the advance technology that letters can be sent in a second (which is known as “email”). Now we can do anything like sell, purchase or start any business with the help of Internet using computer. We can even complete our education, skill, building capacity, knowledge through Internet and computer due to the dramatic progress of Communication Technology. Now even the medical stuff and complicated surgeries have been made easy to the doctors because of the advance technology. Statistic report and data collection are easy to manage by national and international level with the development of technology. During the important period of time (1979-2002) Afghanistan was experiencing difficulties. Instead of gaining some in the area of communication and information technology, Afghanistan lost whatever were existed and gained destruction, poverty, anarchy, lowliness, and illiteracy.

The importance of the interaction between recent changes and standards of living

There is a vast interaction between recent changes and standards of living, of people because their life depends on the recent changes. Recent changes include everything for example there can be changes in food, technology, education and everything that relates to human life. A nation’s competitiveness is often judged by its ability to both to produce goods that find demand in the global marketplace

1 www. agricuture gov. af Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi and to simultaneously maintain-if not improve- the standards of living among its citizens. For a country’s development, country should go side by side with recent changes otherwise that particular country would be left behind. As there is a saying, that man has to be changed according to the changing circumstances.

Furthermore, no doubt that most of the developed and developing countries in world particular countries that are emerging from conflicts such as Afghanistan must take the advantages of using the opportunities attached to the communication and information technology, and use as a useful tool, for development in the area of economic, social, education, health, and capacity building. Afghanistan as a post conflict country, which has started everything from scratch has a huge potential for its development, whether in the economic, social, and culture fields. There is a need for creation of adequate ICT, in order to use Information and Communication Technology for further enhancement of its human and natural resources.

Developmental statistics, by per capita incomes, by global distribution

The economy of Afghanistan has been ravaged by 25 years of war, which ended with the ousting of the hard-line Taliban regime in late 2001. In 2001, one US dollar was equal to 60 thousand Afghani, there used to be one currency under the name of Afghani, but was printed by two authorities with same serial number in different places.1 Now the cost of one US dollar is equal to 49 Afghani and it is printed according

1 1 President Rabbani and Ahmad Shah Masood were printing the currency notes in Russian Federation, and General Dostum was printing the same currency notes in London. Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi to the rules and procedure adopted by the national constitution.

As mentioned above, the 25 years of war and continued conflict affected economy, now around 40-60 % of rural Afghans are living in extreme poverty because the economic, social, agriculture, communication, and infrastructure were collapsed in the whole country. A roughly figured 70 % of the population lives below extreme line of poverty. Average income is about $ 300 per person annually. In rural areas of the country, feminine population is mostly affected by extreme poverty and unemployment. Afghanistan’s national income per capita is, one of the lowest in the world, which is expected to increase by 14 percent by year 2008, which will become $ 335 per year.

President Hamid Karzai promised his people in 2003 to increase the country’s national per capita income from $ 200 to $ 500 by 2008. This growth rate indicates a significant step towards a full-fledged economy.1

However, unfortunately, terrorist attacks, threats, kidnappings, and suicide attacks are increasing from year 2005, are affecting the economic growth of the country.

Global educational statistics, by North South division

Afghanistan has one of the highest illiteracy rates in the world. In rural areas of the country where three-fourth of all the population lives, 90 % of women and 63 % of men are illiterate. Nearly three-quarters of Afghans over the age of 15 cannot read or write. In Afghanistan the average years of schooling for adults are 1.7 %. The duration of compulsory education is 8 years. Enrollment ratio in secondary level is 14%. Female enrollment share in primary level has grown

1 http://english. people. com. cn/200604/02/eng20060402_255370. html Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi over the past couple of years up to 32 %. Female enrollment share in secondary level is 25.4 %. Despite the long war and the collapse of educational system and it’s infrastructure, the legal framework of education for Afghan people has been re- established in Article 43 of the new constitution of Afghanistan which asserted “Education is the right of all afghan citizens and it is provided free of charge by the state’s educational institutions covering up to the level of Bachelors Degree”. Afghanistan has prepared a 12-year education plan in 2005 which foresees that all school age children should be in school by the year 2015 with the preliminary educational cost estimate of $2.2 billion. This 12-year plan is based on to a great extent on the recommendations of the International Forum on Education. Afghanistan envisages extending its educational plan to cover a period of 25 years which began in 2004.1 Girls’ education is the utmost priority for Afghanistan. Nationally only about 39 %, Afghan girls enrollments rates are even lower. In 2003, around 4.05 million girls and boys went to school and started at primary level. This increase took place gradually after each year.

The total cost of the supply operation for Back to School 2003 is estimated $15 million. Now both UNICEF and Ministry of Education are working together in all provinces of the country for meeting the needs of Afghan people in the area of education, to build schools and educational infrastructure of the country. At present, in order to help the students in schools, different web-sites have been sited with educational software. USAID, UNICEF, EU, and other regional and international organizations help improve the basic education through programs aimed at strengthening ministry’s capacity by improving teachers performances and skills building and ensuring adequate school materials and providing better educational environment for all. for instance, USAID has built or refurbished 524 schools over

1 World Fact book Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi the last five years, mostly in remote areas. Another 130 are currently under construction.

The Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Higher Education, and other organizations have developed a Strategic Plan for 2006 to 2010, which has expanded programs and introduced new initiatives including linkage of universities, and providing technical assistance to targeted institutions.

Since the establishment of the elected government of Afghanistan, tangible changes took place in Afghanistan’s education system. The Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan made extraordinary efforts to inject educational enrollments on an equal manner and best quality through public policies. The role played by private sector in this regard, could be counted. People can now send their children to schools, which was impossible before 2001, because there were no schools, no opportunity, and chance to get their children’s education done. The whole country was marginalized because of its unique system in the world. Most of the schools were destroyed, or changed into religious madrassas. Girls were not even allowed to go to school, now due to the policies of new government a large number of girls go to school in most parts of the country. The role- played by international, regional organizations, private sector, and civil society cannot be ignored.

About 54 % of primary school age children attend school, except the children in 10 provinces of the country such as (Helmand, Kandahar, Zabal, Paktia, Paktica, khpost, Konar, Rosegan, Ghazni, and Laogar). Schools in these provinces are mostly closed. Particularly girls schools are completely not functional in some areas, because of the continuous threats and suicide attacks to female teachers in these parts of the country. Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

In 2004, $466.7 million were spent on education and vocational training, in 2005, $479.3 million were spent on education and vocational training, and in 2006, and $314.3 million were allocated for education.1

Global computer statistics, by North South division

From the information provided above concerning education and computer science, Statistics shows that, per capita income has a lot of impact on gaining education and computer usage and knowledge. As the income, level increases the education and computer use will increase. If the income level is down the citizens cannot afford to provide their children with latest technology and usages of computers. To increase and upgrade the level of education computer plays an indispensable role, governments needs to promote free education fully equipped with computer facilities.

In 2003 the use of computer in Afghanistan was very rare. Even most of the government offices were not in position to have advantages of computer use. Most of the government branches and businesses offices were relying on hand- writing or typewriters, because there was no software to support the official languages, Pashto and Dari. Today most of the government offices in the capital Kabul and major cities are facilitated with computers but even less than three percent of Kabul’s population knows how to use the computer because of lack of computer knowledge and scales. In remaining parts of the country, computer skills are close to zero. As Pashto and Dari are used by more than 80 percent of the Afghan population, computer software in these languages will help increase computer skills of the Afghan people considerably, nevertheless, it is an important tool for

1 http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/afghanistan_38047.html Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi human development in the country. Computer-based work in classroom is minimal. There is, however, some interest by the international agencies in what might be needed if computers began to be used for education in any significant way.

Now Afghan government and its international collaborators (UNDP, EU, USAID) including the private sector has carried out a review of problems of displaying text in Pashto and Dari on a computer screen . Liwal is providing the nation with Pashto and Persian software. This will hopefully increase the use of computers in Afghanistan. The government with the cooperation of UN and donor countries is focusing on accelerating of the capacity building by providing people with computers and computer based knowledge. Presently most of the offices of the government, United Nations, NGOs, and private enterprises in Kabul and other major cities such as Jalalabad, Kandahar, Herat, and Mazar, are in a position to have access to eGovernance and usage of computers.

Training of one single Microsoft Office program session costs $5, and $45 for a complete 14-month long course including Windows and the full Office programs. As the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Telecommunication with the support of the UNDP and contributor countries are encouraging the private firms, Non-Governmental Organizations and small industries to carry out computer training programs for the Afghan people. Wais, who is the manager of the “afghan.com” Internet café, stated that earlier before the Internet connection speed was very slow and we were not been able to fully fulfill the needs of our costumers but, now things is getting much better and we are witnessing a huge progress in this field.

The availability of cheap PCs, in the markets along with the Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

Internet connection gives people an unprecedented offer that leaves no money for buying televisions. Says Zahir: "On television we only have one channel - from 6pm until 10pm - and all that shows is the news, which we can get on the radio. People are saying why we should not spend this money on a PC instead, where they get a CD, a DVD player, and a computer.

CeReTechs has developed a number of systems for accounting and financial information management; personnel management, inventory management, and program management information that is very practical and popular among the CeReTechs partners. This service will allow organizations to access the Internet with data transfer speeds ranking from 56kb to 11mb per second, well beyond the speed of other systems now used in Afghanistan. The service will provide unlimited data transfer at no additional cost, potentially offering organizations significant savings.1

ISP statistics

 Hosts (per capita): 0.237 per 100,000 people  Internet Service Providers: 1  Live journal users: 1  Users: 25,893 : 0. 084 per 100,000 people

These ISP statistic done in February 2007 show that from year 2002 onwards the number of ISP and of information and communication technology in general is increasing in Afghanistan. Internet is not in common use, therefore, obviously not every person has access to it. There are some Internet cafés available in the market for service. The rate of Internet service was used to be $5.00/ per hour in 2003 and 2004 but, now it is around a dollar per hour in Kabul city.

1 http://www. export. gov/afghanistan/pdf/ict_policypaper. pdf Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

Relationship between education, income levels, and computers

In order to attain the high level of educational standards computers can prove to be an important devise for enhancing the capacity of the people. The Afghan Government provides free education to all citizens up to the bachelor degree but unfortunately free computer lessons are not taught to the students at schools or colleges, even universities in the least developed countries, particularly countries emerging from conflict like Afghanistan. It has only been four years that Afghanistan got its new constitution; a government approved by the parliament and an elected president. Since it is at a primary stage of development, the government does not have enough resources to provide the schools and other educational institutions with computers. In general, the people of Afghanistan do not have enough income to provide their family with computer or higher education. Because of illiteracy, people are not making companies for computer to provide people with cheap computers or modern computers.

Household income, education, employment status, age, gender, family size, and attitudes toward technology are all important determinants of computer use among working-age adults. These relationships are important to consider because they often indirectly contribute to lower rates of computer use among individuals with difficulties. For example, individuals with mild or severe impairments have lower levels of education and household income on average than do those without difficulties or impairments. Therefore, it is important to consider the relationship between computer use and levels of education and household income in order to understand how complex impairments influence computer use. Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

Working-age adults with lower levels of education and household income are less likely to use computers at both home and work than are those with higher levels of education and household income.

Private Sector use of computers, including trends

Use of computer in private sectors took place in Afghanistan after 2002. Private sector uses computers in every field. Non- government Organizations (NGOs) uses computers to make arrangements for salaries and all their managements. Small private industries are using computers for their industrial activities and businesses. Computer is also used in trade plus in export and import. Computer is also used in the field of health tremendously, Doctors discharges their duties using computers for the purposes of medications and research. In addition, to those computers is often used by educational, vocational trainings, and capacity building institutions though private sector. The statistics of computer usage in the private sector in Afghanistan are not available. Related organizations such as Liwal and Afghan Computer Center (ACC) are making their efforts to find out this information.

The importance of the role of governments in developing countries

In most of the developing countries more specifically in that least developed countries Government has control over the economic, social and legislative segments of the country rather giving more opportunities for the private sector. To align ourselves with this idea we can take the example of Afghanistan. Afghanistan did not have elected government since 1979-2002. During that period of time, people of Afghanistan were living under hardship they were very isolated from the rest of the world because, they were not given the right to elect their head of the state. There has Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi always been civil war in the country for the last two and half decade. There were no schools in most parts of the country moreover, there was not at all industrial development, computer technology, communication and there was no stage of development, whatever was existed was dominated by the government. But, fortunately now things has changed dramatically. Afghanistan has elected government along with elected parliament, and newly adopted constitution which encourage and provide the opportunities for private sectors to play a key role in different facets of development.

ANALYSIS

Trends over past ten years

Despite some progress made in the area of information and communication technology since December 2001 (when the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan came into way of life). The Government of Afghanistan has moved towards consolidating its power, bringing security and a national unity. Today, a new constitution is helping the country to providing a balanced government. For the first time in history, Afghanistan has an elected President. Since 2002, we have seen high record in school enrollment of about 5 million students, and several accomplishments in the health sector (particularly in the vaccination campaigns). As the high levels of voting in the Presidential elections attested, the Afghan people now have high expectations from the new Government to deliver service on security and reconstruction, and to do it based on the rule of law and a commitment to transparency and accountability. Afghanistan has once again restored its status in the international community, which in turn has reaffirmed its support for the reconstruction efforts through generous pledges committed at the Donor Conference in Berlin in 2003 and in London in 2005. The Human Development Index value calculated Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi nationally puts Afghanistan at the miserable position of 173 out of 178 countries worldwide. President Hamid Karzai introduces the first National Human Development Report for Afghanistan. Since 1990, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) has produced annual global Human Development Reports as analytical and policy tools designed to promote the concept of human development. Each year, these reports calculate the Human Development. Index and rank about 175 participating countries; unfortunately, Afghanistan has not been included since 1996 due to the unavailability of data. Afghanistan now has an Afghanistan National Development Strategy (ANDS) established in December 2005, which has been sponsored internationally and has been adopted by the General Assembly and Security Council of the United Nations. ANDS covers the development of all sectors including hunting, agriculture, industry, services, knowledge, technology and includes everything that is going to help the country to develop.

The missed potential due to slow speed of public policy

The missed potential due to the slow speed of public policy keeps the country away from progress. Slow speed public policy also affects the nation’s social, economic, and political development. Due to continued destabilization in the country, particularly in a post-conflict situation, Afghanistan needs strong governance, familiarization of technology, illiteracy and with full support by regional and international level to stabilize and restore strong active public policy. The reasons for the slow speed of public policy formulation are as follows:

o Weak governance. o Lack of education and skill in the field of communication technology. o Lack of current updated technology and equipment. Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

o Lack of moderate financial resources’.

Reasons for the missed potential

The reasons for the missed potential in Afghanistan are as follows:

Lack of security: There has been lack of security for long time in Afghanistan. Even though there is an elected President and an elected Government, the situation in the country is still vulnerable. There are numerous threats, suicides, destruction, kidnapping and killing of people are going on in the country. People fear to send their kids to school, especially girls because of the extremists, who does not believe in girls education other than religious education, and that is why they threaten and throw bombs in schools.

Lack of sustainable energy: The real reasons for lack of sustainable energy is weak financial recourses at the national level and no water usage for power supply. There are not enough dams to produce power in Afghanistan. The other reason is the lack of modern technology to turn other natural resources into energy. Existing resources and facilities are destroyed because of war. There is only a six hour power supply every 24 hours in Kabul. Therefore, it is difficult for the public to have the advantage of using computers and the use of other technologies. There are some more factors which are involved in as follows:

 Lack of capacity:  Economic vulnerabilities.  Low national income per person.  Slow implementation of national development strategies.  Difficult conditions of donors with their pledges, and slow progress on implementation of commitments Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

made by international community.  Poor governance by national and international level.  Weak management and lack of accountability.  Gender inequality and women’s participation in all economic and social segments.

Short-comings in public policy due to low priority allocated to this sector

There is visible increase of ICT in Afghanistan since 2002, but lack of capacity in the government is the major concern for the implementation of economic and social development programs, include ICT.

One should mention that such an initiative in order to be effective has to be undertaken at the regional and international level, particularly regional institutions for Asia– Pacific such as (ESCAP) and other regional economic entities, because Afghanistan is newly developing country and does not have advanced technology. This may be very helpful in enforcing the law of cyber-space in the country, particularly in the areas of protection of individual rights against theft of personal data or any harmful use of ICT.

Loss of potential for the developing world

If we look deeply into the situation of under developing countries, there are some particular reasons in Afghanistan for the loss of potential.

 Lack of security and stability. Lack of security is one of the biggest; concern in the country in every aspect, particularly for the implementation of national development strategy and encouragement of the private sectors in the area of communication technology. Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

 Lack of equipment  Lack of skills.  Lack of energy  Lack of good governance and transparency.

Loss of potential for Afghanistan is a big risk. Government and the private sector have to work together for achieving the goals of a national developing strategy with the cooperation of the international community. .

The need for vigilance over vulnerabilities and dangers

The country is in need of a high standard of communication and information technology to achieve the goals and targets of the national development strategy, as in the countries emerging from conflict which have lots of difficulties and issues in the area of communication and information technology.

In last three decades, Afghanistan lost whatever it had, therefore, all economic sectors been destroyed, particularly communication and information system has been collapsed in the result of foreign interference, wars, conflicts, over the years 1979-2002. Before 2002 Afghanistan had almost nothing, especially in the area of communication and information. There was no Internet system available in the country at all.

In year of 2002, Afghanistan, started a new life and took baby steps, fortunately people can feel some of the communication technology such as Internet, digital telephones, radio and television. As per statistics the digital phone are increased.

Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Total 13,000 17,000 92,000 171,000 280,000 Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

The wireless telephones service began in 2002 and now it has 793, 342 accounts.1

The above number of telephone accounts is based on the 30.9 million population which every person has 0.034 access to communication and information technology. One of the biggest problems in the country is illiteracy, knowledge, and loss of sustainable energy.

The health situation in Afghanistan is amongst the worst in the world because of underlying poverty, the economic and institutional disruption associated with the protracted war and the near total collapse of the public sector. Some limited progress has been made in recent years in extending health service provision. However, it is almost very dependent on the foreign assistance program.

There is a significant shortfall of food production that has been caused by the severe drought in year 2000. Grain surplus areas such as northern Afghanistan experienced a total failure of the wheat crop.

Latest estimates from vulnerability monitoring by WFP indicate that around 933,000 are at risk from severe food shortages. Based on the estimates of numbers of people who cannot secure minimum food requirements in 2000, even after liquidating all their assets and exhausting opportunities for wage labor.2

CONCLUSION

1 www. moc,AF,Gvt 2 http://www. humanitarianinfo.org Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

Specific recommendations, with explanation of importance of each

A country which emerges from conflicts should take strong and effective steps to improve the information and communication system of the country, and encourage private sector investment in this area. There is no doubt that the economical situation of Afghanistan is very critical: (a) most of people are living under extreme poverty, (b) the infrastructure of the country is completely distorted as a the result of 25 years of continuous war, foreign interferences, and internal conflicts, and (c) there are still a lot of challenges for the country.

The government and people of Afghanistan are facing challenges in different aspects, especially in the area of the economical and social development to achieve the goals and target of the MDGs, and ANDS. One of the biggest challenges is the lack of security. Lack of security, suicide attacks, kidnapping, killing of innocent people, and destructions of schools, are the biggest concerns of the people. For this reason, the private sector which is one of the best sources of investment in the area of communication and information technology is not willing to take risks, and come forward to make investments in Afghanistan.

Information technology would also be very effective in ensuring good governance, national unity, law enforcement and capacity building by using Internet. In order to achieve the goals which are mentioned above, the government of Afghanistan should make its maximum efforts as follows:

 To disseminate information from national institutions such as the government, the parliament, political parties, nongovernmental organizations, etc. there is need for an advanced information and communication Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

technology system. This may improve the status of the governance and democracy in the country as well as better visibility of budgetary tools which is important for a poor country like Afghanistan. Thus, democracy, which is still a new concept and popular participation, would be better rooted in the country.  To undertake reviews of existing science and technology, and innovation policies involving representatives from industry, academia and public sectors, to determine whether they effectively contribute to achieve national development goals, especially in the context of meeting the Millennium Development Goals.  To strengthen science and technology education, both at the earliest level in educational systems, as well as at the tertiary level is very important. Special efforts should be made to encourage young people to study sciences and technical subjects, taking into account gender balance with joined efforts of national government and private sectors.  To provide information and extension services to small and medium-sized enterprises on sources of technology import, and in terms of advices, financing, consultancy and marketing, through the establishment of productivity promotion centers and other technology mediators, special attention should be given to communication and information technologies at the national level.  To consider fiscal measures and other incentives, to encourage researches and development in the private sector and joint projects between private companies and public researches and development institutes, and tap into regional and international researches and development networks.  To promote the abilities of women to produce, access, diffuse and use sciences and technology knowledge Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

and participate in the digital society through equitable access to science education at all levels, affordable access to information and communication technologies, and participation in national sciences.

Minister of Communications of Afghanistan, Amirzai Sangin strongly believes that increasing access to information and communication technology (ICT) will not only help further strengthen national unity among Afghans, but also render the reconstruction efforts better organized. Mr. Sangin said, “There is a belief among the youth that if they can learn a little bit of English and have some computer skills they can get a good job. This is wrong; they need to understand the importance of the ICT. Communication technology is playing a crucial role in the advancement of the society. It will create increasing awareness in society, including among key government officials, in particular education officials. We are in the age of information and Afghanistan should be part of the information society, ICT should be a part of everyday life in Afghanistan”.

There are now 1.2 million cell-phone owners in the country. The possibility for people to communicate was a great opportunity to understand each other. About the state of inadequate infrastructure in the country, the Minister recalled that four years ago only 20,000 telephone lines had existed in the whole country, and that it had not been possible to have international telephone conversations and that Internet has been completely banned. Comparing the current situation to that time, Mr. Sangin underlined that major progress that has already been made with many private sector companies being licensed as providers of Internet and mobile phone services. According to the Minister, by the end of 2006, the wireless fixed telephone lines will reach 285,000 allowing not only voice, but also data exchanges throughout the network, connecting hundreds of thousands of households Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi around the country.1

As Afghanistan turned a new page following the removal of the Taliban, the Transitional Government, in remarkable speed and with the help of the United Nations and international financial institutions, was able to outline its "vision" for social and economical development in the National Development Framework, in April 2002.

Afghanistan is at stage where it seems like it is newly an independent country, but the fact is that it was declared independent decades ago.

The reason that Afghanistan was left behind other countries is because of the lack of technology, education, development, and the main reason was there was not a strong government to support and develop the country.

Need for speedy action in the current context of globalization

Although Afghanistan has numerous difficulties and facing challenges in many areas which are mentioned above. In order to speed the action in the current context of globalization the government needs to take into account the following steps:

A. To undertake reviews of existing science, technology and innovation policies, involving representatives from industry, academia and public sectors, to determine whether they effectively contribute to achieve national development goals, especially in the context of meeting the Millennium Development Goals: B. To strengthen science and technology education, both at

1 Official website of Communication Ministry of Afghanistan Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi

the earliest level in education systems, as well as at the tertiary level. Special efforts should be made to encourage young people to study science and technical subjects, taking into account gender balance C. To adopt special measures to retain and attract young and talented scientists and technologists, and establish close ties with expatriate scientists and engineers. D. To consider fiscal measures and other incentives to encourage researches and development in the private sector and joint projects between private companies and public researches and development institutes, and tap into regional and international researches and development networks. E. To launch information campaign in collaboration with industry association to ensure that technology awareness diffuses from the leading technology performers to other. Leads performers could be selected as models to highlight how technology can be improved or developed locally. F. To provide information and extension services to small and medium sized enterprises on source of technology imports, and in terms of advice financing consultancy and marketing through the establishment of productivity promotion centers and other technology incubators. G. To prove national mechanisms for the promotion of knowledge based and innovative enterprises through various interventions and incentives such as the establishment of venture capital, science parks and technology incubators H. To promote the abilities of women to produce, access, diffuse and use science and technology knowledge and participate in the digital society, through equitable access to science education at the all levels, affordable access to information and communication technologies, and participation in national science, technology and innovation systems. Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi Afghanistan Mohammad Wali Naeemi Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco

FLAG OF COUNTRY Y

ANGOLA by Mara Judith A. Francisco

INTRODUCTION

Measuring 1,246,700 km², Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country, comparable in size to Mali, and nearly twice the size of Texas1. Of the 15.9 million people that inhabit the country, 53 % are economically active, with a life expectancy of 45 years for men and 48 for women. There are 3 major ethnic groups: the Ovimbundu, the Bakongo and the Bantu. The Ovimbundu are largely concentrated in the fertile central highlands and are approximately 37 % of the population. The Bakongo constitute approximately 13 % of the total population. The Bantu live largely in Luanda, the capital, and its hinterland (Provinces of Bengo, Malange and Kwanza Norte) and constitute approximately 25 % of the population. Estimates for 2006 revealed that 43.7 % of the population is between 0-14 years (2,678,185 males and 2,625,933 females). The estimates further stated that 53.5 % of the population is between 15-64 years (3,291,954 males and 3,195,688 females), while 2.8 % are 65 years and over (148,944 males and 186,367 females)2. 1 CIA World Factbook, https://www. cia. gov/cia/publications/factbook/index. html 2 CIA World Factbook, https://www. cia. gov/cia/publications/factbook/index. html Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco

Due to the two decade-long armed conflict, less than half the population lives in rural areas now. Having fled from conflict areas, they now flood cities such as Luanda–the capital–, Benguela, Huíla, and Bengo, and overstretch their service provision capacity. In 2005, the United Nations World Urbanization Prospects estimated that 54.6 % of the population lived in urban areas.

Also due to the conflict, the country now has an impoverished economy and a serious disparity in income distribution. Its vast oil and diamond reserves, more than adequate rainfall and potential agriculture resources do not benefit the people as the war caused massive devastation in the country’s financial and social infrastructure. As a result, Angola has low economic indicators. For example, 40 % of the urban population is poor. The country’s GDP per capita is $1,700; its total GNP is $6,707,340,000. The last couple of years have seen an increase in economic growth, which unfortunately has not translated itself in individual social growth as the country’s Human Development Index is 0.445, one of the lowest in the world. Moreover, 70 % of the population lives below the poverty line1.

Low indicators are also present in the country’s education statistics: the rate of enrollment in tertiary education was only 0.7 % in 2006. Females accounted for 43 % of the total of students enrolled, a definite improvement from the previous years. Primary education, which is compulsory and goes on for a period of four years, has also seen an increase in female enrollment in comparison to previous years: females accounted for 39 % of students enrolled. Secondary

1 Human Development Report 2006, http://hdr. undp. org/hdr2006/statistics/indicators/122. html Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco education has an even better enrollment rate for females, being that females were 45.3 % of students last year1.

Continuing with the positive trends, educational expenditures currently constitute 2.8 % of the national budget. Although this is still a small percentage, it is a definite increase over the past years, when most of the national budget went to defense expenditures. Advanced education, which once had the thinnest budget of all educational areas, is now graced with 0.57 % of the entire education budget. Other areas include primary education, which receives 0.80 %, and vocational training, which receives 0.21 %. All other educational services are lumped together and receive 0.55 % of the national budget2.

ICT in Angola

Angola Telecom is the major supplier of telecommunications services in Angola. Until 2004, services such as international long distance communication, domestic service phone plans and mobile service providers were operated under a strict monopoly. Nowadays, these services enjoy partial competition, with Internet provider services enjoying a high level of competition. Until 1996, there were not any organizations offering full Internet connectivity in Angola. Two initiatives became involved in networking, namely Angonet and RIDSANG. Angonet was a project coordinated by the Agostinho Neto University, with funds from UNDP. Angonet was an e-mail and Information Network system for NGOs, that began as a Development Workshop project in 1994. Both projects promoted e-mail and electronic information as an alternative communication tool among NGOs and partners in development. Unfortunately, the

1 CIA World Factbook, https://www. cia. gov/cia/publications/factbook/index. html 2 Angolan Ministry of Finance, http://www. minfin. gv. ao Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco operation and promotion of new information technology faces many hurdles due to the poor condition of telephone lines, the elevated cost of international calls, and the irregular power supply. A war-devastated infrastructure has resulted in very few serviceable links outside the capital city. The capacity of the telephone landline network is about 54,000 lines in Luanda and 35,000 outside the capital. However, close to 20,000 lines are dead due to the strife. In Luanda, the telephone network is in operable conditions but it is difficult to obtain new lines, and many exchanges are running at over capacity, resulting in a poor call completion rate. Notwithstanding the steep improvements made after 1993, when peace finally arrived in the country, landlines still need much attention and improvement.

Statistics of landline telephones in the last 5 years

Year # of lines1 2005 6 per 1,000 people 2004 7 per 1,000 people 2003 6 per 1,000 people 2002 6 per 1,000 people 2001 6 per 1,000 people 2000 5 per 1,000 people

An early analogue cellular phone network, operated by Telemovil, was in use in Luanda in the early stages of the installation of wireless service. Due to the limitations of the public network, Telemovil was used by most cell phone subscribers, and rapidly expanded its network to the provinces of Cabinda and Benguela. The cell phone subscription market is now shared by Movicel, Unitel, and

1 International Telecommunication Union, http://www. itu.int/home/index. html Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco

Angola Telecom, which operates a GSM network in a joint venture with Portugal.

Statistics of cell phone subscribers in the last 5 years

Year # of subscribers1 2005 69 per 1,000 people 2004 53 per 1,000 people 2003 24 per 1,000 people 2002 10 per 1,000 people 2001 6 per 1,000 people 2000 2 per 1,000 people

An active process to modernize the telecommunications infrastructure was set in motion after the 4th National ICT Workshop, held in 1998. This workshop resulted in the elaboration of the Angolan Telecommunications White Paper, which described the strategy of the telecom sector until 2004, including the extensive digitalization of services in Luanda and around the country, with the use of a Japanese loan in the value of $7 million USD. The White Paper also contained a plan to improve International traffic, which is made possible by a satellite that is also used for television signal distribution. A satellite-based network linking Luanda, Cabinda, Benguela, Namibe, Lubango and Ongiva was to be financed through the Caisse Française de Development, in a joint venture with France2. However, the extremely poor state of the telephone network, even in the capital, where the public exchanges are saturated, severely hampers the widespread advance of ICT reforms.

1 International Telecommunication Union, http://www. itu. int/home/index. html 2 Angolan Ministry of Science and Technology, http://www. angola- portal. ao/MINCIT/ Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco

The Internet service provision market has experienced a significant boom since the 4th ICT Workshop, when initiatives such as Angonet dominated the market. Today, in addition to Angonet, four private sector ISPs resell Internet access to the public. Netangola was the first ISP, followed by Nexus, and most recently by SNET and Angola Telecom. Snet focuses mainly on providing businesses with Web hosting and Internet access. While Angola Telecom has plans to act as the ICT hub for the country, further financial resources are needed to implement a service with full national coverage. Such increase in ISPs has signified an increase in the number of persons with Internet access as shown below:

Statistics of Internet service subscribers in the last 5 years

Year # of subscribers1 2005 12 per 1,000 people 2004 12 per 1,000 people 2003 6 per 1,000 people 2002 3 per 1,000 people 2001 2 per 1,000 people 2000 1 per 1,000 people

ISPs price breakdown

Snet2: Offers dial-up access for $25 a month Web hosting for $20 a month (up to 50 MB) Web hosting for $50 a month (up to 100 MB) International domain registry for $75– 2 yrs

1 International Telecommunication Union, http://www. itu. int/home/index. html 2 Snet Angola http://www. snet. co. ao/default. aspx Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco

Angola Telecom1: Installation Activation ADSL – Basic Plus ADSL – Basic Plus 256 Kbits - $ 112. 50 $ 67. 00 256 Kbits - $ 112. 50 $ 67. 00

Monthly subscription Monthly subscription ADSL – Basic Plus ADSL Basic Plus 256 Kbits - $ 111. 60 $ 168. 75 512 Kbits - $ 167. 85 $ 281. 25

Nexus2: Dial up access, up to 56 kbps Time/Duration $/Month 1 - 3 Months 20. 00 4 - 6 Months 19. 00 7 - 9 Months 18. 00 10 - 12 Months 17. 00 24 Months 12. 50

Netangola3: Dial up, up to 56 kbps: $20 a month Business account, with domain name and networking, dial up, up to 56 kbps: $1,200 a year

Luanda has the highest amount of household computers per capita. In 1997, when Internet access first became available, there were 2 computers per 100 people4. In 2004, that number jumped to 38 personal computers per 1,000 people5 and is still increasing. Cities like Benguela, Lubango, Huíla, 1 Angola Telecom, http://www. angolatelecom. com/AngolaTelecom/PT/home/-Servico+Internet/ 2 Nexus, http://nexus. ao 3 Netangola, http://www. netangola. com/cgi-bin/inst_servicos. cgi 4 Lando, João António, A Revolução Informática. Luanda: Lelo, 2000, p22 5 World Bank, http://devdata. worldbank. org/ict/ago_ict. pdf Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco and Malange have similar numbers, yet no precise data has been compiled on them. Computers are available in moderation both in the informal market, one of the busiest hubs of economic activity in the country, and at licensed businesses. They are sold as luxury commodities, their prices--which are expressed in American dollars in a country where the official currency is the Kwanza-- going up to $1,000 for a desktop and more than $1,500 for a laptop. Not very affordable, considering that average salaries are between $400 and $600 for workers without and advanced academic degree, and $900 to $1,000 for workers with an advanced academic specialization.

Unfortunately, statistics for the private sector use of computers are not available. Progressively more Ministries, banks, and NGO’s are seeking representation in the worldwide web, and many have working websites and registered domain names. The private sector, however, even more so with medium and small enterprises, seems to make little use of the Internet. Many businesses have poorly monitored e-mail addresses with domains such as yahoo and hotmail, and no targeted information about their services and activities online. That could be due in part to the high cost of DSL/broadband access, as evidenced by the price tables above. Apart from Ministries, which have a budget for this purpose, businesses do not have a website, and many small enterprises such as clothing and convenience stores do not seem to make use of computers. Many of their signs are carefully hand written, as are notices and receipts. Angola telecom is the business with the heaviest virtual presence, with information and even billing available online.

Public policy in the field of ICT

The Ministry of Science and Technology opens its draft ICT policy document, Estratégia para o Desenvolvimento das Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco

Tecnologias de Informação em Angola (Strategy for the Development of ICTs in Angola), with a sense of urgency to

“[. . . ] define a way of social development where the acquisition, storage, processing, transmission, distribution and spread of the information that favors the creation of knowledge and the satisfaction of the citizens' needs play a central role in economic activity, in the creation of wealth, in the improvement of the quality of life and of cultural practices.”1

Referring to the need for the country to enter and be an active player in the information highway, the Ministry recognizes that there does not yet exist an aggressive ICT policy. The Ministry states that the absence of an ICT policy in the country will not stop the introduction and spread of information and communication technologies, but that it will slow the process of turning such technologies into rentable human and logic means. In that connection, the Ministry of Science and Technology states that even in the absence of a national ICT policy, the country must take steps in order to: a) Facilitate the import of information and communication equipment and technology; b) Once acquired, ICT shall be used to harmonize national information on agriculture, health, the national market and climatic changes; c) Standardize and maintain the acquisition of ICT through public investment.

1 Angolan Ministry of Science and Technology, Estratégia para o Desenvolvimento das Tecnologias de Informação em Angola (Strategy for the Development of ICTs in Angola) pag. 3, http://www. angola- portal. ao/MINCIT/PublicacoesTodos. aspx Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco

The document, which constitutes a breakthrough in the field of ICT policy in the country, partly addresses some of the vulnerabilities in the current situation. Angola sorely needs to develop modern, technically efficient and cost-effective technological infrastructure. This need is felt at the terrestrial, aerial, domestic and international levels, and is of critical importance to establishing communication services in the country. ICT has a critical role in the rebuilding process of the country’s other infrastructure, as communication is an enabling factor and a pre-condition to the development and maintenance of roads, utilities, government administration and social services. Another major vulnerability is the little government engagement in the deregulation of the telecommunication market in the country, as well as the lack of aggressiveness in political institutions in the support of local initiatives aimed at offering Internet services. The lack of well-spread ICT access in an increasingly connected world constitutes a heavy impediment to the spread of democracy, and liberty of expression.

The key vulnerability in the current situation, however, has to be the fact that the general pattern of approach to the need for ICT in the country does not highlight local specificities; it is marked by the universality of the knowledge accumulated in this area. Lando, who wrote Revolução Informática (Information Technology Revolution), one of the first comprehensive books that cast a light on the situation of Angola with regards to ICT, suggests an approach to access to ICT, which he divides into physical and financial access. Physical access refers to the proximity the prospective user has to physical infrastructures and applications in a well- defined geographic space1. Financial access refers to the capacity of individuals and communities to sustain the cost

1 Lando, João António, A Revolução Informática (Luanda: Lelo, 1999) pag. 234 Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco of ICT services2. This approach needs to go a step further in order to target the broader spectrum of the population. For example, there needs to be an approach to content access, which would translate into guaranteeing that users in a developing country such as Angola are able to find content that is in a language they understand, and that is relevant to their daily needs. Some attention should also be given to interactive access, which would translate into making the flow of information more balanced, that is, not just from industrialized countries to Angola. The country needs to be able to produce its own content for its own local production. Information alienation should be diminished as ICT access is increased.

On the other hand, the Ministry of Science and Technology’s Strategy for the Development of ICT in Angola is not without its shortcomings. For example, it focuses on the import of ICT without laying out a plan to, in the long term, making the transition from importing ICT to producing it at the national level.

Moreover, there is a focus on standardizing the acquisition of ICT though public investment, but not a plan to, in the long term, preventing such a practice from distorting the development of the national ICT market. Such a practice may strip the national ICT market of the features of a free and open market and may hurt the natural market balance through over subsidizing.

The bleak reality is that the lack of a well-established ICT policy results in a tremendous loss of potential for the country. ICT could play a central role in the reconstruction and development of Angola in the sense that it could foster the making of healthy popular decisions by providing the scientific information people should have in order to

2 Lando, pag. 236 Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco improve their standards of living. To that effect, scientific knowledge should be spread after being made comprehensible and presentable for at least the part of the population capable to contribute in the daily decisions affecting the whole population.

Furthermore, without ICT, the country misses out in the field of international cooperation. Absent is the scientific knowledge that would have a ripple effect in all areas, such as education and the more basic spheres of human life, such as housing and sanitation. Without an integrated ICT policy, the country will not benefit, as do information-based societies today, from the exchange of information across a large range of users and applications, which foresees the merging of differing technologies and networks allowing for the provision of advanced services. With such a structure in place, in addition to the provision of advanced services not possible before, there would be a marked increase in efficiency and cost-effectiveness in comparison to traditional mechanisms.

CONCLUSION

Angola must endeavor to end poverty, underdevelopment and marginalization. ICT is a critical tool in that struggle. Our government must make an effort to make significant changes to our policies, institutions and resource allocation. We must use a broad ICT policy to enable Angola to benefit from Information and Communication Technology by becoming part of the global information society while preserving its cultural heritage. The following steps would play a significant role in this endeavor:  To utilize ICT to punctually improve government and social services and foster the rebuilding process, increase employment, create a Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco

vibrant private sector, reduce poverty and support underprivileged groups.  To adopt, both at the regional and national levels (SADC, PALOPS), policies that will foster the use of broadband Internet access as a way to stimulate social, cultural and economic development.  At the national level, promote the adoption, on the part of educational institutions, of ICT policies. This policy should set out to use ICT in teaching, learning and in the wider context of the educational institution. It should reflect the aims and values of the institution, articulate the contribution that ICT makes to learning, and describe how ICT will be used on a day-to-day basis. Moreover, schools, as the micro propellers of ICT development, should plan actions aimed at fulfilling their ICT policy.  Institutionalize ICT: enable institutions to function in a virtual environment. Endow financial and educational institutions with the ability to offer e- services and encourage the placement of information on their respective websites.  Implement a gradual ICT “take-over”: In order to make data services more broadly accessible, equip post offices or other venues (suitably located, massively utilized and well-know) with Internet terminals and enhanced communication capabilities by an established deadline. These upgraded post offices would then offer services including e-mail, high-speed Internet access, bill payment and e- banking.  Last but not least, adopt a legal framework for the protection of virtual activities and transactions. That would be an important measure to safeguard the privacy and financial safety of virtual users and to Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco

protect the very the framework of legitimate virtual financial transactions.

The steps described above would highly benefit the country in the current context of globalization. We must bridge the digital divide and make an effort to develop a strong and competitive national system with the twin objectives of addressing the country’s socio-economic problems and of raising the competitiveness of our industry to face the challenges of globalization. Due to the long lasting armed conflict, acquisition of technology was geared towards military material, which led to an uneven concentration of technological availability and expertise in the country: today, there is a somewhat proficient defense technological capability, but there is a poor accumulation of technology in most civil sectors. In light of this situation, it is necessary to build infrastructure in order to interact with the outside world. Angola is lagging behind and remains marginal to the dynamics of the global economy. As we do not yet have fully functional national technological innovation systems nor an ICT-based industrial sector, we must make it a point to transfer knowledge from more advanced economies to us, being that we still face the task of building an effective innovation system that can support and facilitate the uptake, creation and diffusion of knowledge and technological capabilities.

In the wake of globalization, Angola, as a developing country, faces two constraints: it cannot avoid globalization on the one hand, and on the other hand, it has to learn to cope with its adverse effects, and has to learn to insulate itself from the adverse results of the country’s insertion in the world economy without risking an autarchy. ICT is one of the tools that can offer knowledge of, and protection from, the forces of globalization. Moreover, one of the great ironies of the globalized world is that strengthening local Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco cultures requires interaction with the international culture. Every country and culture wishes to protect its national heritage and values from external influence, but in this new networked world, defending basic values means having the wherewithal to produce and project one’s culture, which in turn requires a sophisticated multimedia infrastructure. In achieving socio-economic objectives, it is of great importance that there be a linkage among the various actors in the country, such as government agencies, the industrial sector, private and non-profit organizations, multinational organizations, and the local people.

Understanding the basics of the information revolution is necessary for the well being of the country. Economically and not only, advances in ICT are contributing to a wave of global change, pushing people to create new relationships and new forms of organization that facilitate their use of new technologies. Countries that anticipate and respond innovatively to these new threats and opportunities will excel during the coming decades; those that fail to anticipate and innovate will perform poorly. Failing to acknowledge and adopt ICT will be akin to failing to build roads and factories during the early stages of the industrial revolution, or akin to having high tariffs and high taxes while trying to attract foreign investment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Angola Telecom Website http://www. angolatelecom. com/AngolaTelecom/PT/home/-Servico+Internet

Angolan Ministry of Education, Website http://www. educacaoangola. org Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco

Angolan Ministry of Finance, Website http://www. minfin. gv. ao

Angolan Ministry of Science and Technology, Website http://www. angola-portal. ao/MINCIT/

Angolan Ministry of Science and Technology, Estratégia para o Desenvolvimento das Tecnologias de Informação em Angola (Strategy for the Development of ICTs in Angola), available at http://www. angola-portal. ao/MINCIT/PublicacoesTodos. aspx

CIA World Fact book, Website https://www. cia. gov/cia/publications/factbook/index. html

Human Development Report 2006, Website http://hdr. undp. org/hdr2006/statistics/indicators/122. html

International Telecommunication Union, Website http://www. itu. int/home/index. html

Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, Website http://www. iana. org/root-whois/index. html

Kamal, Ahmad, The Law of Cyber-Space: An Invitation to the Table of Negotiations, Geneva 2005

Lando, João António, A Revolução Informática. Luanda: Lelo, 2000

Netangola, Website http://www. netangola. com/cgi- bin/inst_servicos. cgi

Reuters Alertnet Foundation, Website http://www. alertnet. org/db/cp/angola. htm Angola Mara Judith A. Francisco

Shrestha, Govinda, Utilization of Information and Communications Technology for Education in Africa. UNESCO. Available at http://www. unesco-iicba. org/Resouces/Monographs/-ICTs_for_Education. pdf

Snet Angola, Website http://www. snet. co. ao/default. aspx

United Nations World Urbanization Prospects, Website http://www. un. org/esa/population/publications/WUP2005/2005wup. htm

Virtual Angola, Website http://www. angola. org. uk/facts

The World Bank, Website http://web. worldbank. org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/AN GOLAEXTN/0,,menuPK:322496~pagePK:141159~piPK :141110~theSitePK:322490,00. html and http://devdata. worldbank. org/ict/ago_ict. pdf Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

Flag of country BENIN by Andry Olivier Zinsou

INTRODUCTION

Size and area of country

Benin is located in West Africa and covers a land area of 112,622km (43 884sq miles) and constitutes a long stretch of hand perpendicular to the Coast of the Gulf of Guinea. It is bordered on the north by Burkina Faso and the Republic of Niger, on the east by the Federal Republic of Nigeria and on the west by the Republic of Togo. With a 124 kilometers long coastline, it stretches north to south some 672 kilometers while its breadth extends 324 kilometers at the widest point. It is above two-thirds the size of Portugal.

Population size and diversity, including rural to urban ratio

Population size: Pop size: 8. 2M inhabitants. Largest cities with population: Cotonou 650, 660 (2000 estimate) Porto-Novo232, 756 (2000 estimate) Parakou144, 627 (2000 estimate) Djougou132, 000 (1994 estimate) Population growth rate: 2003 2.73 % (2006 est. ) Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

Diversity Ethnic groups African: (42 ethnic groups, the largest being Fon, Adja, Yoruba, and Bariba):99 percent Other: 1 percent Languages Languages: French (official), Fon and Yoruba (most common vernaculars in south), Bariba and Somba (most common vernaculars in north), indigenous language Urban/rural distribution: Share urban: 39 percent (2003 estimate) Share rural: 61 percent (2003 estimate) Religious affiliations: Indigenous beliefs 52 percent; Roman Catholic 21 percent; Muslim 20 percent; Protestant 4 percent; Others 3 percent

Per capita income, including income distribution statistics

GDP (purchasing power parity) : $8.931 billion (2006 est. ) GDP (official exchange rate): $4.622 billion (2006 est. ) GDP - real growth rate: 4 % (2006 est. ) GDP - per capita (PPP): $1,100 (2006 EST. ) GDP ranking: 144th (2004) GDP - composition by sector: Agriculture: 32.8 Industry: 13,7 %, Services: 53,5 % Labor force: 3,211 Million (1996), Unemployment rate: unavailable Population living below $1 a day ( %), 1990-2004: 30. 9 Population living below $2 a day ( %), 1990-2004: 73,7 Population living below the national poverty line ( %), 1990- 2003: 29. 0 Inflation rate (consumer prices): 3 % (2006 est. ) Budget: revenues: $836.8 million expenditures: $1.064 billion; including capital expenditures of $NA (2006 est.) Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

Agriculture products: cotton, corn, cassava (tapioca), yams, beans, palm oil, peanuts; livestock Exports: 0 kWh (2004) Industries: textiles, food processing, construction materials, and cement Industrial production growth rate: 8. 3 % Electricity – production: 82 million kWh (2004) Electricity - consumption: 576.3 million kWh (2004) Electricity - imports: 500 million kWh (2004)

Education statistics, by level, by age, by gender

Literacy rate in 1998: 37 % Almost universal in urban areas but weak in rural areas. 86 % for men and 64 % for women Adult literacy rate (15 and older), 2004, 47.9 %, female (15 and older), 2004 : 23. 5 Combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools, female ( %), 2004: 41 Combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools, male ( %), 2004:for male: 53 % Youth literacy rate (female rate % ages 15-24), 2004: 33. 2 Youth literacy rate (female rate as % of male rate), 2004: 1 Net primary enrollment - female ratio ( %), 2004: 72 Net primary enrollment - ratio of female to male, 2004: 0.78 Net secondary enrollment - female ratio ( %), 2004: 11 Net secondary enrollment - ratio of female to male, 2004: 0.49 Gross tertiary enrollment - female ratio ( %), 2004: 11 Gross tertiary enrollment - ratio of female to male, 2004: 0.25

Percentage of education outlays in overall budget, including trends Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

Education Expenditure as Share of Total Government 91-02 1991 1992 1993 35 37 36

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 16.8 16.8 16.1 19.5 19.7

Education Expenditure as Share of GDP 1998-2002

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 3.0 3.1 3.2 4.1 3.7

Computer statistics, by numbers, by geographical distribution, including trends

That information is not well known because of a lack of statistics regarding the computer distribution. However, we know that the digital divide (the gap that exists between the haves and the have-nots in Internet, World Wide Web and ICTs use worldwide) between rural and urban areas is very large. In fact 90 % of the overall Internet users are located in Cotonou and Porto-Novo, the biggest towns of the country. The only fact known is that in 1999, 1.5 per 1000 people had personal computers. This number might have significantly increased today due to the recent tax cut policy on ICT products.

Computer cost comparisons with reference to average incomes

By the time Benin was connected to the Internet in 1995, owning a computer was considered as a luxury because of the high cost of the product. In 1995, a new 486 or Pentium computer could cost you between $ 2,000 and $ 3,000 and Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou appropriate speed modems (14.4 or 28.8) while the average minimum wage a Beninese worker was about 16,000fcfa a month (nearly $ 27).

In 1997, you had to pay $ 2,000 in average to own a computer. In comparison, the minimum salary in Benin was $ 35 only.

Today, thanks to a new tax cut policy regarding ICT’s, the cost of these items is much lower but is still too high for an average Beninese. After 2000, the minimum monthly professional wage was 25000fcfa ($ 36) and covered civil servants and other professional employees, but the vast majority of the population had a very much lower income. According to the UN Development Programme, 55 % of the urban population lived on an income of less than 180fcfa/day ($ 0.30/day), while the rural population has even less purchasing power, with an average income of 155fcfa/day.

ISP statistics, by numbers, by costs per hour, including trends

The Beninese telecommunications network is still poorly developed. In fact, Internet users were 10 per 1000 in 1999. It is mainly an analogue network, although some components are being digitalized within the context of various current projects. The situation in the central and northern regions is even more difficult. In the large towns, the telephone exchanges are largely saturated, and it is a miracle today to able to get a telephone line in Cotonou, the economic capital. There is a waiting list of thousands of unfilled orders. In reality, a larger number of Beninese has telephone access through many private tele-centers and public telephone booths. In 2002, there were over 60,000 fixed network subscribers (fixed mobiles, and conventional fixed lines). The GSM mobile network, launched in May 2000, has Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou grown rapidly. Although telecommunications are still largely under State monopoly, certain sectors such as the cellular system have actually been liberalized since 1997. Apart from Libercom, an OPT subsidiary; three private mobile telephone operators (Télécel, Bénincell and Bellbenin) have been approved. Today, there are 76,300 telephone main lines in use and 386700 telephones – mobile cellular in Benin (2005)

The domestic telephone system of Benin is a fair open wire with a microwave radio relay and cellular connections. The international country code of Benin is 229, and the satellite earth station is Intelsat-Atlantic. Fiber optic submarine cable (SAT-3/WASC) provides connectivity to Europe and Asia. In 2001, Benin implemented a 450 km fiber optic link (the country is approximately 750 km long) between Cotonou and Parakou, the main town in the north. The country has two AM radio broadcast stations, nine FM stations and four television broadcast stations.

The Republic of Benin connected itself to the Internet in November 1995 following the sixth summit of French- speaking countries. The connection was made available to the general public in February 1996. The international link initially had a capacity of 64kbps via France Radio et Cables, and it was later upgraded to 128kbps through assistance from USAID's Leland Initiative. The Benin telecommunications authority, Office des Postes et Telecommunications (OPT), is the entity managing the national Internet Gateway. The service that hosts the node is "Center Beninpac" which was created to manage the X. 25 network of the country. The OPT is the top level domain administrator for “.bj”, and it also operates as an Internet service provider. The following Internet connectivity charges apply for the OPT ($ 1.00 = 632.61fcfa as of June 1999): Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

Dial-up access without Mailbox: connection cost of 4950fcfa ($7.82), and the user had to pay for browsing 51fcfa ($ 0.08) per minute by calling special number like green lines in France. Dial-up access with MailBox: connection cost of 20,064fcfa ($31.71), plus a monthly cost for the MailBox of 10,032fcfa ($15.85) and 51fcfa ($ 0.08) per minute while using the green line. Leased line (below 28 kbps): connection cost of 150,018fcfa ($ 237.09) and a monthly subscription cost of 400,026fcfa ($ 632.21). Digital Leased line (Class C): connection cost of 1,000,032fcfa ($ 1,580.48) and a monthly subscription cost of 2,800,050fcfa ($ 4,425.28)

AUPELF-UREF, a Francophone educational entity within the framework of the REFER project has installed a server hosted in a center called "Center Syfed-Refer". The Center has more than 950 clients, 64 percent of which are students, 33 percent researchers or lecturers, and 3 percent civil servant or educational institutions. The center initially accessed the Internet through the X. 25 network, but since November 1997 it has used a dedicated line at a contract price. The cost is 4,500fcfa ($ 7.10) per three months for students and 7,500fcfa ($ 11.85) for researchers and lecturers. Since January 2002, the OPT-managed national bandwidth is 2 mb/s. Thanks to the development of numerous cyber-centers across the country but especially in Cotonou and Porto-Novo, the cost of the Internet is much more lower today. For example, an average hour of Internet connection today costs only 500fcfa ($ 1) and 1000Fcfa ($ 2) for 3 hours! Some places are even cheaper. The cost of international calls is also lower thanks to the Internet phone called “net phone” locally. A call from Cotonou to the USA will cost you only100Fcfa ($ 0.20) per minute on average. In comparison, the same call could cost you more than 700fcfa ($ 1.40) per minute with a conventional line! Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

Several other private Internet service providers are also operational, and they offer access through switched telecommunications network (STN), local radio loop, or VSAT satellite. There is very low residential access. For example, OPT, the main access provider, had only about 3,500 STN subscribers in 2002; the total number of STN subscribers, including private service providers, is estimated to exceed 6,000, a relatively small number. However, because of the large number of tele-centers that offer Internet services (more than 100 in Cotonou), the overall Internet population is well over 300 000. By comparison: in 1997, within the framework of a study, we could count approximately 1,500 subscribers, about 900 of whom were from the Campus Numérique (ex-Center-Syfed-Refer) cyber- center, 500 from OPT, and less than half a dozen access points (Lohento, 1997).

The Internet is much more developed in Cotonou, although there are a number of access centers and subscribers in many towns in the interior of the country. In 2002, the Government established about 20 community tele-centers offering Internet services. According to another study carried out (Lohento, 2000), it is estimated that 90 % of Internet users are in Cotonou. Benin has 867 Internet hosts (2005) and counted 425,000 Internet users in 2005. The current lack of points of presence in other towns makes access in the interior much more difficult. Non-governmental organizations are quite active in popularizing new technologies, and have played a large part in their national promotion, resulting in the progressive emergence of social appropriation.

The computer use by the private sector grew faster than the public sector. Initially in 1997, only a small number of privileged companies like hotels, international companies or Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou private local companies had an access to the Internet. Then Tele-centers were created by international organizations and NGOs. NGOs played an important role in distributing Internet access to the population through learning sessions for the personal of the public administration . But a few years later, the tele-centers became a commercial activity. Especially in the capital, many tele-centers appeared and offered basic Internet connection. Today these commercial tele-centers are the main providers of Internet access in Benin. More private businesses have Internet access now.

Public policy details, with actual texts of government policy documents

1-Regulation of the press The following institutions are responsible for press regulation: The Ministère de la Communication et de la Promotion des Technologies Nouvelles (Ministry of Communications and Promotion of New Technologies) (MCPTN) MCPTN’s mission is “to define and implement Government policy on information, communications, posts and telecommunications, and new information and communications technologies” in accordance with Article 1 of Decree 2001 444 of November 5, 2001, which defines its functions, organization and operations. It was established in May 2001,and is concerned with regulation of the press, especially with regard to management of public and private media. However, its responsibilities sometimes conflict with those of HAAC.

The Haute Autorité de l’Audiovisuel et de la Communication (Communication and Audiovisual Authority) (HAAC) HAAC is an institution independent of all authorities, political parties, associations and pressure groups. It was Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou instituted by the Constitution, and established on July 14, 1994. HAAC’s mission is to guarantee freedom and protection of the press, and of all mass communications media, in respect of the law; it ensures respect of ethics in the news, and equitable access to State media by all political parties, associations and citizens (Article 142 of the Constitution of December 11, 1990). HAAC’s jurisdiction also extends to spectrum management, and the issue of private radio and television licenses (Article 11 of Organic Law 92-021 of August 21, 1992).

L’Observatoire de la Déontologie et de l’Ethique dans les Medias (Observatory of Deontology and Ethics in the Media) (ODEM): ODEM is a non-profit association composed of representatives of journalists, publishers, audiovisual media managers, and civil society. It was launched in 1999, at the initiative of various professional associations. According to Article 4 of its statutes, its objectives include: - ensuring that deontology and ethics rules are respected by the media; - protecting the public’s right to “free, complete, honest and accurate” information; - protecting press freedom; - ensuring journalists’ safety when exercising their profession, and guaranteeing their right to investigate freely; - encouraging and ensuring professionalism in journalistic practice.

ODEM is recognized in its role by the various media stakeholders in Benin. It has a website, and has adopted a “Code of Ethics for the Beninese Press”, which is available on line.

Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

2- New information and communication technology policy To date, there’s still no operational entity with specific responsibility for NICT regulation. MCPTN and OPT tended to take responsibility for telecommunications regulation, but this came under criticism since the liberalization of some telecommunications sectors like the mobile telephone network, and the Internet dial-up service. To resolve telecommunications-related conflicts, multiparty commissions are sometimes created around OPT and MCPTN. The Autorité de régulation des Postes et Télécommunications (Posts and Telecommunications Regulatory Authority) was created by Decree 2002-003 January 31 2002 to resolve telecommunications-related conflicts. However, to date, the Regulatory Authority has not officially been created yet.

But since February 12, 2003, Benin has had a national NICT policy. Developed by AGENTIC (Agency for the Management of new Information and communication Technologies), this document is the result of the collaboration of the Civil Society and the different governmental agencies. The document adopted by the Government Council of Ministers, in its session of Wednesday, February 12, 2003 is entitled “Déclaration de politique de promotion des Nouvelles Technologies de l’Information et de la Communication (NTIC) au Bénin” (Declaration of the New Information and Communications Technologies [NICT] Promotion Policy in Benin).

The national policy document is structured in six main parts: the preamble, the summary of the NICT environment in Benin; the policy objectives; the strategic objectives; the action plan; and practical guidelines with a brief look at funding. The preamble recalls the important role that NICT can play in development efforts, and it shows the Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

Government’s interest in NICT promotion, as seen in the Government action plan, and the national study on long term strategies (Benin 2025 – Alafia).

The “institutional framework” covers the current reforms in the telecommunications sector with a view to its liberalization and modernization; the future creation of the posts and telecommunications regulatory body; the importance of developing the audiovisual sector (television, radio broadcasts) with particular reference to coverage for the whole country; and the poor national electricity coverage. The “policy objectives” section describes the hopes for NICT development by 2025: “it will enable the whole Beninese population to become ‘cybercitizens’, effectively participating in the management of democracy, having the necessary knowledge and know- how to be involved in globalization, and to bring to the international market innovations of their endogenous genius. It will facilitate strengthening and optimization of all the sectors related to human life in Benin, thus generating a prosperous and competitive economy as well as well-being for individuals and the nation. It will also contribute towards reaffirming national solidarity and solidarity with neighboring countries. ”

Five central points have been identified around which these technologies will be developed: institutional and regulatory policy, human resource, infrastructure and sectoral application development, and cooperation. Twenty-two strategies, related to these five central points, are then listed. In particular, “the promotion of professional organizations and associations involved in the area of NICT”; the creation of a support fund; extension of the electrical network; equipment of all schools and universities; development of free software; strengthening administrative information Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou systems; development of regional, African and international cooperation, particularly with Asian countries.

The “Action Plan” recommends 154 diverse activities, on the basis of previously listed strategies, and covers practically all the sectors of national development. In order to achieve the policy vision, it should be progressively implemented until 2025. Finally, the “programme and funding guidelines” section stipulates that the participation of all national stakeholders (state, civil society, and private sector) and development partners is a prerequisite for the implementation of activities: “Funding of the various activities is the responsibility of the

State and the private sector respectively. The creation of a relevant and motivational institutional framework would stimulate the private sector’s interest in operating in the field…. Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs), who plan to operate in the sector, will also be involved in implementing this action plan. The Government will also seek technical and financial support from development partners to ensure the comprehensive implementation of this policy. ” Perusal of the document shows that the plan covers most of the challenges, and still leaves room for activities that were not initially planned. The role and importance of NGOs is recognized.

On a sectarian basis, The Sustainable Development Networking Program (SDNP) of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), whose global objective is to contribute towards the promotion of NICT in Benin, has helped to implement several sectoral activities. With a few exceptions, sectoral activities are mainly linked to training, computerization of organizations, and their connection to the Internet. Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

In the environmental Sector, The Agence Béninoise pour l’Environnement (Beninese Environmental Agency), in collaboration with UNITAR (United Nations Institute for Training and Research), and various other institutions such as SDNP, established the Environmental Information System on the Internet (EISI)). All the stakeholders in the sector (civil society, private sector and public authorities) are involved. In the Public Governance Sector ,apart from training personnel from a number of public institutions, a government information system was launched, one of whose entry points is the Government website; a guide of administrative procedures for civil service users was put online (by the Cellule de Moralisation de la Vie Publique [Committee for the Moralization of Public Life]), etc. There are also sites created by political parties, communal, legislative and presidential election candidates, etc. For example, a special site was created during the 2002 municipal elections. In the health sector, The best-known activities are training, computerization of health organizations and implementation of information networks and systems, such as the Système National d'Information et de Gestion de la Santé (National System of Health Information and Management) (SNIGS). In the Agriculture and Rural Development Sector, despite its capital importance for the national economy, there are few NICT-related activities in this sector apart from those linked to training, increasing NICT awareness, and the connection of some organizations to the Internet. There are initiatives such as the creation of the RUNetwork rural information system within the context of cooperation between Germany and the Institute National de Recherche Agronomiques du Bénin (National Institute of Agronomic Research in Benin) (INRAB); the establishment of the Réseau Béninois des Téléservices Communautaires (Benin Network of Community Teleservices) set up by the Songhai NGO; the provision of Internet services to rural stakeholders; and the Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou establishment of an information platform by the NGO BorgouNet.

In the education sector, worth mentioning here are the activities of the Campus Numérique Francophone (ex-Center Syfed-refer) in Benin, which offers NICT training and access for the teaching staff and students, as well as distance training in different disciplines; the establishment of the Center d’Enseignement à Distance-Bénin (Benin Distance Education Center) in collaboration with the World Bank; the activities of the Réseau Africain de Formation à Distance (African Distance Education Network) (RESAFAD) in Benin; and the connection of some establishments to the Internet. Various NGOs are also active in this area. In the Electronic Commerce Sector, Electronic commerce is at an embryonic stage in Benin. In fact, not only do few organizations attempt electronic transactions, but sale and after-sale processes are still at a primary stage (standard, and slightly dynamic use of the web; banks are still not integrated; payment is not electronic; sales are made almost exclusively abroad, etc. ). Amongst the rare activities of this nature, there is the sale of Beninese legal documents by Afrikinfo, the Songhai Center’s sale of products (food and household products, etc. ) to potential Beninese clients, and the sale of pharmaceutical products by the Sobeplant company. As its contribution towards the development of e- commerce, SDNP organized some activities, and collaborated with the Conseil National des Chargeurs du Bénin (National Council of Beninese Shippers) (CNCB); a site to this effect has been under construction for some time as a trade point Benin project. To finish, in the cultural area, as well as training, and the connection of some organizations to the Internet, many cultural web-sites have been created.

ANALYSIS Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

Trends over past ten years, including speed of change

In 1995, Benin connected itself to the Internet to cover the “Sommet de la Francophonie”. At this time, it was one of the first countries in the region to get this service. A few months later, the Internet was made available to the population. In 1996, owning a computer was considered as a luxury that few people could afford and the Internet service itself was even more expensive. An average person in Benin could barely afford a few hours of connection per month. The administration in general was not connected, and few people in the country knew how to operate a computer. The benefits of the Internet for a developing country were not well known by the population. The Internet was mostly used by graduating students who used the Center Syfed-Refer to communicate with friends; and some international organizations including some private enterprises. The press was still paper based. In August 1997, Benin had only 1,500 subscribers and about 600 Internet users.

In 2000, the Internet is known by the literate population but its potentials and applications are recognized and mastered only by few people. The use of Internet is basic (e-mail and surfing). Benin had no policy regarding information technology yet. The national operator OPT had the monopole on the offer of leased lines but lost his monopoly in the mobile communication sector. Thanks to a number of international projects, Internet awareness was growing and country’s debit had risen from 64 kbits/s to 128 kbits/s. The journalists and NGOS discovered the Net. They also set up intranet networks for the administrative body, some state institutions and a number of private institutions. Benin had 6,000 subscribers and four times more Internet users with the appearance of tele-centers in 2000. Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

In 2003, Benin finally understood the importance of information technology and adopted a policy entitled “Declaration de politique de promotion des nouvelles technologies de l’information et de la communication’’. (Declaration of the new information and communications technologies Promotion in Benin), which was drafted after consultation with stakeholders in the field, and civil society in general. However, like we said earlier, at that time the ICT was not included in the government priority especially because they didn’t drain as much capital and investment as other development projects could. Moreover, there was still no operational entity with specific responsibility for NICT regulation. But since 2000, the hardware tax has been reduced, so it was cheaper to buy a computer as well as computer accessories. The mobile network has extended since its launch in 2000 and the number of mobile subscribers is double that of fix subscribers.

Benin really discovered the importance of ICT’s when it adopted the UNDAF 2004-2008 plan. This plan aims to reduce poverty. ICT is now considered as a tool and a prerequisite to development. ICT’s are seen now as part of a poverty reduction strategy supposed to promote economic growth.

Today, Benin has a president who understands the meaning and the potential of the new technologies. Benin enjoys the enviable position of being the only country on the continent that has a direct link to Africa One, the AT&T fiber optic submarine cable that encircles Africa. The vision created by the newly elected President is to construct and deploy state of the art broadband networks to offer value end user services for the country. It will be an open system for interconnection and access. At the moment, there are 76,300 land lines and 386,700 mobile cellular users in Benin. The country counts now approximately 425,000 Internet users for Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou a population of eight million people. But the job to be done is so enormous and the problems facing Internet’s development so numerous that all those actions appears to be not insignificant but insufficient.

Vulnerabilities in current situation

The high illiteracy rate is definitely a vulnerability for Benin. In order to exploit the Internet, you need to be able to decode the information displayed in front of you. However, in 1998, only 37 % of the population was literate and most of them could understand and read only the French language. Although French is the second language of diffusion of information on the Internet, it represents only 3 % of presence on the Internet against more than 90 % of English.

The ignorance of the Internet by a large portion of the population represents another brake to the development of the Internet in this country. In fact, 90 %of the people who use the Internet are students, teachers, researchers and some big hotels and banks on the market. So, the Internet is known only by people who speak French and most of the people who go online come from Cotonou, the capital. The Internet is perceived more like an instrument of consumption than of diffusion.

More traditional media such as newspapers and radio continue to dominate, and advantages offered by the Internet such as databanks are hardly used; more than 75 % of information that circulates between institutions in the country is in printed form.

Weak and inadequate telecommunications infrastructure in Benin has resulted in a concentration of lines in principal urban areas and extremely long delays in establishing new lines. It’s almost a miracle to get a phone line in Benin. OPT Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou lines already in place are at the saturation point, with frequent breakdowns. Obviously in these conditions it is often difficult for Internet users to access the OPT server.

In addition to the relatively inefficient service offered by the OPT, its tariffs are very high since it holds a monopoly, which brings in much-needed cash to the state. For this reason there is resistance to privatizing the OPT and liberalizing the sector, which would no doubt help bring tariffs down.

Other factors that discourage use of the Internet in Benin include the extremely high cost of equipment needed to go online in comparison with the buying power of the average citizen. The minimum salary in Benin is 25,000fcfa per month (about $42), and a middle manager earns between 100,000fcfa ($168) and 200,000fcfa ($336). A computer costs about 1,200,000 fcfa (about $2,000). Other prohibitive factors include lack of choice of equipment on the market and lack of competent technicians to service it. The great majority of schools, colleges and university departments do not have computer equipment, so the majority of students do not know how to operate one. Libraries (where they exist) at learning institutions do not have the equipment either. Although there are about 30 computer schools and institutes in the country, they only serve to introduce students to the technology rather than provide specialization or computer engineer training. A special bureau established to promote use of computers, established by the government, only carries out administrative tasks and has not yet taken any concrete actions.

Electricty power outages in Benin can last from several minutes up to several days; they are especially frequent during rainy periods, which total six months of the year. The damage to computers often caused by power cuts is not Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou covered by the Société Béninoise d’Electricité or insurance companies, despite promises to the contrary. At the Center SYFED/REFER at the university campus at Abomey-Calavi, among other public access points, these persistent problems have discouraged frequent use of the technology despite the initial enthusiasm of students and staff.

The government, which has since developed a policy to promote new communication technologies, has not yet given to ICT’s their place in the promotion of progress in Benin. Faced with more pressing emergencies and priorities such as structural adjustment and the fight against poverty. The Government is still favoring development cooperation programmes that help bring in needed capital and investment.

Short-comings in public policy

Legislation relating to the written press seems confused and sometimes obsolete. According to the journalist Emmanuel Adjovi (Adjovi, 2001), it is “governed by a series of scattered legislative texts, in which one is easily disoriented. Sometimes, due to a confusing system of abrogation, one does not even know which standard is applicable. The status of private news agencies and press distribution services is defined nowhere; neither is that of online newspapers, or the shortcomings of audio-visual law, or a repressive penal code. As a basis for the penalties set forth in the law of August 1997, the legislators used the law dated June 30, 1960. The legislators maintained the prison sentences, but the minimum fines were multiplied one-hundred-fold, and the maximum fines were doubled at the least.”

Regarding the NTIC in Benin, the authority supposed to regulate it and resolve the conflict between the MCPTN and the OPT has not yet been created. Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

There are some online newspapers that do not have paper editions (le Cordon, l’Araignée) and HAAC has neither the relevant legislation nor the means to enforce regulations in this area.

The management of the liberalization of the mobile phone network is still under discussion due to problems of licensing, fair competition, etc.

The bad management of free frequencies (around 2.4 ghz): this frequency band is currently used by some wireless operators and there is often interference.

The management of the “.bj” domain needs to be reevaluated.

The policy objectives appear too optimistic, and seem to grant too much power to NICT. We should not forget that the rate of illiteracy in the French language is more than 60 %. A large number of these promises might become reality but it is doubtful that all Beninese will become cyber-citizens by 2025.

The regulation of NICT (especially mobile telephones and Internet services) has often been criticized: in effect, although some telecommunications services have already been liberalized, they still seem to be under the control of Government institutions. Appeal has often been made to the institutions regulating the press, but they seem incompetent in the telecommunications area.

Loss of potential for the country

The Internet is becoming the depository of the global knowledge. No country can expect to fully develop without Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou investing in it. And because it is cheaper than all the traditional means of communication, the Internet appears to be a very convenient tool for developing countries, particularly Benin, but it could also create a larger gap between developed countries and poor countries like Benin if they don’t take advantage of it.

In the educational sector, the Internet could be used to develop exchanges between higher learning institutions through e-Learning, thus reducing the cost for many students who choose to study abroad each year due to a weak higher educational system. The country would also avoid losing their potential future leaders and gain a more qualified work force devoted to the development of the country. Internet also represents a big source of knowledge in a country where the university library, one of the country’s biggest libraries, counts no more than 27,000 books and revues.

Moreover, the Internet offers employment and business opportunities through e-jobs and e-businesses. This sector is growing fast in developed countries. Benin could use this tool to reduce its high unemployment rate and create new business opportunities for the country.

By computerizing its various administrative services, the Beninese administration could offer a more efficient and more reliable service and contribute to a faster economic growth.

Faster service means faster treatment of data and less waiting time for the population, the investors and their economic partners. This would also allow the living population abroad to be aware of the situation of their country and guarantee the transparency of the government. Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

The access to general information through the Internet is easier and more affordable for rural populations. It is a way for them to exchange their experiences and diverse informations about the production process, the up-to-date prices of the products on the international market and to organize their business and life in general. For example, Soufiane Gao, a small business owner in the town of Malanville in northern Benin said, “Everything has changed in the way I do business, for example the inventory – it used to take me three to four days to do by hand what I do now in a half-day. Thanks to the computer I know what I have in stock, what customers are buying, and it is easy to track my business from day to day,”

Always in this direction, information technology is a tool to modernize the production in the agricultural sector allowing the country to increase its productivity and competitivity in the regional and international markets as well. They would then be able to concentrate their production on exports to create more sources of income for the economy. By industrializing the agriculture, Benin would be able to diversify its production and sell not only natural products but also transformed products ready for consumption that generates more added values for the economy. With the ICTs, production levels can be increased as a result of increased access to information such as new techniques for growing local crops, assistance in the conversion to the production of cash crops, and the benefits of crop rotation. The most commonly benefit in this field is the availability of daily market prices for crops whereby farmers can obtain the appropriate market price for their product.

There is no better way to promote tourism than the Internet. We are able to discover any country from any part of the world today. The Internet is like a gigantic village where everyone can share their culture and traditions and sell their Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou country to the World without spending enormous sums for advertisement. By developing tourism, we create resources that could be used to reduce poverty. In fact, this sector is the first industry in the world with 600 million jobs and it represents 10 % of the world overall GDP today.

The Health Department could benefit seriously from these advanced technologies. They would improve medical consultations and make surgeries more reliable through “telemedicine”, a revolutionary way to operate on a patient through computerized assistance without being there physically. In fact, most undeveloped countries have insufficient medical installations to perform complex medical surgeries. The reasons are the high cost of these machines but the personnel is also often unqualified to perform such surgeries. So highly qualified surgeons can now perform those surgeries from the North and heal people in the South. The local medical cadres. can also update their knowledge and communicate with their colleagues in conferences thanks to the resources that the Internet provides.

But none of these opportunities could happen anyway if there is not enough energy to run all the above suggested programs. In fact, the serious lack of energy observed in Benin will result in deep economic and social problems. Today, the Beninese population suffers an unbelievable 12- hour blackout every day! Without electricity, there is no Internet access, no possible industrialization or modernization. Every factory would be closed or run without making any benefits. That represents a considerable amount of lost jobs for a country considered as one of the poorest countries in the world already. Moreover, the communication network is neither competitive nor is it available. The cost is too high. One has to notice that energy lacks because the demand is higher and the supply too weak. That means Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

Benin is not able to control a massive increase of the demand, although it is a sign of economic development. Considering that business is meant to create welfare and make profits, the investors would take their money and invest in places where there are sure to recover their investments and to make benefits.

Overall, the privileges offered by the new technologies cannot be ignored by any developing country and Benin needs to be aware of that.

CONCLUSION

ICTs contribute clearly to the development of undeveloped countries and to poverty reduction. Thus, Benin needs to take important measures to benefit from this technology.

First of all, the country needs to address the literacy problem by reforming the education sector. In a country were only 37 % of the population is literate, it’s impossible to generalize the use of the Internet efficiently. Special learning programs must also be created especially for the illiterate adult population. The government should insert a data-processing course in every public school and even make it part of the national final examination to force the students to master the computer.

An appropriate legal framework should be established that would define the legislation regarding intellectual property related to the ICTs, address the issues on legal recognition of data facts and on e-commerce. Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

The regulation authority of the NITC has to be established. Currently, there is no regulation authority to resolve the conflicts between the MCPTN and the OPT.

Regarding the telecommunication sector, the liberalization process needs to be achieved. A program to cover the total national territory of mobile phone lines needs to be established and the deployment of wireless networks to connect rural areas needs to be promoted. Benin should also promote “Public/Private” partnerships and private initiatives.

Online newspapers should be promoted . It would be cheaper for the population to access information and reduce production cost for newspapers by saving them the paper and the printing process.

Following the scission of the OPT into two separate entities (Benin Telecoms SA and La Poste du Benin SA), a regulatory authority should be promptly created to prevent competence-related conflicts in the telecommunication sector.

Furthermore, Benin should strengthen cooperation between civil society organizations, firstly between NICT specialized associations and secondly between the specialized associations and other development organizations as well as international organizations. NGOs have played a big role in promoting the use of the Internet among the population through projects initiated by ORIDEV or ISOC Benin for example, so did a certain number of international organizations like SNDP, Leland and SYFED-REFER. There is also no current national network of NGOs participating in NICT; such a network could play an important role in lobbying the state and international partners, and in knowledge exchange. Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

Everything in the NITC is relying on electricity. Thus, an energy strategy should be implemented. Benin should increase its energy production capacity and decrease the cost by prompting private operators to invest in the sector, by realizing the interconnection between CEB and NEPA and finally building the hydroelectric barrage in Adjarala. The energy sources should be also diversified.

Regarding higher education, distance learning like the CED should be promoted by the government. The creation of public access points to connect to the Internet should also be promoted to allow low-income population to benefit from the Internet.

The Internet should be introduced in the Beninese administration. The administration would be more effective and the Internet would facilitate accessibility. This would enable the administration to establish an intranet network, and to exchange information between the different ministries. But above all, the population would be able to operate transactions online, such as paying the bills, the taxes, requesting a visa or any other public service.

Considering that there an Internet connection is not possible without a phone line, the OPT must be more reliable and deliver phone lines in a shorter time. The cost should also be decreased to grant access to a larger range of the population access to the Internet and other communications services.

Finally, Benin should create a cyber-city. A cyber-city is an industrial complex created from the ground and equipped with the latest telecommunications technology destined to attract international investors. It has had great success in countries where it was established, for example in Malaysia. This complex would give employment to thousands of Beninese and mobilize the local construction industry. Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

Need for action in the current context of globalization

Globalization is a reality today. It offers great opportunities but is also a potential danger for developing countries. A UNDP specialist said that ICT is so important that if not mastered and incorporated in developing countries poverty- reduction strategies, it could create a deeper gap between North and South in today’s competitive market.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) Alice Marie Stanback, PH D, Technology and its impact on the welfare of women in Benin http://www. msrfamilyreunion. com/Technology %20and %20its %20Potential %20Impact %20on %20Women %20in %20Benin. pdf)

(2) Benin Government, Ministry of Culture and Communications, Plan de développement de l’infrastructure d’information et de communication du Bénin, 2000-2004 », Cotonou, 1999

(3) Benin Government, MCPTN, Bénin 2025 : une société de l’information solidaire, épanouie et ouverte : Politique et Stratégie nationale des NTIC : Bénin 2025, une société de l’information solidaire, épanouie et ouverte, http://www. strategiesntic. org

(4)Yayi Boni, agenda pour un Benin nouveau http://www. yayiboni. com/docs/programme. pdf

(5) Observatoire de la déontologie et de l’éthique dans les medias, « Etude sur l’Etat des médias au Bénin 1988-2000 » : ODEM, Fondation Friedrich Ebert, Cotonou, 2001 Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

(6)UNDP, Human development report 2006 http://hdr. undp. org/hdr2006/statistics/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_BEN. html

(7)CIA, The world fact book-Benin https://www. cia. gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bn. html

(8) UNDP, Benin UNDAF 2004-2008 http://altair. undp. org/access-file. cfm? cat=327&doc=1822&file=1679

(9) APC. ORG, Civil society and national ICT policy in Benin http://africa. rights. apc. org/research_reports/benin_fr. pdf

(10)The USAID Leland initiative in Benin, Country assessment and implementation strategy: Benin http://www. usaid. gov/regions/afr/leland/ben596. htm

(11)Theophile Vittin UN Non-Governmental liaison service, Development of the Internet in Benin, http://www. unsystem. org/ngls/documents/publications. en/voices. africa/number9/7vittin. htm

(12) Development Data Group, the World Bank. 2006. 2006 World Development Indicators Online. Washington, DC: The World Bank http://publications. worldbank. org/ecommerce/catalog/product?item_id=631625

(13) Human Resources and Democracy Division/Office of Sustainable Development/Bureau for Africa/U. S AID, Budgetary impact of Non-Project assistance in the Benin Andry Olivier Zinsou

Education sector, A revue of Benin, Ghana, Guinea and Malawi, http://pdf. usaid. gov/pdf_docs/PNABX880. pdf

(14) Ken Lohento, Development Internet NTIC en Afrique. http://www. iafric. net

(15) Ken Lohento, Radioscopie de la connexion du Benin a l’Internet. http://www. iafric. net/benin/index. htm#

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ICT Information and Communication Technology. NGO Non Governmental Organization GDP Gross Domestic Product ISP Internet Service Provider OPT Office des Postes et Télécommunications NICT New Information and Communication Technology SDNP Sustainable Development Networking Program CED Centre d’Education a distance Colombia Julián G. Hernández

Flag of country Map of country

COLOMBIA by Julián G. Hernández ______

INTRODUCTION

Size of country

In 1830 the end of “La Gran Colombia” created what today we know as Ecuador, Venezuela and Colombia. With an area of 1,139,000 km2, Colombia is one of the biggest countries in Latin America. Its location, on the northwest of South America, gives the privilege of being the only country in the region with coastlines on both oceans the Pacific and the Atlantic. In addition, Colombia possesses three main mountains that come from the split of the Andean Mountains in limits with Ecuador and that give the country a wide variety of weather, landscapes, ecosystems, and diverse products such as fruit, vegetables, flowers, coffee etc.

Population size and diversity, including rural to urban ratio1

According to the Colombian census made in 2005, there are 45,421,609 Colombians in the world, 42,090,502 living in the national territory and 3,331,107 abroad. According to the National Administrative Department of Statistics DANE movement from rural to urban areas was very heavy in the

1 http://www. dane. gov. co/censo/ Colombia Julián G. Hernández middle of the twentieth century, but has since tapered off. The urban population increased from 31 % of the total population in 1938, to 57 % in 1951 and about 70 % by 1990. Currently the figure is about 77 %.

Composition of Population (Table No. 1) Mixed 54% White 40 % Black 5 % Indigenou s 1 %

Per capita income, including income distribution statistics1 (Table No. 2)

Allocation of GDP by Sector, Colombia, 2006 Agriculture 12 % Industry 35.20 % Services 52.80 %

GDP (US $ billions), 2004 97.7 GDP (PPP $ billions), 2004 325.9 EducationGDP statistics,per capita by (US level, $), 2004by age, by gender 2,176.02 GDP per capita (PPP US $), 2004 7,256.0 (Table No. 3) Adult literacy rate ( % ages 15 and older) 88.4 Adult literacy rate ( % ages 15 and older) 92.8 Youth literacy rate( % ages 15-24) 94.9 Youth literacy rate( % ages 15-24) 98

1 https://www. cia. gov/cia/publications/factbook/print/co. html

2 Human Development Report 2006 In: http://hdr. undp. org Colombia Julián G. Hernández

Adult literacy rate(female rate % ages 15+) 92.7 Adult literacy rate(female rate as % of male rate) 1 Youth literacy rate (female rate as % of male rate 1

Percentage of education outlays in overall budget, including trends1

(Table No. 4) Public expenditure on education (as % of GDP) 2.4 Public expenditure on education (as % of GDP) 4.9 Public expenditure on education (as % of total 14.3 Public expenditure on education (as % of total) 11.7 Current public expenditure on education, primary 42.2 Current public expenditure on education, secondary 29.1 Current public expenditure on education, tertiary 12.9

(Table No. 52) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Internet 1,154,00 2,000,11 2,732,20 3,865,86 4,738,54 Users in 0 3 1 0 4 Colombia Internet penetration (per 100 2. 7 4. 6 6. 2 8. 6 10. 4 inhabitants )

1 Ibid 2 Information Development Report 2006. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. UNCTRAD United Nations. Colombia Julián G. Hernández

(Table No. 61) Number of Connected Sectors2 computers In Use Out of use to Internet

Public 258,906 241,336 17,570 79,113 Business Industry 315,330 296,471 18,859 93,066 Service Industry 38,894 36,318 2,577 12,362

Schools 145,455 126,767 18,688 31,458 Universitie s 74,097 71,732 2,365 49,468

Homes 933,454 876,833 56,621 471,411

Total 1,766,136 1,649,457 116,680 736,878

Computer cost comparisons with reference to average incomes (Table No. 7) Prices to 2007 Official Salary in Colombia (in Colombian Pesos) 484,500 Official Salary in Colombia (in U. S. Dollars) 220 Average Prices of computers (Colombian Pesos) 1,500,000

Average Prices of computers (U. S. Dollars) 700 Relation between computers and incomes 3. 18

ISP statistics, by numbers, by costs per hour, including trends3

1http://www. dane. gov. co/files/investigaciones/tics/tics. pdf DANE Colombia. Census 2001. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. Colombia Julián G. Hernández

(Table No. 8) Cab XD RDSI le Sat Opt. SL Wire Users Tel. % % % % % less Man uf. 4,152 84. 3 9. 3 3. 3 3. 5 3. 7 0. 1 0. 9 Trad e 10,536 82. 3 8. 2 6. 1 2. 7 2 1. 2 0. 4

Serv. 3,023 89 4. 6 5. 3 1. 5 2. 9 0. 1 0. 5

Fact. 16,057 94. 2 0. 6 2. 8 1. 4 1. 1 0 0. 5

Sch. 3,732 82. 3 7. 5 5. 2 3 2. 5 1. 2 0. 6

Univ. 213 42. 3 23. 9 7. 5 13. 6 24. 4 2. 8 8. 9 N Publ. 1,963 85 8. 2 4. 4 2 5. 6 A. N A. N N Hom. 45,271 93 NA. A. N A. N A. A. N A.

(Table No. 91) Hosts (2006)2 581,877 Host per capita Per 100,000 people (2004) 448,761 Internet Service Providers (2006) 18 Internet users: (2005) millions 4. 739

Prices (Table No. 10) 200 2004 Colombia Latin America 0 Internet costs - 18. 60 25. 30 31. 50 ($ month)

1 https://www. cia. gov/cia/publications/factbook/print/co. html 2 Source: IANA: Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Source: ITU (Internet host data: Network Wizards, RIPE Source: CIA World Factbook, December 2003 Source: Netcraft Linux server survey Colombia Julián G. Hernández

Public policy details, with actual texts of government policy documents (Table No. 12) Original Name (Spanish) English Agenda de Conectividad, E-agenda Headway to Camino a la sociedad del the Information Society. conocimiento Conpes Doc. No. 3072 Gobierno en línea E-government Portal Public and Programa Compartel Communitarian Internet Laboratories Computers for Schools. Computadores para educar Conpes Doc. No. 3063

ANALYSIS

The Colombian public policy on IT is implemented through three programs: the E-Agenda of Connectivity, Compartel Program and Computers for School.

In 2000 the Minister of Communications with the collaboration of other governmental bodies launched the IT Policy called “the e-Agenda: the jump to Internet”. Throughout the Conpes Document 3072, the Colombian government compiled and set out the IT Policy, considered not only earlier discussions and projects drafted during middle-nineties, but also new challenges encouraged by the global community. The document itself represents the actions oriented to promote social and economical development in Colombia through Informatics and Technology policies. Campaigns, for instance, were designed in order to bolster the access to both computers and Internet, Colombia Julián G. Hernández especially in rural areas, where the technological gap is still remarkable.1

Analyzing the aim of the IT Policy in the community, the government and the productive and industrial sector, it was necessary to speed up their incipient advance during the previous years, characterized in part by very few Internet providers, their high prices and, the low access to computers, considered them as a luxury good for homes, schools and, universities, privileged tool for only medium and big industries and in most cases an old and obsolete equipment in the bureaucratic and public governmental offices.

In this scenario the purpose was to close the technological gap by heading specific policies and changes such as strengthening the IT infrastructure, regulation of prices in order to make them more affordable, reinforcement of education policies oriented to achieve better standards on IT knowledge and, develop and implement both the e- government and e-economy. As the chart below shows the outcome has been bold and the necessity to achieve better IT indicators in the three above-mentioned sectors demands to universalize the use of IT knowledge, to raise the amount of competitiveness in the productive sector, to modernize the public and governmental institutions and, to socialize the access to Informatics.

UNCTAD mentions through “The Information Economy Report 20062” that the fall in the participation of unskilled workers and the rise of skilled workers are noticeable in Colombia, where there has been an evolution in the

1 The Colombian Commission of Regulation for Telecommunications (CRT) reported that at the end of 2003 the Internet access penetration in rural areas hardly achieved 10 % of the total, which is a low participation rate, considering that at 2003 the total index of Internet users represented only 6 % of the Colombian population. 2 www.unctad.org Colombia Julián G. Hernández composition of the labour market. Some improvements and investment in technology have led a higher productivity.

Regarding the advances during recent years, up to 2005, Colombia has achieved 10.4 % of Internet users, which represents an important growth compared with the end of the twentieth century when it hardly represented only 2 %. The current process shows important developments even though the offer of services is not enough to stimulate and increase the demand. Almost 70 % of the Internet users are connected through dial up and the leftover (30 %) through broadband such as optical fiber, cable or xDSL.

Regional distribution of Internet users by dial up in Colombia (Table No. 13) City % Bogota 45. 48 Medellin 17. 56 Cali 12. 45 Barranquilla 2. 95 Bucaramanga 2. 58 Pereira 1. 5 Cartagena 1. 64 Manizales 1. 3 Armenia 0. 73 Other cities 5. 21 Other municipalities 8. 6

Regional distribution of Internet users by broadband (Table No. 14) City % Bogota 61. 87 Medellin 10. 05 Colombia Julián G. Hernández

Cali 11. 76 Barranquilla 5. 25 Bucaramang a 1. 25 Pereira 1. 42 Cartagena 1. 29 Other cities 7. 12

As of these days, the Colombian IT Policy has been rated by the Center of International Development at Harvard University -CID- as one of Latin America’s first national ICT strategies, “although most observers believe it has not engaged the private sector adequately1”. The CID highlights that there has been progress in developing the ICT industry competitiveness as well as e-education, e-government, e- industry “but challenges remain, including rural-urban differences, a weak financial system, uneven computer science education, and the need for greater telecommunications competition”. 2 Colombia is ranked as fifty-seventh out of a hundred countries in overall networked readiness

Networked Readiness Index 2004-2005 (Table No. 153) Networked Readiness Index 57 Network Use component Index 53 Enabling Factors Component index 60 Network Access 51 Information Infrastructure 59 Hardware, Software & Support 43

1 CID report, country section: Colombia by Maclay, Colin and Aramburo Jorge. Harvard University. http://www. cid. harvard. edu/cr/profiles/Colombia. pdf 2 Ibid 3 http://www. cid. harvard. edu/cr/profiles/Colombia. pdf Colombia Julián G. Hernández

Network Policy 52 Business Environment 53 ICT Policy 41 Networked Society 59 Networked Learning 55 ICT Opportunities 62 Social Capital 61 Networked Economy 59 e-Commerce 60  e-Government 49  General Infrastructure 69

In addition to the e-Agenda, two programs were implemented to strengthen the IT policy, especially in rural areas where the challenges demand a lot of attention. One of them is Compartel Program, which throughout the country offers technological services such as computers, Internet and telephone access through settlement houses to the public along with nets to hospitals, schools, mayor’s offices and military garrisons. Up to date, those 1,500 tele-centers and Compartel settlements have benefited 6 million of inhabitants in rural areas, which represents half of the rural population.

Compartel program scope. number of rural settlements ( 20061) (Table No. 16) Location Programmes s Communitarian Rural Telephony 10045 Tele-centers 1490 Improvement on Tele- centers 166

1 http://www. compartel. gov. co/cobertura. asp Colombia Julián G. Hernández

Location Programmes s Connectivity ( Phase 1): 4794 Educative and settlements schools 4020 Mayor’s Offices 621 Hospitals 122 Military Garrisons 31 Connectivity (Phase2) 2869 Educative and settlements schools 2312 Mayor’s Offices 412 Hospitals 90 Rural Centers for business management 55

(Table No. 17) Educationa l Departments institutions Amazonas 26 Antioquia 549 Arauca 75 Atlántico 147 Bolívar 320 Boyacá 369 Caldas 130 Caquetá 92 Casanare 98 Cauca 318 Cesar 227 Chocó 132 Cordoba 259 Colombia Julián G. Hernández

Educationa l Departments institutions Cundinamarca 523 Guainía 18 Guaviare 39 Huila 203 La Guajira 156 Magdalena 299 Meta 122 Nariño 397 Norte/Santander 321 Putumayo 58 Quindío 110 Risaralda 133 San Andrés y Providencia 15 Santander 259 Sucre 164 Tolima 274 Valle del Cauca 453 Vaupes 18 Vichada 28

On the other hand, Computers for Schools started in 2000 as an initiative implemented by the Canadian Government and observed by the Colombian President, Andrés Pastrana, in one of his visits to Canada. This program which involves the participation of the private sector through its used computers, printers and other devices, is a technological campaign that aims to offer to both IT’s and communications access and services to educational public institutions by recycling, reconditioning, enabling and maintaining the old equipments. The purpose is not only to provide the machines, but also to incorporate the IT learning process as Colombia Julián G. Hernández part of the main requirements and courses in the E- educational agenda in accordance with the two core values of the Colombian IT policy: Infrastructure plus knowledge.

At this point, the Minister of Telecommunications has considered the idea of changing its name to Minister of ITs given the current challenges in this global context. One of the aspects for discussion is to widen the public access to broadband, which is becoming so vital for businesses and offers such competitive advantages that it is being compared to utilities such as water and electricity. The report, or Information Economy Report, says there are large differences between developed countries, where broadband is growing rapidly, and in Colombia, for instance dial-up Internet connections are still prevalent.

The Information Economy report 2006 affirms that the growth of broadband is largely due to competition and declining prices, but it also depends on available infrastructure. One of the vulnerabilities in Colombia is its complex situation, in part because of the lack of economies of scale and low incentives to expand broadband infrastructure outside urban areas, which is precisely the Achilles heel given the security and safety condition which shadows investors’ interests.

Although there is virtually no data on the value of online sales, it is apparent that e-commerce accounts for a very small percentage of the overall sales of domestic firms there, and other e-business activities such as extranet usage, e- government, e-learning and remote work, are almost non- existent. (Table 19) E-commerce, however, continues to grow rapidly. In 2004, the highest proportion was in business-to-business trade (93 % of all e-commerce in the U. Colombia Julián G. Hernández

S. , for example). Growth rates have averaged 6-10 % in recent years (manufacturing and wholesale, respectively)1.

Mobile phones continue to be a technology that "fits" poor countries, and such phones are the only form of ICT that Colombia has had a significant increment during recent years.

Mobile Phone Subscribers (1) and Penetration (2) per 100 inhabitants (Table No. 182) 2001 2001 2003 2004 2005 1 3,265, 261 4,596, 594 6,186, 10,400, 578 21,800. 000 206 2 7. 6 10. 6 14. 1 23. 2 47. 8

Exports of ICT-enabled Services (Million U. S. dollars) (Table No. 19) 2000 2001 2002 2003 366 339 293 338

Among other trends identified in the Information Economy Report, ICT sector value-added and employment grew in developed countries in 2003, and the report contends that this increasing demand and supply in the industrialized world opens up new prospects for business partners in developing nations. It recommends that industrial and trade policies there support the creation of business opportunities in ICT-related industries. The report adds that enterprises, wherever they are located, that fail to adapt to the structural changes associated with globalization and intensified ICT use may be marginalized as they lose out to the competitive

1 http://www. weforum. org/pdf/Global_Competitiveness_Reports/Reports/gcr_2006/chapter_1_1. pdf 2 Information Economy Report 2006 by UNCTAD. www. unctad. org Colombia Julián G. Hernández advantages offered by technology and the economies of scale that are associated with larger markets.

Computer and information exports have become the most dynamic ICT-enabled service sector, particularly in the developing economies. The share of developing countries in this export sector increased from 4 per cent in 1995 to 20 per cent in 2003, with the highest growth occurring after 2000.

Another vulnerability is the monopoly in telecommunications that exists in favor of certain companies that have lobbied intensively . Colombian IT experts have complained about the policies related with broadband that are annihilating the telephone and dial up markets. In the long-term there will be a machine that combines the portable computer and the mobile called as handset. Short-comings in public policy

One of the main problems with the IT public policy is that the institutional bodies are not coordinated, generating inefficiency and juridical uncertainty on the IT market. There is the Commission of Regulation, the Minister of Communications and the Minister of Culture that split their functions and responsibilities on IT matters. It has been proposed the creation of a new Technology, Information and Communication Minister that can replace the current Minister. Along with that, the Commission of Regulation would be able to lead efforts as a regulatory and sanctioning body in charge of the infrastructure and market.

Another problem is related to the management and administration of the radio-electric spectrum. At the moment no entity is taking charge of the radio-electric spectrum. Given the obsolete, judicial, bureaucratic and inefficient structure of the Minister of Telecommunications, the private sector has seen that as a risky barrier to invest, especially Colombia Julián G. Hernández with the possibility to increment business on broadband and access to nets of communications and improvements in infrastructure.

Following the World Summit on the Information Society in Tunis 2005, the Colombian government has delayed a public policy that articulates and coordinates the plan of implementation made in that forum. The current Minister of Telecommunications has proposed the creation of an advisor bureau that formulates and articulates the commitments on the information society matters such as e-business, e- learning, e-environment, e-employment and so on.

In accordance with the Internet World Status up to 2006 Latin America and the Caribbean has just 8 % of the world users. Colombia with almost 12 % of Internet users is lower than countries such as Argentina (34 %), Chile (42 %), Costa Rica (22 %), México (19 %) and Venezuela (16.5 %). The e- Readiness Index used by the United Nations, as an index that rates the e-Preparation, the e-Economical environment and the e-Commerce gave Colombia the forty eighth place among sixty five analyzed countries. In that in previous years Colombia had gotten better places (41st in 2004 and 37th in 2003). This drop reflects the perception on business by investors in broadband, the system law and perhaps the GDP percentage inverted on the development of IT improvements and new technologies.

According to UNCTAD, Colombia placed the 85th among 180 countries on the diffusion index with just 0. 328, being the maximum of 1. This index is a combination of access and connectivity and according with the evaluation Colombia got 0.531 for the first and 0.124 for the last one. Likewise, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) rated Colombia Julián G. Hernández

Colombia on the index of digital opportunity as 0.38 with 1 as the maximum. The importance of this index is that has three components such as opportunity, infrastructure and use and quality on IT matters.

Colombia has a high literacy rate (92 %) and almost 10 % of Afro- Colombian and indigenous peoples have tried to establish community radio stations as diffusion channels of information.

Recently there have been some adjudication to develop such stations to almost 400 rural towns; however, there have been some bureaucratic and corruption problems during the process of adjudication delaying the process. That is still a constant problem that characterized the performance of the public administration and generates bigger problems and costs of transactions in the whole economic cycle.

On the other hand, and related with the previous idea, knowledge is a double-edge sword. One of the limitations is on IT skills and the amount of people who are able to use a computer and the programs and how to empower those useful tools in the productive market. Almost 90 % of the information comes in English and maybe that is the most difficult obstacle to overcome, especially when most of the people are not aware or give the respective importance to the business language around the world.

CONCLUSION

One of the challenges is not only to open Internet settlements in rural areas and not develop along social and public policies. The current problem in Colombia is the low amount Colombia Julián G. Hernández of investment on IT technologies, which are an instrument for development that seeks to attain equitable and sustainable human development. The solutions and proposals must get a win-win solution that benefits the whole population.

Colombia is negotiating a free trade agreement with the United States and so far the government has not presented specific proposals in order to enable the agricultural, industrial and service sector to be competitive in such scenarios. The World Economic Forum (WEF) rated Colombia as a country with low index and competitive advantages. One strategy is to perpetuate the broadband access as a possible measure. Cisco Colombia has said that at the end of 2006 the number of broadband points only reached 606. 332 interconnections but still the problem remains in the offer, the regulation of prices to ensure the demand and the rules of the game in such potential IT markets.

One of the social programs can be related with the Millennium Development Goals. In this case, through the broadband the level and coverage of the programs on education could reach the rural areas where Compartel has already set up centers of technology. In that case the IT obstacle could be overcome. However, there is still the language as the most powerful tool in communications. Without more campaigns and design of public policies that establish and advance English as a second language, the link is going to be missed or broken.

Certainly, telemarketing shows up as a possible idea for the new challenges in the global community. For example, video- conferences could allow doctors to assist their patients and the coverage could be better in areas where geographical access is an impediment. Colombia Julián G. Hernández

The use of e-Commerce in Colombia is still low, which could be considered as a treat but at the same time a possibility for the future that could facilitate the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. The e-government in Colombia has been very famous and part of it is serving as an instrument to advise others in the region.

For the e-Agenda, there is a clear need for strategic alliances among government, community, non-governmental organizations and the private sector in order to maximize the outcomes. These e-strategies are going to reflect the results not in one or three year but in five or ten when the future generations can empower themselves and the society in an uncertain global destiny.

Broadband enables companies to engage in more sophisticated e-business processes and to deliver a greater range of products and services through the Internet, thus maximizing the benefits of information and communication technology (ICT). The use of broadband directly increases competitiveness and productivity and has an impact on macroeconomic growth. It is estimated that broadband can contribute hundreds of billions of dollars a year to the Gross Domestic Products (GDPs) of developed countries over the next few years.

Wireless technology and satellites can help circumvent the cost of infrastructure for sparsely populated, remote or rural areas. Governments have an important role to play in improving access to broadband through infrastructure and policy.

Universalizing the access to all members of the Colombian society has headed changes to get better opportunities in the Colombia Julián G. Hernández education, work, justice, culture, recreation fields and so on. Additionally, the improvements and reforms on IT could provide more facilities and competitiveness to the productive, industrial and service companies to expand the number of employments along with the implementation of the e-government.

Colombia has to continue with the e-government in order to be in contact with the public and continue working on tools that enable and empower the users. There should be some tax incentives in order to make more reachable the computer prices.

Campaigns for free software in certain public institutions should be a tool for e-Learning. Aspects of gender, disability and other vulnerable groups, such as those who work in agriculture, or indigenous groups, have not been considered and they are calling for attention and possibilities to be part of the e-group. The Gini index, which is 58.6 for 2006, shows a bold gap in the socio- economic environment. Departments such as Chocó and Nariño reflect the lack of resources and on IT the situation is not an exception. IT campaigns cannot widen the gap, instead they have to be used as an economic tool for the community, with due consideration for the complex nature and mixture of Colombian society. One of the motors is the small and medium companies and the e-policy should evaluate the impact that these can have on the economy.

Finally, the cell phone providers have an important role in the development of new IT technologies. Although 50 % of the population has access to mobile phones, 12 % only have access to Internet. It is urgent to establish incentives to such providers in order to bring more opportunities and services to the users, considering reasonable prices and of course the access to rural areas where mobile providers have more Colombia Julián G. Hernández advantages over Internet providers. So thus the strategic alliances between those could widen the Internet offerings.

BIBLIOGRAPHY http://www. agenda. gov. co http://www. compartel. gov. co http://www. computadoresparaeducar. gov. co Presentation: “Conversatorio sobre los lineamientos del Plan de Gobierno 2006 – 2010”. María del Rosario Guerra, Ministerio de Telecomunicaciones, September 11 de 2006. http://www. crt. gov. co Informe Día de Internet, 2006. Ministerio de Comunicaciones de Colombia http://www. mincomunicaciones. gov. co/mincom/src/user_docs/Noticias/InformeDiaInternet. pdf Internet World Stats. http://www. Internetworldstats. com Panorama Internacional y Nacional: Tabla de Indices de Tecnología, presentado por el gobierno colombiano. http://www. agenda. go. co Digital Opportunity Index. Unión Internacional de Telecomunicaciones. 2005. http://www. itu. int/osg/spu/statistics/DOI/index. phtml http://www. dane. gov. co/censo/ http://earthtrends. wri. org/pdf_library/country_profiles/eco_cou_170. pdf Human Development Report 2006 In: http://hdr. undp. org World Bank, ICT at a glance, Colombia indicators 2006. http://devdata. worldbank. org/ict/col_ict. pdf Information Development Report 2006. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. UNCTRAD United Nations. www. unctrad. org http://www. ccit. org. co/www/htm/descargas/estadisticas/Internet_diciembre_200 3_crt. pdf Colombia Julián G. Hernández https://www. cia. gov/cia/publications/factbook/print/co. html IANA: Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Source: ITU (Internet host data: Network Wizards, RIPE Source: CIA World Factbook, December 2003 Source: Netcraft Linux server survey Colombia Julián G. Hernández Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

Home | [Select Language]

NIGER by Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

INTRODUCTION

Size of country

The Republic of Niger which is located in the heart of Africa has a total land surface of 1,267,000 km2. One of its main features is the drought prevailing in the country, a condition aggravated by the spreading of the desert that covers much of its surface. Though agriculture is the main occupation of the population, this activity can only be done in the thin 200 km strip located in the southern part of the country along its borders with Nigeria. Rainfalls are the natural phenomenon on which the population relies for their agricultural activities. (95 % of the national agricultural production depends on rainfall). Therefore rainfall irregular occurrence and repartition in space and time, as well its uncertainty, caused recurrent drought and food insecurity that affected a wide range of the population, especially in rural areas. According to a study done by a specialized sub regional institution in this matter, namely the Interstate Committee to combat drought in the Sahel (CILSS)1, 84 % of rural population and 97 % of the territory receive less than 600 millimeters yearly.

1 Interstates Committee to combat drought in the Sahel (CILLS), 1997 Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

Nowadays, one can say that agricultural activities could only be done on 12 % of the territory, which is only 15,000,000 hectares. At the same time the population growth is one of the highest, increasing with a rate of 3.3 % yearly. Presently, 70 % of the useful 15,000,000 hectares are already under exploitation.

The population of Niger has been multiplied by 4.5 between 1950 and 2000 while, at the same time, its urban dwellers number is multiplied by 20.6, jumping from 100,000 in 1950 to over 2,210,000 in 20001. However, at the same time, this situation did not imply a change in assessing rural-urban population, due to the fact that rural population continued a constant growth, moving from 2 million to over 8 million (8,520,000).

The population growth of a mainly peasants and cattle herders implied a pressure on environment, because of the extensive agricultural systems adopted by these populations.

Also, studies show that this kind of agriculture could only be suitable in areas where the demographic pressure is 15 habitants per km22. This ratio is largely exceeded in many regions of the country. The average fertility rate of women in Niger is 7, 5 children. Although this figure is tempered by the high mortality rate of juvenile mortality, this implies that the urbanization rate which is 19 % in 2000 could climb up to 33 % in 2020; 51 % in 2040 and 61 % in 2040. Thus, urban population may outnumber rural population in 2040.

1 United Nations , World population prospects 1999, World urbanization prospects 1995 2 Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

If the actual trend continues, Niger’s population may double every 22 years1. However efforts are underway to curb these figures. Government has recently adopted, in February 2007, a national policy on population aiming at reducing the population growth from 3.3 % to 2.5 % a year. Other measures included in the new policy include an increase of birth control from 15 % to 20 % by 2015 and a decrease of women fertility from the current 7.5 to 5 children per women through concomitant efforts in reducing early marriages and pregnancies.

Combating poverty is the biggest challenge In Niger where it affects 63 % (respectively $150 and $100 of income per person and per annum in urban and rural areas) of the population, including 34 % living in extreme poverty (respectively $100 and $70 of income per person and per annum in urban and rural areas)2. Also, surveys show that poverty affects mainly rural feminine population. A global picture of this phenomenon reveals that 2 out of 3 persons are poor in Niger. At the same time, more than 4 out of 5 poor live in the rural areas while 3 poor out of 4 are women and unemployed persons. The proportion of poor in urban areas is 52 % and 66 % in rural areas. 86 % of the poor including 36 % of extreme poor live in rural areas.

During the last decade, an outstanding achievement has been made in Niger in the field of education.

1 Press conference of Mr. Beidou, Abdoulahi, Director of National institute of Statistics, December 2006. 2 UNDP national report in the implementation of the MDGS, 2003 Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

The gross school enrollment rate in Niger was 41.7 % in 2002. The primary school enrollment went from 5 % in 1960 to 30 % in 1990 and 49.8 % in 2000. The gross rate of school enrollment jumped from 27.8 % in 1993 to 30.45 % in 1998 and 41 % in 2002.

A quarter of enrolled students graduate from primary schools in 2002. It is to be mentioned that there are some disparities between girls and boys enrollment as well as between urban and rural areas. In 2002, while enrollment rate is 38 % in rural areas, it goes up to 51 % in urban agglomerations from which 33 % are girls and 51 % boys.

In 2007, the gross enrollment rate is 54 %, mostly because of an important initiative launched by the president of Niger, which is called Special presidential program for poverty alleviation. Among other activities done in this project are classrooms and healthcare centers construction, micro credit, and labor intensive programs to combat youth unemployment. From the actual 54 % gross enrollment rate, 43 % are girls while 64 % are boys. The special presidential program is financed from resources generated from the highly indebted poor countries initiative HIPC, which consists of canceling of debt from the multilateral financial institutions, to helping very poor developing countries to sustain the burden of debt.

Percentage of education outlays in overall budget, including trends

Tremendous efforts are done by governments to booster education enrollment and quality through public policies. In this regard a ten years education development program aiming at school enrollment rates of 60 % in 2003 and 91 % in 2007 was adopted in 2003. However there is a dire lack of Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim resources to fulfill this objective. The progression of the education budget is shrinking with regard to its proportion vis-à-vis the national budget. This ratio dropped from 15.6 % in 1990 to 9 % in 2002.

The digital access index (DAI) in a given country is the global opportunity for people living there to access and use information and communication technology. This is a ratio taking into account many parameters designed by International Telecommunication Union (ITU). In Niger, the DAI is 0.04. The percentages of telephone lines and mobile phones for 100 inhabitants are respectively 0.2/100 and 0.1/100. The ITU also states that the economical accessibility rate in Niger is 0.00. The percentage of access cost to Internet in the gross national product is 683.6 %. The width of the Internet strip per habitant (bits) and the percentage of wide strip users for hundred inhabitants is 0.0. The rate of Internet users for hundred persons is 0.1. According to the ITU, this split picture of the rating of Niger could be summarized in five big clusters: infrastructure 0. 00, accessibility 0.00, education 0.00, quality 0.05, and use 0.00.

In Niger the Internet strip is 3 mb/s for the whole country. Two main Internet providers namely SAHELCOM and Africa telecom are operating in the country. An hour of Internet use in Niger cybercafés costs about 1, 5 dollars. A comprehensive analysis of costs of Internet use shows that: 19. 2 kb/s costs $800/month; 28.8 kb/s costs $ 900/month; 64 kb/s costs $1,100/month and 128 kb/s costs $ 2,350/month. Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

From these figures one can assess the cost of monthly use of Internet on the basis of Internet flow. This gives a result of 13.46 Euro/month kb/s. Experts say that this cost is 500 times fold the actual rate in Europe and shows Niger as an example of what is called the “digital fracture” between the North and the South.

The cost of computer use per hour in Niger has been exposed above (cf. supra, computer cost with reference to average income). Though the statistics are not yet available, there is however a trend to an increasing use and lower computer cost in the country. The national information communication initiative might lead to an even greater decrease of costs and booster the use of the ICT in the country. Therefore though all figures are at the lowest standards in terms of taking advantage of the ICT, this situation may change in the near future, with the implementation of the initiative.

The ratio private/public sector in computer use is still not available. Surveys are actually underway to determine these different aspects of the ICT in Niger. In fact, it is crucial that all challenges related to the actual status be known in order to make the new national information and communication initiative a success. This ratio should be available soon, and in any case, is essential for the implementation of the national ICT in the country.

Public policy details, with actual texts of government policy documents Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

As explained above, the use of information technology in Niger is particularly low. For a long time there was not a national strategy aiming at the development and dissemination of information technology. The government of Niger decided to change this situation and elaborated a strategy to modernize information technology infrastructure. It realized that this is the only way to insure quality of public service delivery. A national policy in information technology covering the national territory was set up. This policy is known as the National Information and communication initiative (NICI). Three main objectives are assigned to this policy: National dissemination of ITC, financial accessibility and quality of product.

In order to cover the national territory, there is a project of the creation of a telecommunication backbone to cover the whole country. The Ministry of communication together with the High commission on Information Technology and the national agency of telecommunication SONITEL are vested with this task. In this regard the national telecommunication corporation SONITEL should replace its actual FH system of connection for optic fiber cabling throughout the country. It was also decided that national legislation on telecommunication should change to allow more participation for the private sector in the operation. Also, in this regard, incentives are given to private investors and operators for creation of cybercafés as well as their establishment throughout the country. These investors and operators are also encouraged to change their equipment to numeric system.

The second aspect privileged by the government is the financial accessibility. In order to ensure this requirement, it was decided that the tasks of provider of access and provider of services be separated. It was also decided that equipment of information Technology be exonerated from custom in the Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim space of UEMOA1 which is the sub regional economic commission grouping of eight countries. This sub regional regulation fits perfectly the actual policy of ICT in Niger. This is a big impetus to the ICT in the country since the constitution provides that treaties and conventions regularly ratified by Niger have authority on local national bills and regulations. Therefore, though Niger needs resources from its custom to finance its development, it should exempt ICT equipment from custom.

The third point relates to quality of the information technology infrastructure and this includes the improvement of the Internet strip up to 100 megabits/s but also ensuring a dissemination of accessibility throughout the country.

In the above chapters the hard economic condition of Niger has been explained. It shows that the country is one of the least developed, with regard to the human development index. Currently, Niger is engaged in a national poverty reduction policy and the ICT could serve as leverage in this endeavor. It may serve as a means to optimizing development goals in terms of access to basic social services, boosting economic growth and productivity. This may imply employment creation, improvement of school enrollment and health coverage, and improving the productivity of enterprises and the government administration.

In this regard, the government intends to disseminate the ICT towards the most vulnerable stratus of the population (youngsters, women, rural population). This would be done through administrative, fiscal and executive measures to allow access to ICT to the poor. Also, this policy encourages the emergence of a professional youth media and exchange of experiences and support between media in this regard. The aim is to advocate and to sensitize populations on the

1 Economic and Monetary Union of West African States (UEMOA). Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim benefits of the ITC. This should be done concomitantly with the dissemination of local radios and the dissemination of development information centers.

The use of the ICT in optimizing access to the basic social services (health and education) is also one of the goals of the Nigerian government. This would be done through the introduction of ICT in the curricula of schools at all levels, the use of online teaching and research, campaigning for HIV/ Aids prevention and reproductive health, promoting remote detection, modernizing water resources and climate watching management tools.

Ensuring economic growth and developing enterprises productivity which in Niger are agriculture, herding, private sector and tourism, is also part of the goals. The new policy aims at using the ICT to develop agriculture, combat desertification and improve natural resources management, identify new agriculture backings, and install dialogue between rural producers and commercial centers. This would lead towards a better perception of business opportunities in Niger.

Information technology would also be very effective in Ensuring good governance, decentralization, law enforcement and capacity building by using the Internet to disseminate information and documents emanating from national institutions through an inclusive undertakings engaging the government, the parliament, the political parties, nongovernmental organizations etc. in such a task. This may improve the status of the governance and democracy in the country and insure better visibility of budgetary tools which are very important for a poor country like Niger. Thus, democracy, which is still a new concept and popular participation would be better rooted in the country. Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

However, because of the huge amount of needs in Niger, this ideal figure would certainly take some time to turn into reality.

ANALYSIS

Trends over the past ten years, including speed of change

Over the last ten years information technology has been progressively developing in Niger. The Internet is becoming more and more familiar, and cyber-cafés which were the privilege of the sole capital city, Niamey, are now spreading all over the other regions of the country. Though its cost is far more expensive vis-à-vis the other African countries, computer use is progressively being adopted. Many private schools are created by Niger investors and there is a growing computer literacy in the country. Also, one of the first African intergovernmental schools for informatics based in Libreville, Gabon, whose mission is to produce high ranking engineers in informatics, has now decided to decentralize its structures, so that each country member should have its national informatics school. Nowadays this institution as well as other private schools not only are producing a considerable number of graduates, but also are creating an increasing constituency of computer literacy in Niger.

This should be considered as a phenomenal breakthrough since fifteen years ago, computer availability in the administration of Niger was null. Today though Internet connection is still very low even in the top ranking administration, one can say that the Internet and the information technology are becoming a reality in Niger.

Vulnerabilities in current situation Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

Information technology is an important tool which has the leverage to booster economic development in a very poor country like Niger. On the other hand, it may also have a potentially harmful effect in a country where the literacy rate is one of the lowest of the world. To avoid misuse or unwanted consequences of information technology in any given country, there should be a legal framework laying out what should be the ICT and setting standards for a proper use of its use, particularly vis-à-vis the national economic interests. In this regard, regulations should not be seen as a means to restrain civil liberties or to exercise a particular personal power through the tool of the information technology. It should, rather be “part of the common heritage of mankind”. Access to its benefits is a legitimate right for all people.

The object of legislation is not to limit that right, but only to “limit or eliminate all abuses of that right”1, as Ahmad Kamal put it in his book, The Law of Cyber-Space.

In this regard, one can say that there is a vacuum of legal frames in Niger, in the field of the ICT. The existing rules ignore the tremendous activities generated by ICT throughout the world. It is particularly silent to cyber– criminality.

The absence of legal frames in Niger and the risks associated with the development of ICT is a matter of concern even for more developed countries. The tremendous challenge in this matter is due to the speed of change, including frequently moving breakthroughs which challenge any new regulations

1 Ahmad Kamal, The Law of Cyber-Space, an invitation to the table of negotiations, pp. 4, UNITAR publications, 2005 Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim worldwide. From this inherent feature of the ICT, one can understand the tremendous challenges that a country like Niger should face in order to induce a safe use of information technology dedicated to its noble use.

In this regard there should be updated regulations in the country in order to take into account new challenges induced by the ICT. One should mention that such an initiative in order to be effective has to be undertaken at the level of the West African sub region, then at the level of the African continent and ultimately at the global level such as the United Nations. At the sub regional, level, Niger is a member of the two main important organizations of regional integration, namely the Economic Commission of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Economic and monetary Union of the West African states (UEMOA). In order to have effective ICT laws and regulations in countries of the sub region, there should be a harmonization of the ICT regulations to set up the law of

The law of cyber-space in West African states could ultimately be merged with the regulations of other sub- regions of Africa in a continent-wide cyber-space law. This may be very helpful in enforcing an eventual African law of cyber-space, particularly in new areas of cooperation like electronic signatures, agreed texts against cyber-criminality, signature and ratification of international treaties, cyber- trade, cryptography, and above all, the protection of individuals against the theft of personal data, or any harmful use of ICT.

If Niger has to cope with the requirements mentioned above so as to be ICT risk free then it has a long way to go. To set up effective structures dealing with the implementation of an Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim effective legal frame to repress cyber-criminality in Niger requires collaboration of various national agencies and ministries in this long, constant and committed endeavor. Ministries of Justice, Foreign Affairs and Finance should work very closely with the Ministry of Communications and the Commissioner in charge of informatics and information technology in the office of the Prime Minister. The National Telecommunication Agency as well as civil society, academia and others should work constantly together to set standards for the optimal use of information technology in the country. They should thereafter bring the priorities defined for the country to the sub-regional level.

Such an exercise, which not only requires time and commitment, may be difficult to afford within such a conglomerate, bringing together public and private entities, whose interests may diverge on a wide array of issues.

Though the international cooperation is helping the government in setting up its national policy in information technology, with the help of the UNDP in the elaboration of Niger’s National Information and Communication initiative (NICI), many steps are still to be taken in order to make the initiative a reality. In fact the plan may take many years to be implemented. It requires resources in an already worn out country, which needs support in this field as well as in many other areas for its survival.

By the time the country may insure full responsibility of its actions in the field of information technology, through initiatives which combine providing complete and undeniable advantages embodied in the judicial use of information technology but also to take effective and serious measure to prevent its harmful exploitation, there might be a room for every abuse through the ICT. Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

Some conclusions and recommendations, which are relevant to the situation in Niger, are presented in the following section of this paper.

CONCLUSION

Taking into account the advantage of the ICT, there is no doubt that an underdeveloped country like Niger should take advantage of the opportunities attached to it and turn it into a tool for development. Niger has today a big potential for its development, whether in the economic or cultural fields. It should therefore create an adequate ICT in order to draw every opportunity from its actual assets and use it for further optimal exploitation of its resources, whether human, natural or economic.

Niger is a very poor country where the government has to choose between competing priorities. One of the biggest is to insure food security for its population, which is suffering from recurrent drought. Therefore the challenge of elaborating and disseminating effective ICT in such a big country may sound gigantic with regard to the modest resources of the country. In this regard, it is indispensable that the international community helps Niger in its endeavor. Though the government is taking important internal measures to cope with this very important need, it may not have enough resources to insure adequate coverage of the country. The national information and communication policy has been designated with the assistance of the United Nations Development Program. This kind of support should be continued through sub regional and bilateral cooperation with donor countries. In this regard, more stress could be given to ICT assistance of Niger, in terms of hardware and Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim software as well as in terms of know-how, but also by increasing the number of computer or informatics instructors. This may launch the bolstering of information technology literacy rate through its replication and customization by the population, especially the youth which is the biggest part of the population.

To understand the gap, the numeric fracture between a country like Niger and other countries, and taking into account the importance of ICT for research and development, let’s take a look in the academia in order to know the state of ICT use in the University of Niger. A study done in 2002 by the francophone numeric campus of Niger showed that 29 % of professors do not have emails, while 29 % of them could access the Internet only at their jobsite1. The same study states that 63 % of the professors do not conduct research on the Internet. This may sound unbelievable from European or American scholars’ perspective; still, this is the reality of the harsh conditions in which academic research work is still done in some poor African countries.

In designing and dissemination of the ICT in Niger, one should take into account the overall overwhelming need of infrastructure, including electricity and power supply in many of its villages. To pursue the ideal of information communication technology accessible to all, one should invest in infrastructures in order to enhance the feasibility of the information society in the country.

The regional cooperation should be enforced through the new partnership for the development of Africa (NEPAD), which is a long term development policy for Africa. The ICT are one of the eight clusters of this new policy and President

1 Obstacles et solutions à l’appropriation des NTICs au Sud, Galy et Dané, Campus francophone du Niger www. auf. org/formation -distance Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

Abdoulaye Wade of Senegal advocated for the bridging of the numeric gap between developed and developing countries. President WADE pleaded for the principle of numeric solidarity, a principle which should be fulfilled by the creation of the Fund for Numeric Solidarity. He thought the fund should be considered as an additional moral effort to be made. The resources of the fund should not come from the existing mechanisms thus, implying more financial efforts from the donors.

This proposal of President Abdoulaye Wade is of tremendous importance. But it risks the same fate affecting general declarations like Monterrey and Doha which are morally accepted in principles but are still in the state of leitmotiv as the Public Development Aid flow is under the form of elusive promises of the developed countries. As a matter of fact, the NEPAD itself which is the main plan for the development of Africa is still lacking resources to undertake its various programs which are all a matter of urgency for the continent.

In this regard the ICT-focused aid or numeric solidarity aid may reveal itself different from the traditional aid or know how transfer to developing countries. If we consider that the computer business is also a matter of big money engaging companies from developing countries, one can say that the dissemination of ICT is not only important for the developing countries but also for developed countries. Through these new initiatives, new cheap software could be designed for developing countries. Some news is already circulating, according to which two million units of a new one hundred dollar computer will be specifically designed for Nigeria. If this is true, it means contracts for computer companies and it is good business for leading computer and software manufacturers, which undoubtedly would bolster again the development of economies of developed countries. Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

Therefore the numeric solidarity is in fact a “win-win” solidarity for it is benefiting both developed and developing countries.

On the other hand, manufacturing such computers should certainly be far easier than designing computers designated for New York, Montreal or Tokyo, where customers are exigent though they have a bigger purchasing power. In this regard, there is a serious risk that computers in destination to poor countries of Africa may be of very low quality. One could argue that what Africa needs is just the computer literacy and that what is needed for the moment is the means for word processing and access to Internet.

While this might be relevant, it should not turn into the same debate that occurred between those favoring investments in primary education to bolster literacy rates, to the detriment of the higher learning. At one time, the IMF and the World Bank favored the primary education and the outcome is nowadays the bad shape of most African universities which have been in the past very glorious in producing brilliant elites they cannot afford today.

Yet, the case of effective ICT environment in Africa and Niger in particular should depart from the vision that demands quality partnership with developing countries and companies in terms of having the best human resources, equipment and infrastructures before engaging in this adventure. The comparative advantage encompassed in the advent of ICT culture in Niger is so compelling that what we need is actually the computer literacy, even for peasants that are lacking the traditional literacy; meaning reading and writing and which represent 46 % of the population (the gross school enrollment rate is 54 %). Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

In this regard, computer software companies should design new computers that do not need literacy requirements to be operated. This kind of computer should be the cheapest possible to help in launching of ICT culture in the country, in contrast with the traditional computer which may require more money and literacy.

This is to say that the debate of technology transfer in the field of ICT should not be seen through the same prism of classical technology transfer. For example, Bill Gates’ Windows which is not actually associated with any computer, uses icons to be operated on any computer. One can imagine therefore that the same techniques could be used in designing software which may allow those people that are not literate to be able to use computers. The same system could include a possibility of gradation, so that an illiterate person could utilize it both before and after becoming literate. It could also include self-education software so that users who are not literate could learn through their computers progressively, from icon using to formal education tools using.

This perspective is possible if we take into account the rapid evolution in the ICT, as a realm where breakthroughs are faster than in any other business. The debate of ICT transfer and appropriation from developed countries/companies should not therefore fall into the traditional debate that refuses or selects technology because it is obsolete, though this technology should be appropriate:

-it should be appropriate for poor and often illiterate people; -it should be robust to resist heat and dust since it may often be installed in huts or other precarious settlements; Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

-it should be cheap to be afforded by governments of poor developing countries and by average people from these countries; -it should be able to be operated from batteries or other local energy generating system.

On the other hand if Niger or other developing countries decide to have the same standards of ICT prevailing in the United States or other advanced western countries, not only would they need much more extra money, which they do not actually have, but also, they could come up with a totally inadequate infrastructure. Thus, a successful launching of the ICT could be retarded because it would be a failure. In this regard there is a collective responsibility for the government of Niger as well as the intergovernmental sub regional and continental organizations, civil society, NGO’s and other constituencies to plead for such an undertaking to bring more democracy in the realm of ICT.

All told, Niger has to adapt and to cope with the actual trend of globalization by making the best use of information and communication technology. This is the best way to take advantage of existing opportunities and to prepare for further challenges in its combat against underdevelopment. This means undertaking projects aiming at endowing human resources with ITC know-how. It means also imagination in designing poverty alleviation projects.

In applying the ICT to the health sector, there would be more accessibility in this vast country (1,267,000 sq. kms.) to data, which might be put online. This enterprise could bring much more visibility in medical activities in the diverse provinces of the country. The Ministry of Health, Universities, as well as collectivities may have the real picture of the health sector Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim in Niger in order to bring adequate responses to the situation. Ultimately, the networking of the country in effective ICT could bring the availability of online medical delivery not only in the country, but also from online international medical cooperation.

The same application mentioned above could be done in the field of teaching. The literacy rate and school enrollment could be substantially improved through the tool of ICT. One of the biggest interests of Internet today is the globalization of knowledge through online libraries accessible to everybody. This is the absolute opposite of the African oral tradition prevailing in Niger. In oral transmission of knowledge, this knowledge is owned by “initiés” or insiders, which are old peoples, historians and other savants that transmit their knowledge orally. In this regard the ICT through the Internet could radically change this perception for not only would knowledge be accessible from every region of country, but also because this knowledge could be replicated and used by everybody in villages. Thus, the saying that “in Africa the death of an old man is equivalent to the burn up of a library’’ will be less effective and this will induce a better preservation of African culture, traditions and customs, but also their dissemination and their promotion throughout the world.

The durability of the various African wisdoms which are progressively invaded by a strong foreign western civilization by the means of television and movies would be better preserved. African culture and traditions would be also online in audio and video supports, which may last for centuries and be immortalized from generation to generation. Therefore the ICT could be a means for restoring the image and assets of Niger and the African continent in general since the positive aspects of the continent could also be brought to light worldwide. Thus the ICT could allow Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

African countries to become actors rather than passive consumers of information. African countries could intensively show their treasures of culture, wisdom, traditional medicine, investment opportunities and many other assets.

The advantage of effective ICT in Niger and Africa, the one which resides in its appropriation by the population throughout the country is uncountable. One of the most relevant consequences on individuals and collectives, companies or any actor of the civil society is the freedom of action, with which it endows its users. ICT allows private actors, peasants, or collectives to get connected to other entities worldwide, for they no longer need to request the patronage of the government or the tutorage of any broker. People could be in touch with other people worldwide and can decide to launch business partnerships, and exchange of experiences in sometimes informal but effective ways. Things gets closer, business is faster, cultures would be known and shared because the world would be the global village.

The use of ICT may ultimately allow government to make big savings in education expenditures by putting online materials. It may also bring lot of time saving if it can reach the level of online teaching, so that knowledge would be countrywide and literacy bolstered. This vision is of course the one that should be the ultimate ambition of the use of ICT in the country.

There might be many obstacles, the biggest one being the lack of funding to implement this noble objective. The government of Niger has made a tremendous effort in engaging an amount of two million dollars in the implementation of the national information and communication policy, in a total budget of one billion dollars Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim

(497 billion fcfa). This undertaking, though executed with the support of partners, should be seen as a mark of government commitment to the ICT. In a country that has to make choices between many other priorities, this could be a difficult undertaking to sustain. The private sector has to be more active in this undertaking. The issue of the advent of the ICT in Niger and other African countries in general is of tremendous importance. The government of Niger together with its partners has launched its national information and communication initiative. Though the government is marking its political will to put the county in the ICT era, this is still an ambitious undertaking that needs time to be evaluated.

To sum up one can say that the ICT effectiveness requires resources (human and financial) but also advocacy, infrastructures and support from the international community. There are specific needs for countries like Niger in the field of ICT that necessitate the understanding of its partners in this task. Private companies and manufacturers from developed companies should collaborate in this enterprise by taking into account these special needs of poor developing countries in general, since the development of ICT worldwide is a win-win business for government, private companies’ civil society and ordinary people. The already existing partnership in this issue should be reinforced and developed in order to speed the advent of ICT in the country.

Niger Aboubacar A. Ibrahim Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

______OMAN by Fuad Al-Hinai ______

INTRODUCTION

Country Background

The Sultanate of Oman lies on the Tropic of Cancer in the extreme southeast corner of the Arabian Peninsula, covering an area (between latitude 16.40 and 26.20 degrees north and longitude 51.50 and 59.40 degrees east) of major strategic importance.

Its magnificent coastline stretches for over 1,700 kms, from the Arabia Sea and the entrance to the Indian Ocean at its south-western extremity, to the Gulf of Oman and Musandam in the north, where it overlooks the Strait of Hormuz and the entrance to the Arabian Gulf; a location that has played a vital part in Oman’s strategic development.

The Sultanate, with an area of 309,500 square kms, encompasses mountain ranges, arid deserts and fertile plains. It shares borders with the Republic of Yemen to the southwest, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to the west and the United Arab Emirates to the north and can lay claim to a number of small islands in the Gulf of Oman and the Strait of Hormuz, including the islands of “Salamah and Her Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

Daughters”, and in the Arabian Sea, Masirah and the Hallaniyat islands.

Population

Population (2005 est. ): 2.51 million Annual Growth rate (2005 est. ): 2.5 %

About 55 % of the population lives in Muscat and the Batinah coastal plain northwest of the capital; about 215,000 live in the Dhofar (southern) region, and about 30,000 live in the remote Musandam Peninsula on the Strait of Hormuz. Some 660,000 expatriates live in Oman, most of whom are guest workers from South Asia, Egypt, Jordan and the Philippines.

Total population Annual population Urban population (millions) (growth rate %) ( % of total) 1975 2004 2015 1975-04 2004-15 1975 2004 2015 0.9 2.5 3.2 3.5 2.0 34.1 71.5 72.3

Population under Population ages 65 Total fertility age 15 and older ( % of rate ( % of total) total) (births per woman) 2004 2015 2004 2015 1970-75 2000-05 34.9 30.6 2.5 3.4 7.2 3.8

Economy:

GDP (2005 est. ): $30.73 billion Per capita GDP (2005 est. ): $12,663. Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

Natural resources: Oil, natural gas, copper, marble, limestone, gypsum, chromium. Agriculture and fisheries: (2.1 % of GDP) Agricultural Products: dates,bananas, mangoes, alfalfa, other fruits and vegetables. Fisheries: Kingfish, tuna, shrimp, lobster, abalone. Industry: Crude petroleum (not including gas liquids) about 750,000 barrels per day; construction, petroleum refinery, copper mines and smelter, cement and various light industries. Trade (2005 est. ): Exports - $18.69 billion. Major markets Japan (22.1%), China (15.2%), Thailand (12.6 %) South Korea (19.9 %), U. A. E. (9.4 %). Imports - $8.83 billion: machinery, transportation equipment, manufactured goods, food, livestock, lubricants. Major suppliers UAE. (27.6 %), Japan (16.7 %), U K (7.4 %), Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

U S (6.9 %), Germany (5 %).

Five Year Plans and Vision 2020

The Omani economy has been radically transformed over a series of development plans beginning with the First Five- year Plan (1976-1980). A vision of Oman’s economic future up to the year 2020 was set out at the end of the first phase of the country’s development (1970-1995). Vision 2020, outlined the country’s economic and social goals over the 25 years of the second phase of the development process (1996- 2020).

The long-term development strategy (1996-2020) established a stable, all-inclusive framework for the Omani economy that provided for steady growth and a calculated improvement in the individual citizen’s share of the national income. This was based on a policy of diversifying the sources of the Sultanate’s income and increasing the contributions of the natural gas and the industrial and tourist sectors, while diversifying away from dependence on oil, expanding the private sector, implementing privatization policies, developing human resources and attracting greater investment, all within a framework aimed at promoting sustainable development that would lead to further integration into the global economy.

The Seventh Five-year Plan (2006-2010)

The main features of the Seventh Five-year Development Plan (2006-2010) were determined by three major factors – the basic targets and principles of Oman’s long-term development strategy (1996-2020), an assessment of the performance of the Sixth Five-year Development Plan, and Oman Fuad Al-Hinai an evaluation of new development scheduled to take place during the period covered by the Seventh Plan.

The Plan aims to attain average annual economic growth rates of not less than 3 % (in fixed price terms), while raising the ratio of investment to GDP to around 24 % during the years of the current Plan, up from 16 % during the previous Five-year Plan.

The 2006 General State Budget

The state’s general revenues in the 2006 budget were estimated at around RO 3,587 million – a 14 % rise on the 2005 figure. Oil and gas revenues represented 81 % of this total, with oil and gas accounting for 70 % and 11 % respectively. Revenues from other sources represented 19 %. The revenues were calculated on an oil production figure of 746,000 barrels per day and a price of US $32 per barrel.

Public expenditure was estimated at around RO 4,237 million – a 15 % increase compared with 2005. Some RO 525 million was allocated to the education sector – a rise of 17 % on the previous year. The health sector was allocated RO 187 million – a 13 % increase on the 2005 figure – and RO 29.8 million was allocated to social security – a rise of 5.2 % on last year.

The 2005 government revenue surplus of RO 2,350 million was due to the rise in the price of oil, which averaged $48. 73 in 2005 compared with the projected figure of $23. This surplus was used to fund last year’s budget deficit, while some RO 550 million was transferred to the General State Reserve Fund.

GDP- PPP GDP per capita – PPP Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

$ billions $

2004 2005 2004 2005 24.3 38.7 9,584 15,259

Education:

The education sector has developed impressively – not only for the generation of school and college age children – but also for those who missed out on the opportunity to gain an education during their childhood. The government strongly believes it is educated, aware human beings who are best equipped to serve themselves and their country.

Efforts are continuing to streamline both general and basic education by upgrading the curricula, improving the quality of the teaching staff and adopting the latest teaching methods and educational technology, including computers and a national inter-school wireless link. A multi-media production unit was set up at the Education Ministry’s Directorate-General of Curricula in May 2006 and further measures were put in place to support the educational activities bank, established in 2005.

Education is a cornerstone of Oman’s ongoing human development programme and nearly all children of school age are now enrolled.

During the school year 2005/2006, there were 568,074 male and female students in the country’s 1,046 government schools. There were also 157 private schools with a further 28,183 students.

Expenditure in the education sector, including the departments involved in the development of human Oman Fuad Al-Hinai resources, totaled around RO 2.5 billion during the years of the Sixth Five-year Plan.

Oman’s higher education policy has successfully kept pace with the economic and social advances taking place in the country. Its goals have been set by the 2020 Vision of Oman’s Economic Future which regards government and private sector higher education institutions as channels for providing the economy with trained nationals.

Several private higher education establishments have been set up in the country.

During the academic year 2005/2006 thirty-two government- sponsored higher education institutions were operational in Oman; these included Sultan Qaboos University (SQU), as well as 14 University colleges and 17 specialist institutes. There are also 20 private higher education institutions, including three universities – at Nizwa, Dhofar and Sohar. In the 2004/2005 academic year, there were 21,214 male and female students in higher education.

Indicator Changes 2002 2003 2004 s % 2003/04 Schools 2.5 1,187 1,187 1,217 Students -0.3 628,971 628,110 626,157 Teachers 6.5 35,614 35,786 38,098

Public expenditure on education As % of GDP % of total expenditure 1991 2002-04 1991 2002-04 3.4 4.6 15.8 26.1 Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

Current public expenditure on education by level ( % of all levels) Primary Secondary Tertiary 1991 2002-04 1991 2002-04 1991 2002-04 52.3 43.4 39.7 38.6 6.6 9.6

Internet access:

Oman joined the Internet in 1997. The official Internet Service Provider (ISP) has and continues to be Oman Telecommunication or OMANTEL – a previously wholly- owned government company recently privatized. There are no private ISPs in Oman but some Omani companies provide web services such as webpage design, hosting and other Internet related services.

In October 1997, there were 6,000 customers who subscribed to Omantel Internet Services. The monthly growth rate at that time stood at 550 new subscribers per month. As of September 2005, there were 245,000 Internet users or 10.1 % of the population.

The indicators show an impressive doubling or tripling of growth in all sectors of Internet access, whether the number of subscribers, the number of fixed telephone lines, the number of cellular telephones, or the number of pre-paid cards:

Indicators 2,000 2002 2003 2004 2005 Internet 90,00 180,00 - - 245,00 subscribers 0 0 0 Fixed lines - 233,89 236,17 239,26 277,99 7 8 2 9 Cellular - 220,41 235,66 257,28 Oman Fuad Al-Hinai telephones 0 2 7 Prepaid - 243,45 357,79 548,99 cards 0 1 3

Internet Service Charges:

The New Internet Tariff comprises of a fixed monthly account charge of RO 2,000 ($5.19 ) per month and a flat charge of 180 Baiza ($0.47 ) per hour.

Internet Dial-up Tariff:

Services Price (RO) One time set-up fee 10/- Monthly Charge 2/- Excess Charges per hour 180 baiza Re-connection Fee 1/- Additional Services E-mail Extra Space per mb 200 baiza

Log “N” Surf Tariff:

This service allows visitors to use Oman Internet Service without subscription or contract. All that you pay is 25 Baiza ($0.06) per minute for PSTN or 50 Baiza ($0.12) per minute for GSM (charged directly to the telephone you are connecting from) just dial 1312 and enjoy surfing the NET.

Service Offered from…. Fee Per Minute PSTN (Regular Phone) 25 Baiza per minute GSM 50 Baiza per minute

ADSL Services Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

PowerNet is a broadband high speed Internet service based on Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) targeted at home users as well. PowerNet enables you to access the Internet at various speeds that meet your need for a fast and easy connection.

PowerNet Tariff:

Type Install Rental Usage Speed Caps

Residentia 10 12 1 128/384 39 l Business 25 120 1 128/1024 usage Cyber café 25 75 1 128/1024 250 Schools 25 20 Unlimit 128/512 20

Al-Ufuq

Pre-paid Internet access card is a card that allows access to the Internet with a duration determined by the value of the card you have purchased. With a pre-paid Internet access card you won’t have to pay for registrations, apply for Internet access or pay for any Internet Service provider’s monthly dues. Prepaid Internet is good for all budget conscious consumers, especially those who use the Internet infrequently or those who have irregular usage patterns such as casual Internet users, travelers, students, businesses.

Hours Offered Price (RO) Validation 20 hours 6 3 months 41 hours 10 6 months

Internet Roaming

Omantel Internet Roaming Service allows Internet Dial Up customers to travel anywhere in the world and yet be able to Oman Fuad Al-Hinai access their home ISP (Omantel), read and retrieve e-mail messages and browse, at the price of a local call. The features and benefits include:  No expensive International Direct Dialing rates  Direct log-in from the laptop or notebook or desktop  No need for multiple accounts.  Internet Roaming access is available from over 100 Internet Service ISPs in the world  Direct Internet access billing to home account. This eliminates the need to pay in expensive foreign currency.

Government Policy in the Promotion of ICT for Development

Following a Council of Ministers’ decision in 1998, the National Information Technology Committee (NITC) was set up to oversee the development of the Sultanate’s IT sector and to work towards an e-Government initiative. This committee was headed by the Minister of National Economy.

The ‘IT Task Force’ (ITTF) set up by the high-level National Information Technology Committee in 1998 as the technical action group comprising representatives of the competent departments and bodies. The National IT Strategy was launched in November 2002 followed by a plan of action to be implemented by the IT Technical Secretariat (ITTS). It is the first major step in the country’s ambitious plans to introduce e-Government and create a “digital society”.

Information Technology Authority Formed Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

Information Technology Authority is set up by the Royal Decree 52/2006 promulgated on the 31 May 2006. This autonomous legal body is affiliated to the Minister of National Economy.

ITA serves as a competency center on best practices in governance and in harnessing information and communication technologies (ICTs), thereby offering efficient and timely services, integrating processes and improving efficiency in service delivery. ITA performs its core functions through its different offices of specialized focus.

ITA works with the vision ‘to transform the Sultanate of Oman into a sustainable Knowledge Society by leveraging information and communication technologies to enhance government services, enrich businesses and empower individuals’.

ITA Policies

As stipulated in the Royal Decree, the Information Technology Authority aims at consolidation and activation of government policies to transform the Sultanate into a knowledge-based economy for achievement of social and economical benefits to the Omani society by using this technology ‘within’ the policies of economic diversification and sustained development.

In order to achieve its objectives ITA will undertake the following policies:  Taking necessary actions to achieve cooperation and co-ordination between state administrative apparatus units, the private sector and ITA with regard to IT projects for the benefit of citizens and Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

investors.  Carry out electronic Oman basic structure projects and supervise implementation of information technology projects of all administrative apparatus units of state and electronic services connected therewith.  Undertake the preparation of regulations and measures necessary to implement the rules by administrative apparatus units of State for the fulfillment of digital Oman society requirements and realization of integration between these units to electronically deliver their services.  Carry out the issuance of rules and procedures necessary to safeguard the systems in case of unexpected events.

Information Communication Infrastructure

The success of the Digital-Oman initiatives depends on how well the society is being transformed to move towards being a digital society; and on the successful implementation of the ICT infrastructure and the associated tele-communication projects. The growth of the telecommunication sector has been rapid due to efforts taken by the government towards privatization and liberalization.

The General Telecommunications Organization (GTO), the government agency in-charge of communications in the Sultanate since the early 1970s, corporatized into Oman Telecommunication Company which was later privatized in March 2002. Omantel currently provides the country’s fixed-line and Internet services. The Sultanate’s strategy to fully liberalize the sector has provision to allow a new operator of fixed line and the Internet services in the near Oman Fuad Al-Hinai future. The mobile services sector currently has two license operators namely Oman Mobile and Nawras.

Internet Usage

The number of Internet subscribers in the Sultanate rose to 62,926 individual Internet subscriber accounts by the end of October 2006, according to the above statistics. The increase reflects the keenness of Omani youth to use the Internet and benefit from its huge potential.

Concerning Internet penetration and usage, an important factor to bear in mind is that there are multiple users using a single subscriber line. Due to local and other issues, it is common to find large number of employees using their office line for accessing the Internet. Similar situations exist in academic institutions, cyber-cafes and even in the household subscriber connections. So although the subscription number may not be very high, there are far more Internet users in Oman than what the subscription figures suggest.

Omantel is in co-operation with authorities concerned in order to boost Internet connectivity and services in order to make it one of the most important services as the Sultanate is currently moving towards creation of a digital society. Statistics also show that the number of subscribers of fast Internet Asymmetric Digital Subscribers Line (ADSL) rose to 12,900 by the end of October 2006.

These figures while they do not include mobile IP subscribers reflect the extent of growth in the number of Internet service users and surfers in the Sultanate. The new service has led to a marked expansion of the users’ base and contributed to attracting new segments of customers, Oman Fuad Al-Hinai especially young people who are the future of Oman’s digital society.

Oman Telecommunication Company

Oman’s key infrastructure provider is the Oman Telecommunication Company (Omantel). In cooperation with other telecom operators, it provides telephony services, Internet and email facilities, broadband and wireless connectivity and a range of other services.

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) has created a higher bandwidth highway for Internet connection. As an incremental technology, this service will enable businesses to offer video-on-demand about their products (or services) or universities to broadcast lectures or even deliver on- demand entertainment or health services.

Omantel has drawn up plans for the roll-out of an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) backbone and a Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) to customer premises, considering satellite and MMDS as strategic alternatives for broadband access in remote areas. Initially broadband access to geographically remote areas should be concentrated on schools, health care centers, businesses and cyber-cafes.

ANALYSIS

The second half of the twentieth century saw great strides in technology. With the thirst for knowledge, much attention was focused on information and communications technologies. The Internet, mobile phones and satellite networks have unleashed an unprecedented explosion of ways to communicate. Since the start of the 1990s, there have been tremendous productivity gains, ever-falling costs and rapidly growing networks of computers which have Oman Fuad Al-Hinai transformed the computing and communications sectors. It is said that if the automobile industry had the same productivity growth, a car today would cost $3.

What is the Internet? The Internet – a centerless web of computer networks – was funded by the U. S. Department of Defense in the late 1960s as a strategy for communications during a nuclear attack. For a number of years, only universities had access to this new technology. However, by the 1990s, a user-friendly innovation – the creation of the World Wide Web – made the Internet more widely accessible. As time went by, computers became much cheaper and more affordable to the average person, and with that, the network took off. Today, millions of households have at least one computer and many have more than one. The Internet has become the fastest-growing tool of communication ever. Consider that the number of computers with a direct connection rose from less than 100,000 in 1988 to more than 36 million in 1998. More than 143 million people were Internet users in mid-1998 and by 2001, that number was 700 million.

The Internet’s appeal to the masses is its speed and cost advantages. A document sent by courier service from New York to Muscat took 5 days and cost $ 64.88. That same document if sent by email would have cost a few cents and would be instantly received by the addressee.

In view of the rapid changes occurring in the implementation of various IT developments, it was important for the Government to educate and inform the public about these changes.

To mark the first Information Society Day on the 17th of May, Oman launched its first Road Show. Subsequent to the launch of eOman in the capital, several road shows have Oman Fuad Al-Hinai been organized in different regions of Oman to reach out to the society. A road map was drawn to reach all major towns of Oman; Muscat, Sohar, Ibri, Nizwa, Salalah, Khasab, Buraimi and Sur over a period from May 2006 to March 2007.

The ITA team organized several informative seminars and presentations during the road shows. The event created a forum for direct public interaction which resulted in exchange of ideas and opinions about the public e-services. The tremendous turn out and response to the event indicates the enthusiasm of the public and their eagerness for electronic government in the Sultanate.

Focused group meetings with different public and private sector staff are also held to enable them to understand the vision of digital society and its potential benefits. This has proved to be useful in making the community perceive the benefits of IT, more specifically the results of public services through electronic channels. The forum also showcases the existing e-services in Oman and brings about increased adoption of IT and e-services.

National Statistics Online

Official statistical information is essential for the development in the economic, demographic, social and environmental spheres for all economies. Worldwide, strategies for monitoring progress and development are based on timely and accurate statistical data. The National Statistics Online is yet another flagship project which aims to present socio-economic indicators based on various criteria and timelines in a dynamic and graphical manner. Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

Oman Statistics Online (OSO) is a free-access online database with quality data compiled and published by the Ministry of National Economy (MoNE) periodically.

This data can be used to set baselines, make evaluations and set targets for various developmental activities. OSO system provides valid data anytime and anywhere through electronic media and hence increases the opportunity to access quality data.

Common Gatewey –‘Ubar’ Portal

Services will be accessed mainly through the web as progress is achieved in realizing the Digital Society and E- Government. Citizens will access the government via an Ubar Portal that links to other portals and web sites hosted by the government entities.

Ubar Portal is designated to be the main gateway to electronic services offered by the government. Named after the ancient Omani city of Ubar, the “Atlantis of the desert” and a main trading gateway into Arabian Peninsula, this modern web portal is designed to provide a rich, personalized, unified, and highly customizable experience to its users.

Anytime, anywhere access to the portal can occur through multiple channels such as the web and mobile devices.

To any portal visitor, a click of a button triggers a number of automated, sequenced and synchronized service delivery steps in a seamless and transparent manner. The visitor authenticated identity will be transmitted to various systems involved in the service delivery and set up the proper authorizations required to complete the service delivery process. The exercise also takes into consideration Oman Fuad Al-Hinai preparing, upgrading and implementation of the security framework for the government network and the Internet.

The use of electronic forms and digital signatures online through the portal will eliminate visits to government counters to submit signed paper applications.

Payment for online services will occur electronically on the portal and will provide the service requestor with a choice of payment instruments.

Global Gateway for Schools

The Global Gateway is a one-stop-shop for international partnerships, featuring schools from all over the world. Oman has become a special partner in this global gateway and will introduce its own customized version of the gateway in Arabic with local contents. A workshop will be held to prepare teacher-trainers and to raise their awareness of the international dimension of education and to show them how ICT can support and enrich collaborative work between different schools in different countries.

In this regard, the Ministry of Education organized a workshop for school teachers at the British Council, Oman. The two main focus areas of the workshop were the Global Gateway and e-languages.

E-Languages is a new free-to-use online collaborative programme enabling teachers to work in partnership with other teachers internationally. The workshop gave a hands- on experience to its participants on how to create an international project through the e-languages platform. It is a collaborative tool for teachers worldwide, allowing them to create digital projects and lesson resources in collaboration with a foreign partner. Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

Security in the use of ICT

According to the Human Development Report, “The World Wide Web began as a free-for-all, an unregulated domain, with a spirit of exploration and spontaneity”. This exploding new technology has grown faster than most people can understand the implications, both ethical and developmental. The Internet is increasingly exposed to a wide range of threats and it has become necessary for most countries to enact new laws in the areas of privacy, liability, censorship and intellectual property. What are these vulnerabilities and what can be done to overcome them?

Spam is unsolicited commercial e-mail and commonly known as junk mail. It is usually advertisement for products and services and can sometimes involve fraudulent or deceptive messages and can even include viruses. Hundreds of millions of junk mail is transmitted daily to almost every e-mail recipient.

A number of countries have enacted anti-spam laws but each country tackles the problem in a different way and each decides what constitutes illegal spam. To most, illegal spam is unsolicited e-mails or advertisements whose sender’s identity is concealed or falsified. Internet subscribers in Oman receive spam emanating from foreign countries. There are, as yet, no laws to tackle this problem.

It is widely believed that there is no one solution that will eliminate spam entirely. This will take a collective effort by governments, to enact new laws, and by the industry to produce new technology to at least control it if not to eliminate it entirely.

Infrastructure Security Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

The transition to e-government in Oman raises the level of infrastructure security from a technical to a strategic dimension since communicating with the systems providing the Government services becomes a key success factor and any security breaches to such systems can have a direct impact on the trust and support of the public to the Digital Society initiative.

Towards this mission, a national level security framework is drafted for adoption by all entities joining the Government Network. The framework prescribes comprehensive security and audit guidelines and procedures based on the Security and Audit Detailed report customized for each ministry. The framework also provides for adequate business continuity planning facilities, procedures and processes to be put in place.

In addition, a Government Data Center facility will be established at the Muscat Knowledge Oasis. It is a state-of- the-art, highly secured set-up that will be managed by the information Technology Authority.

E-Transaction Law

Oman’s Digital Society initiatives require substantial legal protection for the various entities in the use of ICT for official and personal communications and transactions. To increase the trust that citizens and businesses have in electronic transactions, ITA has initiated the formulation of e-Legislation for electronic transactions in Oman.

The forthcoming e-law addresses key issues such as: validity of e-transactions, intellectual property protection, taxation and data protection, legal recognition for electronic signatures, admissibility and evidential value of data Oman Fuad Al-Hinai messages, electronic payment validity, jurisdictional matters, issues of electronic messages and protection for privacy and security.

The law drafted by a professional law firm has been reviewed by the ITA and is being reviewed by the legal authorities. It is expected that a final version of the law would be enacted by the first quarter of 2007.

Security Policy Framework

The Security Policy Framework drafted by the Information Technology Authority (ITA) has been derived based on a structured collection of independent guidelines, processes and practices. The framework aims to ensure the protection of information assets from unauthorized access to or modification of information, whether in storage, processing, or transit. The framework is based on existing, accepted standards, guidelines, and collections of practices and reflects the behaviors of an initial community of high performing organizations. Both business and government organizations can implement the framework with practices they choose or are required to use for their market sector and country.

Intellectual Property Protection

Copyrights in Oman are protected under Royal Decree 37/2000. Protection continues for 50 years after the author’s death. Financial rights such as royalties are afforded under this law. The authors enjoy the right to have their work published in a pen name. Infringement of copyright is punishable by the Omani law.

Agreement for Software Licenses Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

The Government of Oman represented by Information Technology Authority (ITA) signed an agreement with Microsoft in July 2006. The agreement is for procuring the licenses to use Microsoft Desktop Products and it is valid for three years from the date of agreement.

Based on this agreement, Oman’s government will be procuring licenses for Microsoft desktop products. Microsoft shall undertake to re-invest some of this amount in various training and development related projects in Oman.

The agreement will cover the usage of the licenses for Microsoft desktop products in various Omani Government organizations. It has kept in line with the mission of protecting intellectual property rights in the software industry by working with licensed copies of software.

Online Content Filtering

The Sultanate prohibits pornography from entering Oman. Items subject to confiscation at the airport include compact discs, video and audiocassettes.

For online content, the only Internet Service Provider, Omantel, filters any immoral, illegal and undignified material available through their Internet connectivity. In line with many international Internet Service Providers (ISPs), Omantel blocks sites based on site content, in order to block pornographic and certain hacking sites that encourage hacking. In case a potentially useful site has been mis- categorized, Omantel provides for means to communicate through email and errors are corrected within 72 hours.

The Telecommunication Regulation Authority (TRA) regulating the telecommunications sector works in accordance with the Telecom Act (Royal Decree No: Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

30/2002) which has provisions regarding the use of any electronic means for communication including radio waves. The above act also penalizes violations by way of misuse of any telecommunication medium under the control of TRA with high penalties and imprisonment.

Realizing the harmful result of spamming and its resulting deterioration in efficiency, TRA undertook a public consultation on SPAM mail (unsolicited emails) issues, and the compilations were made available to the public as a paper.

Software Piracy Control

The Sultanate of Oman is committed to protect the rights of copyright owners. Oman joined the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) in February 1997, which provided valuable assistance in the drafting of Oman’s intellectual property laws. In June 1996, Oman implemented laws to protect copyrights under Royal Decree No. 47/96 which was repealed by the Royal Decree No: 37/2000 in June 2000. The copyrighted materials specifically include computer software and databases. Oman’s copyright law prohibits reproduction of software without formal permission. If caught with pirated software, either an individual or a company may be prosecuted under the provisions of Omani Copyright Laws. All illegal copies of computer software along with the articles used for illegal duplication will be confiscated under the law and the penalties include a fine up to OMR 2000 ($5,202) and a prison sentence of up to two years.

Cyber-crime Workshop

In association with the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) and the Arab Regional Center for Excellence Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

(Arab CoE), a Cyber Crime workshop was organized by the Telecommunication Regulation Authority (TRA). Its main objective is to build the requisite professional and technical capabilities in addressing the growing menace of electronic and cyber crimes within the region with global interactions. A wide spectrum of cyber crimes and their combat measures were discussed in addition to regulatory issues. Through such events, the Sultanate is taking the lead in a region-wide initiatives aimed at assisting Arab countries in developing their capabilities in combating cyber crime.

CONCLUSION

Recommendations

Under the directives of the UN General Assembly Resolution (A/RES/56/183) dated 21 December 2001, the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), was held in two phases: in Geneva from 10-12 December 2003 and in Tunis in 2005.

The Geneva Summit adopted a Declaration of Principles and an Action Plan to facilitate the effective growth of the information Society and to help bridge the Digital Divide. It brought together representatives from the highest levels of government, the private sector, civil society and NGOs. It offered a unique opportunity for the world community to discuss and give shape to the Information Society under a common framework.

Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) are transforming economies and societies all over the world. They are also transforming the way government does its business and serves its citizens. It seems likely that a country’s economic position in the world will be determined by the effectiveness with which it addresses the opportunities Oman Fuad Al-Hinai and challenges in moving to a Digital Society. Building on its achievements over three decades, Oman has ambitious plans to capitalize on the enormous opportunities opening up. The vision of the Omani Economy 2020 is to achieve economic diversification to consolidate and expand the economy to be part of the global village.

Various projects are under implementation. Some of these are completed while others are in progress. There are certain specific areas where the Government needs to enact new guidelines.

Voter Registration

At the present, citizens are required to visit administrative offices in order to complete voter registration forms. Citizens living in remote areas are greatly inconvenienced when they have to travel great distances to these offices.

The Government should provide for facilities to register new voters through online registration. They can download application and voting forms and can also send them by email to the Ministry of Interior. Voters can then verify their profile online and update their records online as well. All they need to do is provide their Identity Card numbers.

It should not be too difficult to implement this recommendation.

The National Registration System

At present, an Omani citizen is issued an identity card, a passport, a driver’s license, a vehicle registration card, a health card, etc. , and if he were to lose any of these cards, it would involve tremendous loss of time and money. Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

The Directorate-General of Civil Status of the Royal Oman Police should adopt an integrated computer system with an archive of accurate information relating to birth, marriage, divorce, death, residency and nationality.

The system should generate a unique civil number for each individual at the time of registration. The civil number will be printed on the ID cards and will be used to verify the individual’s identification. The card should be capable of storing large amounts of date (passport details, driver’s license, etc. ) which can be read at portable terminals and electronically validated.

‘One Stop Shop’ Registration

In order to set up a business, an individual will have to deal with at least six government departments which is very time- consuming.

A ‘One Stop Shop’ initiative will support an on-line company registration through the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. This e-service will simplify the entire process and combined with investor-friendly policies will bring efficiency into the system.

Visas on-line

Oman, with about fifty diplomatic missions abroad is not represented in all countries of the world. A visitor from a country without Omani representation will have to travel to the nearest Omani Consulate to apply for a visa. This is time- consuming and very expensive.

There should be an E-visa system that integrates with different entities involved in visa processing by introducing an electronic communication channel between applicants and Oman Fuad Al-Hinai visa issuing authorities. The objective of the project is to facilitate visa issuance and processing procedures of visas for residents, visitors, and tourists by enabling them to apply for visa online.

Education Portal

There is a need for a comprehensive educational portal that will facilitate a centralized electronic archive of information about students studying under the Omani educational system at both public and private schools. Interactions with parents could occur through the Internet, email and SMS. Students and parents can access published exam time-tables from the school. Learners can enjoy a range of multimedia-based learning materials available from a centralized archive. Students should be able to transfer between schools without having to produce paper-based documents.

Most of the Omani schools are now resourced with computers either in computer labs or in the learning resource centers. Of these, about 35 % of the schools are connected to the Internet through either a dial-up line or through ADSL connectivity. Omantel (the only ISP in Oman) provides a subsidized tariff of US $ 52.00 per month for ADSL connectivity.

E-Learning in Schools

The Al-Huda Private School is the first electronic school in Oman which is completely networked with about 50 wireless access points. Both the teacher and the students use multimedia laptops which are connected to the school’s intranet website and to the Internet.

The Ministry of Education should encourage both public and private schools to rapidly adopt technology to create a Oman Fuad Al-Hinai comprehensive and connected learning community comprising students, teachers, parents and the school administration. They should be encouraged to modernize their educational process and classroom materials in order to improve the learning experience and create an IT skilled future generation.

E-National Medical Record

The current process of registering patients at different hospitals and health-care clinics should be centralized at a single point of contact. With e-National Medical Record, it will become easy to uniquely identify a patient in any healthcare institution he/she is visiting for treatment and to ensure that there is a proper and safe continuation of treatment. The e-National Medical Record would help eliminate duplication of medication and lab investigations.

Commercial Banking

The Banking and Finance sector has always been a forerunner in the implementation of Information and Communication Technologies for both its customers and fund transfer systems.

While Oman’s commercial banks have shown robust and stable growth, they need to advance their services to new levels. The National Bank of Oman and Bank Muscat have led the way to online banking in Oman. Any of their customers with Internet access can perform most of the routine banking transactions through these banks’ websites. More banks need to go online to provide the kind of service that is now considered routine anywhere in the world. Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

In implementing this recommendation, great care will have to be taken to ensure the privacy of accounts, and the prevention of external virus and hacking attacks.

The Internet in the era of globalization

In the current context of globalization, it has become increasingly evident that the absence of globally harmonized legislation is turning cyber-space into an area of increasing dangers and worries. In the 60’s and 70s, the international community, realizing that there was an acute need for a law to regulate the high seas, after lengthy negotiations finally adopted the Law of the Sea.

The world is now faced with an even bigger problem, that of cyber-space. In the past ten years, the technological advances have proceeded at phenomenal speeds. New dangers have surfaced that have affected all countries without exception. These include spam, identity theft, obscene publications, cyber terrorism, cyber-vandalism and cyber-hooliganism, etc.

The question arises as to who polices cyber-space? No one. Each country enacts its own laws against spam, for example. It is all very well if the sender of spam is from that country. But what if the sender is from another country? The law will not apply to him. It is becoming increasingly urgent for the international community to negotiate a Law of Cyber Space.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Oman Fuad Al-Hinai

1. Statement by H. E. the Minister of National Economy on the occasion of the ratification of the Seventh Five-Year Development Plan and the State General Budget for the year 2006. January 2006.

2. Country Background: 1970-2005, Ministry of Information, 2005.

3. Ministry of Information – Annual Publication 2003.

4. Monthly Statistical Bulletin – Ministry of National Economy, vol. 17 no. 10, October 2006.

5. National IT Strategy, ‘Digital Oman’ Strategy 2002.

6. National Identity Program from the Directorate- General of Civil Services available online at http://www. itweek. co. uk/computing/features/207245/national-id-program- sultanate-oman.

7. Oman Economic Review, February 2006 issue available online at www. oeronline. com.

8. Statistical Year Book, Ministry of National Economy, October 2006, 34th issue.

9. The Royal Decree 52/2006 establishing Information Technology Authority –ITA.

10. Oman Digital Society Report, January 2007, ITA.

11. Kamal, Ahmad. The Law of Cyber-Space. An Invitation to the Table of Negotiations. UNITAR.

12. Human Development Report 2006 – 2007. UNDP. Oman Fuad Al-Hinai Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani

Flag of country Map of country

SIERRA LEONE by Victoria Mangay Sulimani

INTRODUCTION

Sierra Leone is a small West African country bordering the North Atlantic Ocean between the Republics of Guinea and Liberia. It is slightly smaller than South Carolina with a total area of 71,740 sq km (27,699 sq miles). Recent statistics reveal that the population has grown from 5.5 million in 2005 to 5.7 million in 20071. Statistics further reveals that the population expanded by 2.29 % (6,005,250) in 2006. Based on the current trend, the population growth is being projected to reach 9,140,077 by 2025 and 13,998,936 by 2050. The population density in 2006 was 84 persons per sq km. In 2003, the urban/rural population was estimated at 38 %. In major cities like Freetown and Bo the population distribution was estimated in 2003 at 920,717 and 269,000 respectively.2

The country has an extremely poor economy with tremendous inequality in income distribution. Although it possesses substantial mineral, agricultural, and fishery resources, its economic and social infrastructure are not well

1 Reuters Foundation – AlertNet. Website http://www. alertnet. org/db/cp/sierraleone. htm 2 MSN Encarta – Sierra Leon Facts and Figures. Website http:/www. encarta. msn. com/fact_631504857/sierra_leone_facts 188 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani developed, owing to the civil conflict that bedeviled the country for eleven years. When the war was officially declared over in 2002, the fate of the economy became mainly dependent on foreign aid. In 2003 alone, international financial institutions donated over $ 600 million for development and budgetary support. According to the Sierra Leone Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), poverty in the country is widespread and profound.

The PRSP further estimates that over 26 % of the population are food poor and cannot afford a basic diet and that 70 % live in abject poverty.1 There is also wide spread disparity in poverty’s geographical distribution: about 66 % of the population live in rural areas, three-quarters of the poor live in rural areas. In the poorest districts, where the war destroyed tree crops or which relied solely on small-scale subsistence farming and artisanal mining, it is estimated that eight out of every ten people live in poverty. The current available poverty profile of Sierra Leone reveals the lack of access to adequate information technology as one of the poverty indicators amongst others such as insufficient food, poor housing, poor health facilities, a high level of illiteracy, limited access to clean water and lack of money.

The purpose of this paper therefore is to examine the regulatory, equity, access and other governance issues with respect to Information and Communication Technology (ICT) of Sierra Leone. The paper will focus on how Sierra Leone can strengthen its capacity for policy making and implementation in order to achieve not only a more widespread and affordable access to ICT, but also the growth of a local access network infrastructure. Additionally, it will give an overview of the ICT sector that will assess existing institutions and governance mechanism for policy making and implementation with regard to structure, process and

1 Defined as an income of $ 1. 00 or less per day 189 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani instrumentality. Suggestions on the way forward and how to improve outcomes will form the conclusion.

In the early 1960s, Sierra Leone, due to its track record on education, was rated as one of Africa’s success stories. The country’s sole tertiary institution at the time, Fourah Bay College, established in 1829, in recognition of its provision of quality university education to not only Sierra Leoneans but also to other West Africans, earned the country the title of the “Athens of West Africa”. Sadly, in 2003 (42 years later), Sierra Leone was rated as having one of the highest illiteracy rates in the world. This is as a result of the civil war, which had a devastating effect on the economy of the country with dire consequences on education and other social sectors.

A major policy shift took place in 1994 with the institution of a system of education known as the 6-3-3-4 system of education1. In a bid to further boost education, a free education policy was also instituted. Since then, the government of Sierra Leone embarked on providing education to an increased number of children. Several other policies were also designed to improve access to quality education in the country. One of such policies was the Education For All, Action Plan (EFA). Under this plan, the Government, in September 2001 undertook the task of providing universal primary education. Primary school tuition fees were therefore abolished and replaced with fee subsidy of 2,000 Leones (which is less than a dollar per student per term for three terms). The plan also included the provision of an Essential Learning Package (ELP) such as

1 6-3-3-4 means that the student takes 6 years in primary school, 3 years in Junior Secondary School (JSS), 3 years in Senior Secondary School (SSS) and 4 years in University 190 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani teaching and learning materials and the Fast Track Initiative (FTI). The thrust of the policy was to ensure that all children from primary school to Junior Secondary School have access to education irrespective of their level, age, gender, social, cultural and economic backgrounds. The entire educational structure of the country including an overview of school enrollment in Sierra Leone by level, sex, age and is clearly explained below.

The increase in the number of academic intuitions would certainly bring about an increase in the number of computers in the country. However, there are no available figures on the number of computers in Sierra Leone. This is because the country lacks the capacity to effectively monitor the influx of information technology equipment into the country. Generally speaking, ICT equipment is very expensive, so a large number of them are being smuggled into the country to avoid duties and to cut down on cost, especially if they are meant for business purposes. Therefore, any estimate will be a grossly unreliable. However, in spite of the unavailability of data on the number of computers within the country, there is some information on access to other information and technology facilities such as the number of Internet hosts, Internet users, telephone lines, mobile phone subscribers, radio receivers, television sets etc.

Present access to information and Technology1

Personal/public computers in use No data Cellular subscribers - 1.40 % per 100 people Internet users - 0.20 % per 100 people

1 Globalis – Sierra Leone. Website: http:// globalis. gvu. unu. edu/country. cfm? Country =SL 191 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani

Telephone mainlines - 0.50 % per 100 people

Additional information reveals that from 1997 to 2000, the number of radio receivers was 2 per 1,000, and television sets 15 per 1,000. 1 There is however no information on the status of freedom of information (FOIA) legislation.

As already stated above, computers are very expensive in Sierra Leone. The cost of a brand new computer ranges from $ 1,250 to $1,500 depending on its capacity. Considering the percentage of the total population living on less than a dollar a day, which was estimated at 57 % from 1990 to 2003, it will be difficult, if not impossible for an average Sierra Leone to afford the cost of using a computer at an Internet Cafes, or of buying a computer on his own. Presently, the average income of Sierra Leonean is $ 50 per month.

In contemporary Sierra Leone, as in most African countries, web hosting is very expensive. This is because most ISPs face serious constraints such as few consumers, the high cost of bandwidth, the high cost of installation and activation, etc.. These constraints however have not stopped investment in the telecommunications sector.

A list of Internet service providers and cost per bandwidth is as follows:

Option 1 - KU Band - Slightly cheaper and it could be seriously affected by bad weather conditions.

Subscription/month ($) 1. Sigma 64 kbps up – 256 bps down 800 2. Galtech " 830

1 Earth trends Country Profiles 192 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani

3. Sab Technologies " 850 4. LimeLine " 1,950

Note: The above cost does not include installation charges that ranges from $1,000-1,500; activation fee: $300-500 and cost of VSAT equipment which ranges from $3,000-6,700.

Option 2 - C Band

1. VSAT equipment delivers IP and DVB - $ 11,250 2. Equipment requirement for VOIP + LAN - $ 2,460 3. Pre-paid Account charge & DID charge - $ 960 4. Activation fee - $ 500 5. Bandwidth quarterly payment - $ 1,470

Note: C-Band is more reliable and very costly but it is not affected by bad weather variation.

Other ISPs in the country, for which there is presently no available data on their cost and bandwidth, are: Sierrate, Datatel, Fidelity Global Communications, Afrinet and Sierra Com. Sierratel, which is the government owned institution seemed to have monopolized the telecommunications industry until 2000 when mobile telephony providers like Cetel, Comium, Africel, Tigo and now Datatel, entered the market.

In spite of the low-income level of the average Sierra Leonean, the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs); especially the use of computers has rapidly increased. In the early 90s, there were only a handful of computers in the country. Even the few that were

193 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani available were owned by a few government institutions, foreign embassies; established private businesses and U.N. agencies. Nowadays, local Internet access is available in almost all major towns. The use of computer in the country is a positive indicator of the availability of ICTs. The number of Internets users and the amount of international bandwidth has grown over the years. In 2002 for instance, for every 1,000 dialup Internet subscribers, there were 512 international outgoing bandwidth.

In Sierra Leone, the pattern of Internet diffusion has been similar to that of mobile telephone networks. Although not as widespread, the Internet preceded mobile phone explosion and has had its greatest impact at the top end of business and in wealthy families, primarily in major urban areas. Although the Internet is now widely used by the public sector, the digital divide is still at its most extreme mainly because ICTs are still at a very early stage of development in the country, coupled with the fact that most Sierra Leoneans cannot afford the high costs of these technology.

Before this period, Sierra Leone had no well-defined ICT policy. It was only in May 2005 that the country started the process of drafting what came to be known as the “National Information and Communication Infrastructure (NICI) Policy and Plans for Sierra Leone”1. This NICI policy was validated and adopted at a workshop organized by the NICI core group in collaboration with the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). The document examines the ICT status of Sierra Leone. The NICI core group, in collaboration with the Economic Commission for Africa, tried to address what they refer to as the ten NICI pillars or strategic areas namely: Business and Industry, Job Creation, Health, Education, Natural Resources and Environment, Agriculture and Food Security, ICT Infrastructure, Legal and Regulatory

1 Sierra Leone NICI Policy and Plans document of 19th July, 2006 194 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani

Framework, Good Governance, and ICT Leadership in Government).

It is expected that the NICI Policy and Plans will be used as a national strategy with specific objective to deploy ICT for both the acceleration and attainment of the country’s Vision 20251, the PRSP and the Millennium Development Goals. This is why each of the afore-mentioned NICI pillars or strategic areas have been divided into five sections namely: Issues, Objectives, Challenges, Policy Statements and Targets with a view to promoting equitable delivery of service in the use of ICTs.

In the issue section for instance, emphasis is placed on the key strategic issues that must be addressed when developing ICT strategy for a specific pillar or strategic area. Although some issues have universal context, the framework places emphasis only on those issues that are pertinent to Sierra Leone case. In the objective section, the framework has tried to identify the goals for access to ICTs and their use. It points out the many opportunities for economic growth, which ICT gives by providing economic players with new ways of interacting and doing business. The policy framework has specifically highlighted each of the strategic objectives against each pillar and those policy statements that cater for those objectives. The challenges section identifies the challenges that pose potential threats to the successful implementation of ICT intervention plans in the country. The Policy Statements section articulates the positions of government and other stakeholders and tries to create an enabling legal and regulatory environment that can

1 Vision 2025 is the National Long-Term Perspective Studies (NLTPS) – Sierra Leone Vision 2025 (SLV 2025), which was officially instituted in June 2000 with the signing of the project document by the UNDP and the Ministry of Development and Economic Planning (MODEP) on behalf of the Government of Sierra Leone. 195 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani promote the use of ICT in the country. The policy also advocates for the amendment or development of new laws that affect universal access to ICTs within the country. These include laws and regulations governing the structure and operation of the ICT sector, privacy, security and authentication, taxes, customs duties etc. Finally the Targets section tries to put some realistic targets and time frame to achieve and activate the policies and plans specified in the NICI document. This implies that there is an obligation on the part of the government to implement the policy in a timely manner as well as to urge stakeholders to adopt a proactive role when it gets to the implementation phase.

For the simple fact that the NICI policy and plans has been developed around the aforementioned specific pillars implies that the sectors are all interrelated and therefore cannot operate in isolation. As such, in implementing the policies and plans, attention must be paid to the linkages between the different sectors of the economy, e.g. between education and health, business and tourism, tourism and health, etc.

ANALYSIS

Information and Communication Technology products such as telephones, television, radios and other satellite communications have been in existence in Sierra Leone for over three decades; whereas access to modern forms of communications like mobile phones and the Internet started unnoticed roughly ten years ago, with just a few privileged people having access to the Internet or of affording the cost of mobile phones. At first, the majority of Sierra Leoneans could hardly perceive that the age of global communications technology was quickly sweeping across the country as it is in other parts of the continent. This is because only the government owned telecommunications institution, Sierratel

196 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani was the sole provider of telecommunications and information services in the country. Nowadays, information and telecommunications facilities continue to flood into Sierra Leone on daily basis, not only through Sierratel, but also through various ISPs and other telecommunications institutions that have flooded the market barely five year after the war in Sierra Leone was officially declared over. This mania for the use of ICT facilities is fed by various telecommunications systems such as fax machines, mobile phones and personal computers, which are believed to be the symbol and mascot of the information age. Since 1995, communication institutions like the Sierra Leone Telecommunications (SIERRATEL) and Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service (SLBS), Foreign Embassies, the British Council Library and recently the University of Sierra Leone have considerably invested in ICTs. In spite of these current trends, the country has not kept pace with developments in the rest of the world; possibly because of the absence of a well-defined ICT policy and the slow pace of socio- economic development.

Before this period, Sierratel, which still operates under the auspices of the Ministry of Transport and Communications, appeared to have monopolized the ICT industry. It is not because government regulation at that time favoured Sierratel’s monopoly, but because it was virtually the only telecom institution in the country. Today, even though the perception of limiting telecom with Sierratel appears to have been replaced with the presence of liberalization, interconnection and collocation, which points to a significant direction of regulated competition in the ICT industry, evident by the steady increase and growing number of ISPs, mobile telephony, TV and radio stations as well as newspaper houses, the fact is that the country is yet to adopt an ICT Policy, which is believed to have exacerbated the problem of limited access to ICT facilities in the country. 197 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani

With the rapid increase in the use of ICT facilities in the country, it must be borne in mind that Information Technology Policy must adjust to the fact that the greater the ICT facility the greater the vulnerability. The fact that the Sierra Leone ICT Policy still awaits endorsement is an indicator that the country could be highly vulnerable to the many disadvantages of the use of ICT such as cyber-space insecurity - viruses, spam and other forms of cyber-space theft, hooliganism as well as terrorism. Owing to inadequate education or training in the area of ICT, almost 95 % of Sierra Leoneans using computers or the Internet are not familiar with the progressive manner in which these Internet crimes are increasing. The unlimited access to mobile phones is a good thing in itself. Almost every youth in the urban areas and even in some rural towns now has access to this technology. In a radio phone-in programme organized by the World Summit on Information Society, National Youth Activities Sierra Leone, one of the participants had this to say about the use of ICT in Sierra Leone: “If ever there was an area where young people are leaders not just of tomorrow but today, it is the emerging information society. From Web development to the use of mobile phones, young people are growing up with these technologies, and it is these that the young people of Sierra Leone know better than their parents, and what gives them an edge.” However, in spite of this advantage that the youths have over their parents, concerns have been raised with regard to the adverse effects of the picture messages in the mobile phones with often-nude pictures and obscene text characters. These pornographic images could blur the good intention of websites and the use of bad language in instant messages sent by the youth could create serious social problems.

198 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani

Another area that is highly vulnerable in the Sierra Leone ICT industry is the media. Over the years, the media, which are supposed to be used as a tool to bring sustainable development and democracy, have been a weapon in the hands of unscrupulous politicians to divide the society. This is because in spite of the blatant display of unprofessionalism among Sierra Leonean journalists, which again, could be attributed to lack of adequate training, the media in Sierra Leone is progressively becoming sophisticated and as such can be easily manipulated. Available statistics indicate that the number of newspapers, TV and radio stations has increased, which means that any information transmitted, be it negative or positive, is sure to reach even the grass-root populations, thus making the entire citizenry susceptible to the problems associated with the use of some of these ICT facilities.

In as much as Sierra Leone’s effort at formulating the National Information and Communication Infrastructure (NICI) Policy and Plans is a commendable one, there already exists a serious gap in the policy framework, which if not addressed could become a deterrent, in the near future, to bringing the country’s ICTs to the level of other countries not only within the African continent but also in the world at large.

Taking a look at the ten priority areas identified for action by the draft policy framework, one could clearly see that in each of the five sections specified under the ten strategic areas, the framework has only concentrated on those areas that are significant within the local or national context even though some of these strategic areas may have broader international implications. For instance, the laws governing privacy protection and Internet security, which are of global concern, have only been dealt with based on the Sierra Leone

199 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani situation. However, in a rapidly globalizing world, such issues should not be looked at only from the national perspective because Internet theft and other notable cyber- space crimes know no barriers. One could safely argue that in this case, the draft framework has failed to address this very important global problem from the global perspective, possibly because Sierra Leoneans are yet to be exposed to the use of banking cards to do online transactions and telemarketing. However, considering the speed of change in the use of ICTs within the country, the government of Sierra Leone should seriously consider filling this gap before finally adopting the Policy. Indeed, the effect of the use of the Internet on a largely oral society like Sierra Leone has been profound. It has served as an important medium for shaping of information, conducting business and communication. Yet there exists the potential for misuse and foreseeable problems if prompt action is not taken by the government of Sierra Leone to address issues such as poverty, social exclusion and alienation, human rights abuses, unemployment, bad governance, and corruption, all of which are said to be factors that engendered the civil war. Government’s key priorities therefore should be to ensure equity in service delivery, achieve sustainable growth through revitalizing economic activities, including agriculture, mining and commerce, to generate jobs and income for all its citizens. Furthermore, much of the potential for the use of ICTs in Sierra Leone would remain untapped if adequate measures are not taken to address issues like gender parity, inadequate training for media personnel and civil society organization, high tax regimes, as well as Internet security and privacy protection.

CONCLUSION

From the above analysis, it is quite obvious that the potential of ICTs in Sierra Leone are enormous, especially when the use of computers and the Internet have continued to improve. The number of computer and Internet users has increased considerably from academia to commercial, governmental, and non-governmental institutions. A good number of Sierra Leoneans, even those in some rural environments are now aware that the use of ICTs, especially computers and the Internet could increase access to vital information quickly and enhance organizational efficiency and individual effectiveness.

Clearly, this awareness or the desire for access has created a sense of need; and that is where lies the problem because if this issue of universal access is not urgently addressed, it could serve as a deterrent to the smooth implementation of the yet-to-be adopted NICI Policy and Plans for Sierra Leone. The onus therefore lies on the Government of Sierra Leone to adopt strategies to identify and tackle the growing problems that Sierra Leoneans, especially the youth and other vulnerable groups such as women, disabled persons, face in accessing ICTs. Some of these problems could be outlined as follows:

a) Inadequate infrastructure b) Marginalization of vulnerable groups c) Low levels of education/skills and ICT d) High cost of ICT equipment e) Limitation of the media and civil society a) Inadequate infrastructure:

The country is still grappling with the devastating effect of the civil war on most of its infrastructure. The lack of adequate infrastructure such as good roads, regular electricity, and adequate means of transportation has

201 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani hampered the development and utilization of ICTs facilities throughout the country. But on the other hand, one could still argue that it is now five years since the war was officially declared over and therefore Sierra Leone now has little or no excuse for not making progress. Yet, most of the ICT initiatives are still concentrated in the urban areas, benefiting only a very small proportion of the population which can afford their high costs. The poor road network countrywide has made transportation of ICT equipments not only difficult and risky, but also very expensive. To make matters worse, the railway, which has the capacity to transport large quantities of very heavy equipments at reasonable costs and at a faster pace, have long been abolished.

If more access to ICTs were concentrated in the urban areas, it would be difficult for the country to move to a different level in this global technological advancement. Take for instance fixed line phones, which are still concentrated in the capital city, Freetown, leaving the vast majority of the towns and villages unconnected to land-line telephone systems much less Internet access. Growth has also been constrained by the extent of the electricity grid. Thus mobile phone subscribers have surpassed fixed line users and coverage has generally spread beyond the reach of the fixed line infrastructure.

Therefore, since poor infrastructure is said to increase the cost of service delivery, it would be expedient for the Government to consider investing in infrastructure by increasing its budgetary allocation to that sector. Another possible solution could be, collaborating with potential donors, financial institutions and investors like the World Bank, the IMF and the ADB to provide basic infrastructure like hydro-electricity and improve the road network in the country. Furthermore, making additional revenue through efficient means of taxation could yield high returns if

202 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani invested in infrastructure. Privatizing key services like electricity supply, road transportation, and telecom system could also bring about an effective and efficient management and service delivery systems. b) Marginalization of vulnerable groups:

Vulnerable groups such as women, the youth and disabled persons are finding it extremely difficult to access ICT facilities especially computers and the Internet. Women in Sierra Leone, like in most African countries, have limited access to the existing ICT facilities. Probably as a result of the multiple roles they play in the home coupled with the reasonable distance they would have to cover to reach the few tele-centers. Moreover, women cannot afford the high cost of ICT facilities since the majority of the country’s poor are women.

It is therefore important that Government lays strategies to address this cultural bias through programs on gender sensitization and awareness. Also, the misconception that disabled persons are misfits and liabilities in the society must change. Some have talents despite their physical conditions, which must be tapped for the socio-economic development of the country.

Youth also would have the opportunity to develop their potential even for self-employment if empowered. Therefore, the issues of poverty, gender mainstreaming and youth empowerment as well disability issues should be seriously considered when discussing and planning universal access schemes and programs. c) Low level of educational skills and participation in the IT labour force:

The high level of illiteracy in the country has immensely contributed to the slow growth rate and inadequate utilization of ICTs in Sierra Leone. Education is arguably the most important factor that could improve people’s ability to take advantage of the opportunities offered by ICTs. In fact, the most unfortunate situation is that most of the ISPs lack skills, experience and the convenience needed to save time in working with the Internet. Thus, a job that is expected within few hours could take days because of the lack of technological skills. Now that Sierra Leone has a well- structured educational system that favours basic education, technical and vocational training as well as adult literacy programs, government should consider incorporating ICT training programs into the educational system at the different stages. d) High cost of ICT equipment:

Most of the ICT facilities in Sierra Leone are very expensive, and given that a good percentage of the country’s population live below the poverty line and the fact that most of the country’s poor population lives in the rural areas, it becomes less likely for them to acquire ICT gadgets like radios, television, telephone, computers, etc. This lack of ownership has resulted in lack of access.

ICTs have been noted to foster social change and economic development. Given the opportunity of access, the country’s most marginalized groups i.e. the rural poor, women, the youth, and the disabled could obtain information that could ease their work, run businesses effectively, secure resources for themselves and their families, careers and communities and gain the skills required to participate effectively in the knowledge economy.

If every Sierra Leonean should benefit from the use of ICTs, government should focus on building a network of infrastructure for the majority and not the expensive high- capacity specialized access points that caters only for the wealthy minority. In as much as extending ICT facilities in the rural area is a good idea, efforts should also be made to reduce the costs of access and avoid discrimination in the management of the service centers.

The development of ICT has to keep due awareness of the need for its social and democratic benefits for the public at large. e) Limitation of the Media and Civil Society:

The media and civil society are also facing enormous challenges in the race for access to ICTs. The media, which is supposed to be an important tool for disseminating information, providing education on different development aspects as well as shaping the opinions and attitudes of the people, has been found to be lacking in content to meet the needs of all its citizenry. Lack of professionalism coupled with the lack of adequate medium of transmission or dissemination have had negative impact on universal access to ICTs in the country. Government therefore has the responsibility of providing adequate resources (human, material and financial) for use by media houses and civil society organizations. It must also institute regulatory mechanisms to watch the misuse of ICTs by unscrupulous groups of people and media institutions.

From the global perspective, Sierra Leone, like most countries on the African Continent still has a lot to do with regard the use of and access to ICTs. However, for a country emerging from a brutal civil war that saw the destruction of most of its basic infrastructure, it would be fair to commend

205 Sierra Leone Victoria Mangay Sulimani her for what she has achieved so far in this area. As a matter of fact, Africa as a whole has not kept with the pace in this global ICT revolution. In 1994 for instance, despite the rapid progress recorded, the number of telephones (land line/100 inhabitants) was only 1.6 % compared to 4 % in Europe, for example. According to the ITU World Telecommunications Development Report1, the average number of available telephones outside the large cities in the whole of Africa was only 1.2. In Sub-Saharan Africa, with the exception of South Africa, these figures are said to be much lower and therefore there are more telephones in New York an0d Tokyo than the whole of Africa.

In order to help bridge the existing digital divide and promote the use of ICTs within the country, the government of Sierra Leone should ensure that ICTs are accessible to all Sierra Leoneans irrespective of their age, sex, social situation or geographical location. If Sierra Leone must overcome this “digital divide” within the country and at the same time keep pace with its peers in the rest of the world in this global information technological advancement, it must start evaluating the inequalities in access that currently exist between the urban rich and the rural poor, the urban youth and the rural youth as well as between men and women. The Sierra Leone government should also ensure that there are provisions in the draft NICI Policy and Plans for Sierra Leone for access to ICTs by persons with disabilities and try to create opportunities for the youth, women and girls and persons with disabilities to be involved in e-strategy processes so as to encourage them to assume leadership roles.

1 ITU, World Telecommunications and Development Report, 1996.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. African Information Society Initiative (AISI) - An African Digital 2. Agenda – Draft National Information Communication Infrastructure (NICI) 3. Ahmad Kamal - The Law of Cyber-Space – An Invitation to the Table of Negotiation 4. African Technology Policy Studies available at http://who. atpsnet. org/content/programes 5. BBC NEWS available at http://www. Newsvote. bbc. co. uk/. 6. Digital Opportunity Channel – iEARN Sierra Leone, Taking IT Global organize WSIS awareness activities available at http://www. Digitalopportunity. org/article/view/69064/1/4678 7. Edstats – Summary Education Profile: Sierra Leone available at http://devdata. worldbank. org/edstats/SummaryEducation/profile/countries 8. Environmental Institutions and Governance – Sierra Leone EarthTrends 9. Country Profile Globalis Sierra Leone at http//globalis. gvu. unu. edu/ountry. cfm?country=SL 10. Human Development Report 2006 – Human Development Indicators country Fact Sheets – Sierra Leone available at http://hdr. undp. org/hdr2006/statistics/country_facts_sheets/ 11. Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) in Africa – Status Report. UN ICT Task Force “Bridging the Digital Divide in the 21st Century” Presented to the Third Task Force Meeting, UN

Headquarters, 30th September – 01 October 2002 – Presented by Mike Jensen 12. ITU, World Telecommunications and Revolution Report 1996 13. Ministerial Seminar on Education in Africa – Policy, Lessons, Options and Priorities - hosted by the Government of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 7- 9 September 2005. National Education Statistics Information Systems – By Tegegn Nuresu Wako ADEA Working Group on Education and Statistics 14. MSN Encarta – Sierra Leone facts and figures available at http://www. encarta. msn. com/fact_631504857/sierra -Leone-facts-an 15. OWL Institute, Open Education resources – Sierra Leone: An analysis of the Mobile Phone Revolution available at http://www. owli. org/home/node/731 16. Peer Review Journal on the Internet and University Participation – The Sierra Leone Experience – by John Abdul Kargbo 17. Report on Basic Education in Sierra Leone – “Leh Di Pipul Tok” 18. Reuters Foundation _ AlertNet available on http://www. alertnet. org/db/cp/sierraleone. htm 19. UNESCO Institute for Statistics Education in Sierra Leone available at http://www. uis. unesco. org/profiles/EN/EDU/countryProfiles-en. aspx. . 20. NICEF – Education Programme 21. Women of Uganda Network (WOUGNET) – A Policy Brief on Gender Issues and Gaps in the Draft National ICT Policy Framework 2002 22. World Summit on Information Society (WSIS) – Geneva 2003 – Statement by H. E. Professor Septimus Kaikai, Honourable Minister of Information and Broadcasting on the Occasion of the WSIS, Geneva, Switzerland, on Thursday, 11th December 2003 available at http:/www. itu.

int/wsis/Geneva/coverage/statements/sierraleone/sl. htm 23. The World Bank – African Regional Human Development Working Paper Series – No. 111 “Education in Sierra Leone – Past Challenges and Future Opportunities

209 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera

Map SRI LANKA by Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera

INTRODUCTION

Information technology, innovation and research and development are widely recognized as the most important factors in eradication of poverty, which is the prime objective of economic growth and development in Sri Lanka. It has been documented that long-term poverty eradication programs and strategies should be designed by incorporating the Information technology, innovation and research and development aspects. Many developed countries had achieved their economic growth, development and industry competitiveness by paying due attention to these aspects while formulating development strategies. This paper discusses Information Technology 1Policy in Sri Lanka and its interaction with poverty from a Sri Lankan perspective by giving more emphasis to the role of new Information technologies. Sri Lankan technological history can be divided into a number of periods. Technologies in different sectors were developed in these periods and evidence was not available about its exact contribution to reduce poverty. However information technology contributed in many ways

1 Amaradasa, R. M. W. , De Silva, M. A. T. , and Pathirage, R. P. (2002) Patents in a Small Developing Economy: A Case Study of Sri Lanka, Journal of Intellectual Property Rights, Vol. 7. 395-404 210 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera to improving economic growth and development, which ultimately reduces poverty.

The Sri Lankan technology level before the 16th Century was comparable to most societies of the time. It is believed that in ancient time’s high knowledge of trigonometry, some practical geometry and astronomy were well known to Sri Lanka. A Portuguese writer S. Jenny reported that Sri Lankan guns were the best in the world at 16th Century. In the health sector, a number of hospitals were built by Kings Parakramabahu and Dutugemunu and therefore, most writers reported that Sri Lanka was very advanced with respect to contemporary Ayurvedic medicine technology. On top of that, Sri Lankans were excellent in irrigation technology including many trans-basin diversions, multi-purpose irrigation, drainage, flood control and conservation. Some writers reported that Sri Lankan 12th Century ancient irrigation technology was unique and such technology could not be seen in the rest of the world until the 17th Century.

With the colonial incursion from the 16th Century, Sri Lanka was increasingly exposed to Western technology. This western technology was introduced as a package without any interaction with the existing indigenous technology. Portuguese did not introduce that much technology into Sri Lanka but the Dutch introduced some technology with respect to construction of water canals, buildings, roads and harbors. But the modern technology era began in Sri Lanka in the 19th Century with the British colonization of the country. The British idea was to develop Sri Lanka as an agricultural base for them and a market for their industrial products. Therefore, they identified tea, rubber and coconut as main produces from Sri Lanka to the world market. In order to facilitate these, they developed major rail and road networks and the Colombo seaport, as well as associated engineering departments such as Ceylon Government

Railway and Public Works Department, Government Factory, Colombo Port Workshop and private sector owned Walker Sons & Co. Ltd, Walker & Greig, Brown and Co. Ltd. and Colombo Commercial Company.

In the beginning all the key positions of these organizations were manned by the British. Later to train technical people for these organizations, the Ceylon Technical College was founded in 1893, and in 1950 this was elevated to the status of Faculty of Engineering under the University of Ceylon.

In order to eradicate tropical diseases and to improve the health of the settlers, the British established a Bacteriological Institute which is now known as Sri Lanka Medical Research Institute, Ceylon Medical College in 1870 and a Nurses Training School in 1939. In addition to this, a number of hospitals, clinics, and dispensaries were established, and due to all these measures substantial advances were made in the health sector. This created various implications for demography in Sri Lanka.1

The British later attempted the restoration of major ancient irrigation works mainly due to pressure from Sri Lankan representation in the legislature.

In the industrial sector, the British pioneered the establishment of several factories such as coir (1937), steel- rolling (1937), plywood (1941), leather (1941), acetic acid (1942), paper (1942), glass (1944) and ceramics (1944) due to the shortages of these products during the war. During this period, the Industrial Research Laboratory was established in the Department of Commerce and Industries to serve the industry. Some technology achievements were made in hydropower electricity generation, transport and in the

1 www. poverty.worldbank.org 212 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera telecommunication and broadcasting fields during the British occupation of Sri Lanka.

After political independence in 1948, a number of research and development institutions were established in order to develop science and information technology in Sri Lanka. Ceylon Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research was the first. In 1966, the Industrial Development Board was set up to provide various technical services to small and medium scale industries. Its principal functions were the preparation of the feasibility reports, technical services, surveys on industries, documentation and publications, loan arrangements, management information and advice to Small and Medium scale Industries. In 1956, a Ten Year Plan was developed by the Planning Secretariat with the help of famous international economists. In 1965, the National Science Council was set up after intense lobbying by the local science and technology community in Sri Lanka.

In the beginning, NSC was trying to formulate a national science policy for Sri Lanka which is still not completed. In 1974, the National Engineering Research and Development Center were set up to carry out and promote research and innovation and commercialization.

After the 1977 policy reforms, the private sector was given a leading role in the economy. Thereafter private research and development activities showed positive growth in some industry and firm levels. Technology transfer and research and development occured in sectors such as infrastructure construction (housing and dams, etc.), garments, communication, ceramics, rubber products and information technology through sub-contracting, out sourcing or indigenous research and development. From 1983 onwards, the escalation of the ethnic conflict meant that government expenditure was mainly diverted to war rather than to

213 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera industrial development. Foreign or local private sector did not also invest as expected. Therefore no great development in science and technology occurred after 1983.

Prior to independence, the state deliberately ignored technology issues which were not needed in plantation agriculture. But after independence, the1 most significant reason for the failure was lack of high level political commitment and support for the research and development activities. The lack of a skilled and motivated science and technology community within the country, and the lack of recognition and lack of active liaison with the international science and technology community elsewhere in the world are the other reasons for this gloomy picture.

Overall, a well defined information technology policy should be put in place at national, sectoral and corporate level to put Sri Lanka on the world technology map.

Historically, basic business transactions and governments drove the information technology industry. Today, foreign firms who want a piece of the emerging markets pie, domestic businesses such as the Sri Lanka Stock Exchange and the general learned populous who simply want to be on the information highway and need basic phone capabilities drive the telecommunications industry. During the past five- year period, productive sectors like agriculture, industry, trade and commerce have developed placing a greater demand on hi-tech information services. Especially the fast- growing number-one trade export industry in the country, the garment industry. Sri Lanka is earmarked to be the next India or Singapore, but to get there it needs a supporting infrastructure that is attractive to international businesses. Currently very few households have personal computers let

1 www. itdg. org/html/shelter/kis_research. htm

214 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera alone televisions. In 1992 there were 50 televisions per 1,000 populations. Sri Lanka has few cable televisions and has eight television channels that transmit mainly in the evening hours. However, growing use and need of telephones, as well as the desire to access computer networks and the Internet, will mean the country will need a million telephone lines by the end of the century, analysts say. Since Sri Lanka has to link its telecommunications network with other countries it is very important to have equipment and network that are compatible with the advanced tele-communications network of these countries.

Sri Lanka’s work-force is a major advantage for its industrial sector, according to the Walden Country Report. Educational standards are exceptionally high in Sri Lanka, while the state of development and wage costs for skilled labor are low by international standards, about one-eighth of those in Western Europe.

Skilled labor required for software/hardware development is still poor. There are many computer schools budding up around the tiny island, and this issue will be resolved soon. However, there is a large brain drain of the brighter technology students as in most developing nations. Students who come abroad to study rarely go back. The high pay rates in Western nations and better living conditions make it more attractive for students to stay on. The University of Moratuwa is one of the nation’s renowned institutions for technology training along with The Arthur C. Clarke Center.

Industry veterans who acknowledge that there is a huge potential for growth in the IT sector in Sri Lanka, say one big concern is the lack of initiative to change and undue fears. One big fear is that job losses would be caused by introduction of modern technology. The industry also needs a large number of young professionals with experience.

There are a lot of qualified university graduates in the computer field, but they are not being trained in a specific part of the industry that will make them professionals in that sector. Most of them have plenty of theoretical knowledge, but lack practical knowledge. In the major cities, computer literacy is high, and many young people are well aware of the latest upgrades of software programs. Whenever the latest version of Microsoft Windows is released it is embraced with open arms.

Size of Country

Sri Lanka is an island in the Indian Ocean situated to the south of the Indian subcontinent with a land area of 65,000 sq. kms., a few degrees north of the equator. It is separated from India by the Palk Straits. Land area is 24,996 sq miles (64,740 sq km); total area: 25,332 sq miles (65,610 sq km), arable land is 13.96%, natural resources are limestone, graphite, mineral sands, gems, phosphates, clay, and hydro- electricity.

The population of Sri Lanka is 20,222,240 (2005 est. ), the growth rate is 0.8 %, the birth rate is 15.5 per 1000, infant mortality rate is 14.0 per 1000, life expectancy at birth for the total population is 173.41 years, life expectancy at birth for males is 70.83 years, life expectancy at birth for females is 76.12 years (2006 est.), death rate is 6.52 deaths per 1,000 (2006 est. ) density per sq mile is 809, the et migration rate is 1.23 migrants per 1,000 (2006 est. )

1 http://www. statistics. gov. lk/education/censusS %202005. pdf 2 http://www. unicef. org/infobycountry/sri_lanka_sri_lanka_statistics. html

Ethnic groups are Sinhalese 73.8 %, Sri Lankan Moors 7.2 %, Indian Tamils 4.6 %, Sri Lankan Tamils 3.9 %, others 0.5 %, unspecified 10 % (2001 census provisional data)

Religions are Buddhist 69.1 %, Muslim 7.6 %, Hindu 7.1 %, Christian 6.2 %, unspecified 10 % (2001 census provisional data)

Languages are Sinhala (official and national language) 74 %, Tamil (national language) 18 %, others 8 %. English is commonly used in government and is spoken competently by about 10 % of the population.

Economy overview: In 1977, Colombo abandoned statistic- oriented economic policies and its import substitution trade policy in favour of more market-oriented policies, export- oriented trade, and encouragement of foreign investment. Sri Lanka’s GDP growth has averaged 4.5 % in the last ten years, with a brief interruption during the global downturn of 2001. Sri Lanka's most dynamic sectors now are food processing, textiles and apparel, food and beverages, port construction, telecommunications, and insurance and banking. In 2005, plantation crops made up only about 15 % of exports (compared with more than 90 % in 1970), while textiles and garments accounted for more than 60 %. About 800,000 Sri Lankans work abroad, 90 % in the Middle East. They send home about $1 billion a year.

GDP (purchasing power parity): $93.33 billion (2006 est. ), GDP (official exchange rate): $23.52 billion (2006 est.), GDP real growth rate: 6.3 % (2006 est. ), GDP per capita (PPP): $4,600 (2006 est.), GDP composition by sector: agriculture: 17.3 % industry: 27.3 % , services: 55.3 % (2006 est. ).

Labor force: 8.214 million (2006 est. ), labor force-by occupation: agriculture: 38 %, industry: 17 %, services: 45 % (1998 est. ) Unemployment rate: 7.6 % (2006 est. ), population below poverty line: 22 % (1997 est. ).

Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10 %: 3.5 % ,highest 10 %: 28 % (1995), distribution of family income - Gini index: 34.4 (1995), inflation rate (consumer prices): 12.1 % (2006 est. ), investment (gross fixed): 28.2 % of GDP (2006 est. ), budget revenues: $4.762 billion, expenditures: $7.095 billion; including capital expenditures, public debt: 90.6 % of GDP (2006 est. ).

Agricultural products: rice, sugarcane, grains, pulses, oilseed, spices, tea, rubber, coconuts; milk, eggs, hides, beef; fish.

Industries: processing of rubber, tea, coconuts, tobacco and other agricultural commodities; telecommunications, insurance, banking; clothing, textiles; cement, petroleum refining, Industrial production growth rate: 7.1 % (2006 est. ).

Exports: $7.076 billion (2006 est. ), exports commodities: textiles and apparel, tea and spices; diamonds, emeralds, rubies; coconut products, rubber manufactures, fish, export partners: US 31.1 %, UK 12.2 %, India 8.9 %, Germany 4.3 % (2005.

Imports: $9.655 billion (2006 est. ), import commodities: textile fabrics, mineral products, petroleum, foodstuffs, machinery and transportation equipment, import partners: India 20.7 %, Singapore 8.3 %, Hong Kong 7.3 %, China 7.1 %, Iran 5.9 %, Malaysia 4.4 %, Japan 4.3 % (2005).

The people of Sri Lanka have been enjoying free Education over the last 50 years. As a result of this we have a high literacy rate in the region. In comparison to the other developing countries Sri Lanka has a high quality of life. Some of the factors contribute to compile the Human Development Index (HDI) such as life expectancy of 72, infant mortality at 1.69 are impressive achievements in social development. Free education has made a remark-able contribution to social developments.

The demand for education has grown rapidly. Education has played a vital role in social mobility in Sri Lanka since independence, with the introduction of free education up to tertiary level, changing over to mother tongue as the medium of instruction and establishment of a wide network of schools (90 % of which are mixed schools. The free education is further strengthened by giving free textbooks and uniform materials to every student in schools leading to less disparities. These changes have provided equal opportunities for every citizen of Sri Lanka to enter the formal education system. Gender disparities in education too have been reduced simultaneously.

The total span of schooling spreads over a period of 13 years starting at the age of 5. School education consists of following cycles:

Primary: From Grade 1 to 5 Junior Secondary: From Grade 6 to 9 Senior Secondary: From Grade 10 to 11 Collegiate: From Grade 12 to 13

In Sri Lanka, the compulsory schooling span is from 5 to 14 years. There is a wide spread network of Government schools in the island, so that every child has access to basic education. In urban areas there are a considerable number of private and international schools. The government schools are classified according to their year span and streams available for collegiate level.

Participation rates by age and gender in 1994

Age group Total Male Female 5-9 83. 9 84. 0 83. 9 10-14 94. 4 94. 3 94. 4 15-19 54. 5 53. 4 55. 3 20-24 61. 8 62. 2 61. 4

Literacy (definition: age 15 and over can read and write): total population: 92.3 %, males: 94.8 %, female: 90 % (2003 est.).

The implementation of above education policies such as free education and compulsory education without gender differentiation has enabled females to reach high levels of education. When comparing male and female literacy rates, it is clear that there is no significant difference between male and female literacy rates, but we do see an inequality between the plantation sector and rural areas.

On gender issues the country has followed an enlightened policy. The right to vote irrespective of any restrictions, granted with universal suffrage in 1931, and the provision of educational facilities for women without discrimination, have established gender equity in Sri Lankan society. Women outnumber men in enrollment in secondary education and in professions such as teaching. The participation of women in other professions in increasing.

Sri Lanka accepted the world declaration on "Education For All" adopted at Jomtien in 1990. Literacy centers for non- school-going children between the ages of 6 to 14 were introduced in Sri Lanka, in 1981 with the support of UNICEF. Out of the children enrolled in these centers 52-55 % were girls. These centers have been improved and expanded to cover all areas where non-school- going children are concentrated so as to provide them an alternative opportunity to acquire literacy.

The provision of free education from grade one to university has been accepted as national policy in the last five decades. The constitution, in its chapter on the directive principles on state policy, states this as one of its objectives, namely, "The complete eradication of illiteracy and the assurance to all persons of the right to universal and equal access to education at all levels."

The number of government schools in the island is 10,088. But the distribution of schools is not equal. Although much has been achieved in providing equity and access, disparities still exist among popular prestigious schools and less popular disadvantaged schools in the remote rural districts and urban pockets. Prestigious schools are equipped with human and physical resources such as qualified teachers, buildings, science labs and furniture. These schools have a great social demand, as the achievement levels are high. Other schools situated in remote rural and urban areas do not have sufficient infrastructure facilities. It is clear that these disparities are the result of social economic factors.

According to the statistical abstract of Sri Lanka, more than 20,000 are enrolled for middle level technical information technology courses and about 30,000 are enrolled for vocational training programs directly related to information technology. Sri Lankan universities have produced only about 1000 graduates in natural science and about 650 graduates in engineering in 2001. Even though the Sri Lankan education system produces only a limited amount of human resources for information technology, the Sri Lankan industry is not capable of providing satisfactory jobs in this discipline. Due to the reduced demand for the disciplines in1n Sri Lanka, many graduates from technical colleges and universities leave the country for foreign employment.

Currently Sri Lanka has 6,526 Internet hosts and has 280,000 Internet users. Out of the Internet users, 55 % live in the Colombo area and another 35 % in other main cities like Kandy, Galle etc.

Sri Lanka has about ten companies that manufacture software for a total $ 2 million export market. With many American and European companies outsourcing software development in developing countries, software exports are bound to rise.

Among operating systems, Microsoft Windows is slowly gaining popularity in Sri Lanka. Network platform usage tends to be restricted to large firms in Sri Lanka. Novell Netware is the most popular network operating system used in Sri Lanka. Currently several foreign technology firms have moved operations into Sri Lanka, training the Sri

1 Malaka Gunawardene and Chanuka Wattegama, “Sri Lanka” (2003) 222 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera

Lankan workforce to manufacture various hardware/software products and to provide information technology services.

Lanka Internet has the highest number of Internet customers in Sri Lanka, with over 10,000 paying 1customers. Pricing is Rs.5,000/month (about US $ 50/month) flat fee for unlimited dial-up access. For 64k leased lines the cost is Rs.100,000/month (about US $ 1000/month) flat fee.

In Sri Lanka, the cost of hooking up to the Internet could feed a family for a year. Internet hookup amount is beyond the reach of even the middle class. It is a luxury item for most families, and access to it is work-related.

Names of the Internet service providers : Eureka Technology Partners, Pan Lanka Networking, Millennium Communications, Projects Consultants International, Dialog Broadband Networks, DPMC Electronics, Celltel Lanka, Dynaweb Services, Victra-soft, East West Information Systems, Lanka Global Online, Visual Internet, Dynanet, Dialog Telekom, Metropolitan Telecom Services, I-Net Corporation, Sierra Information Technologies.

Sri Lankan international bandwidth is mainly provided by Sri Lanka Telecom (SLT). Most of the other providers get the international bandwidth from SLT. It is also allocated to the customers based on subscription. SLT has some

1 Source: Demographic survey 1994- Dept. of Census & Statistics

223 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera bandwidth which still not allocated and is reserved for future services.

In addition to SLT, Lanka Communication Services also provides international bandwidth through Singapore Telecom. Lanka Com’s local links are mainly wireless based and can be up to 18mbps. Ceycom Global Communications provide satellite based connectivity. Bandwidth limitation arises mainly due to subscription and annual payment limitations.

Lanka Internet is Sri Lanka's first ISP and entered the Internet business in April 1994. Lanka Internet is connected to Sprint in Washington D. C. via a 256kb/s fiber optic line. The network is fully TCP/IP. Within Sri Lanka, it also carries IPX encapsulated within IP. Domestic network consists of about ten dedicated leased lines on copper, and about five radio links using Cylink radios. In addition there is an ongoing plan to develop a metropolitan Colombo wide radio network using Aironet Wireless LAN cards.

Charging Scheme: Service Charges/Rates Comments Internet Approx Rs. Individual institutions pay Access 13,500 per for their usage 64kbps monthly Link Variable Institutions pay for links chrgs. Electronic Rs. 120,000 (full Each institution pays only Mail and member) or Rs. once even if it has Other 60. 000 (affiliate multiple sites connected services member) per year per institution Connectio Rs. 50,000 per Charged for each separate n charges year per connection. connection

The equipment is Pentium computers with SCSI hard disks, and about 32 MB of RAM running Solaris x86 2.5.1, in all servers. Theer are currently two mail servers, two web servers, three PPP servers, one mail relay, one anonymous ftp server, one ftp/telnet server for customers, along with a firewall server. We are in the process of retiring our original "all in one" server, which is an ancient Sparc Classic.

Lanka Internet is Sri Lanka's first ISP and entered the Internet business in April 1994. Lanka Internet provides dialup access (slip/ppp) and dedicated Internet and WAN access (copper leased line and wireless) in speeds of 64k, 128k, and to E1. Sri Lanka Telecom is the second ISP to enter the market offering similar services. For connectivity to the Internet, Lanka Internet presently has submarine cable- based 64kbps connectivity to the U.S. Sprint network in Washington D.C. It is scheduled to be upgraded to a 256k

225 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera capacity. Lanka Internet's web server is based in Sri Lanka with a high speed T3 mirror in the USA.

Sri Lanka has near total literacy. Access to education for all Sri Lankans is free up to the secondary school level. Gender disparities are not an issue in this island country. Judging by mushrooming computer vendors and training centers in Colombo and provincial capitals, computer usage seems to be spreading. Computers are used widely in the private sector for business applications with varying degrees of Internet connectivity and speed. While a significant number of affluent upper and middleclass families now own a computer, the cost remains prohibitive for most Sri Lankans. There is little access to computers in Sri Lankan schools and colleges and less in rural areas. Internet access on a commercial basis became available for the first time in 1995. However, Internet use remains very low due to the high cost of computers, low bandwidth and low computer literacy. It is mainly the urban elite, businesses and private sector corporations who use the Internet. There is also an acute urban/rural disparity with respect to access to the Internet, and public Internet facilities are also limited.

Lanka Internet's client base includes the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Sudu Nelum (White Lotus) Movement, University of Peradeniya, Colombo Medical College, University of Moratuwa Electronics Department, Bank of Ceylon, Commercial Bank, Seylan Bank, United Nations, World Bank, Nestle, Unilever, Lipton, Blue Diamonds, Mobitel, Celltel, Call-Link, Ceylon Electricity Board, numerous foreign embassies in Sri Lanka, and NGOs. In addition to its commercial operations, Lanka Internet presently offers special concessionary academic rates for all schools and

226 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera universities in1 Sri Lanka, and plans to sponsor the activities of the Internet Society of Sri Lanka within the public and private primary and secondary school systems in Sri Lanka. Lanka Internet provides dialup access (slip/ppp) and dedicated Internet and WAN access (copper leased line and wireless) in speeds of 64k, 128k, and to E1.

One major change is the current work on the 100 mbps fiber link between the universities. Once that is in place, international bandwidth also will match it. A separate project called SchoolNet is funded by ADB and handled by the Ministry of Education. The infrastructure and services will be shared.

Private sector participation in the telecommunications industry has opened the door to competition and technological advances. Accordingly, a number of private operators have been granted licenses to provide some of the basic value added-services to Sri Lanka. The participation of the private sector in managing the provision of the value- added and data services have recently shown marked improvement. At present, five types of value-added services are being provided by the private sector - Radio Paging Services, Cellular Mobile Telephone, Pay Phone, Trunk Telecommunications Network and Mobile Trunking Radio Network.

The first-ever computer policy for Sri Lanka was formulated in 1983,. The recommendations of the policy committee

1 Source details: Telecom Regulatory Commission web site (Accessed on 06-06-2006) Source: USITC Trade Data Web http://www. lankacom. net

227 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera were accepted by the Government of Sri Lanka. The Computer and Information Technology Council of Sri Lanka was established by an Act of Parliament (Act No. 10 of 1984). The Act recognized policy recommendations and implementation as a major statutory function. In 1994, the Science and Technology Act was passed, and it became active in April 1998. This act replaced1 the Computer and Information Technology Council of Sri Lanka with the Council for Information Technology. The 1994 Act provided for policy recommendations to the government through the National Science and Technology Commission. It initiated a round table on information technologies with the participation of all key agencies, which resulted in the formation of the National Working Group for the Exploitation of Information Technologies. The main objectives stated were to use information technologies for efficient administration and management, to create a competitive advantage and to attract a significant portion of the global software and information technologies services market to Sri Lanka, to provide information on the country to the world, and to use information technologies as a tool for the acquisition of the information needed by society.

In 2002, Sri Lanka went through yet another review and realignment of national policies related to information technologies and telecommunications. The current policy envisions the growth of the country into a financial and service hub for the South Asian region, with connectivity to the rest of the world. Under this vision, Colombo would become a multifaceted service center coordinating development at the provincial level.

1 www. esrilanka. lk/eg-policy-prel-draft-may06-03.pdf.

The National Statistical Office of Sri Lanka has the mission to collect, compile and disseminate relevant reliable and up to date statistical information required in national planning and policy formulation for better future of Sri Lanka and its people, to monitor the program of development and other socio-economic activities and the measure the impact of various government policies on the economy of the country and the living standards of the people. The Department also supplies data for the needs of local and international agencies regularly. The data collected cover subjects such as population, agriculture, trade, industry, price, national income etc. The Department maintains 48 branch1 offices in ministries, departments and in district secretariats. The activities of the Department are carried out under three broad categories:

1. Censuses and Surveys conducted by the department. 2. Censuses and Surveys conducted by branch offices. 3. Other statistical work carried out by the department as well as branch offices with respect to the socio-economic conditions of the country.

ANALYSIS

There are two dimensions to the use of information technologies in Sri Lanka. One is that small individual projects, such as the Kothmale Internet Radio in Sri Lanka project have serious bottlenecks that hamper sustainability. Initial funding for infrastructure development has to be sustained by a parallel investment for the upgrading of capital equipment and for operating costs. Thus, initiatives enabling local partners to develop private-public partnerships

1 www. itdg. org/html/shelter/kis_research. htm

229 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera and business models to ensure sustainability are essential. Capacity-building of teachers is critical if the current initiative to upgrade secondary school education through the use of information technology is to succeed. Faculties in the universities are computer-literate and are capable of providing the leadership for a sustained effort for the rest of the country. But often they are working in isolation from each other because of inter-institutional competition. Thus, any initiative undertaken should be spearheaded by a nationwide collaborative effort of several partners and should focus largely on providing teacher education to improve awareness, access and use of information technology by teachers.

Sri Lanka's strengths in information technology can be summarized as the following:

1. High educational standards, including the highest literacy rate in South Asia. 2. Low-cost talented labor, for both skilled tasks such as software developments and unskilled tasks such as data entry. 3. Strong government support for telecommunication infrastructure development. 4. Deregulated and flexible trading policies for import and export of high-tech equipment. 5. Large English speaking population. 6. Strong domestic demand for telecommunication products and services.

It is only in the recent decade or so that information technology has started to receive the attention it is worthy of. Spearheaded by visionaries such as Dr. Arthur C. Clarke, an adopted native for the past 20 years, the telecommunications industry is as of recently reaching sub-standard proportions as far as the rest of the developing world is concerned.

Deregulation of the telecommunications network has seen licenses for cellular telephones and electronic mail being issued to private companies. The government has also attempted to improve and extend the network, but the ethnic conflict has hindered progress. Subscriber direct dialing facilities are gradually being extended to more provincial areas. Almost all exchanges are fully automatic. World Bank funding has been secured to increase exchange capacity in Colombo and between some of the island's principal cities. Software exports have been increasing steadily. Sri Lanka netted Rs. 200 million ($ 2 million) in 1993 from software exports through 7 out of the 30 currently operating local software manufacturers. In the near future, Sri Lanka has the potential to be a major player in the software export market, along with India.

Sri Lanka's weaknesses in information technology can be summarized as the following

1. Telecommunication infrastructure has to improve 2. Political problems discourage foreign investment 3. Opposition to privatization by trade unions, and 4. Lack of sophisticated software

Currently Sri Lanka’s greatest weakness is the poor telecommunication infrastructure. The complete lack of telephone connections to some areas of the country is evidence of this. While Internet connections and email software is now readily available, the pricing puts them beyond the reach of a greater majority of the population. Sri Lanka's eleven year ethnic rife with the LTTE terrorist infraction still continues to hinder the country's social, economic and political development.

It will be many years before Sri Lanka will probably be able to achieve Bill Gates’ aim of a PC in every home around the

231 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera nation. The government has taken many of the necessary steps, both with legal policy to open doors to telecommunication and with fiscal backing. It promised 160,000 phone lines to the rural areas in the 1996-98 years. On the down side, Sri Lanka still has a very weak telecommunication infrastructure, certainly not attractive to firms using high-tech communications to stay in touch. This issue, coupled together with the violent political rivalries is still keeping business at bay from this otherwise highly lucrative emerging market. Culturally, corruption (bribes, price fixing, etc.) still occur, but government is taking major actions towards curbing this situation.

Since the early 1990's, the government has placed a great deal of emphasis of developing the telecommunications infrastructure. Policies such as lax import duties on cellular phones (which used to be 87 %) of cost to help build the business communities, encouragement of foreign direct investments with attractive trading regulations and pledging of public funds to build the telecom infrastructure will all help the globally1 competing domestic firms.

An online database of information requests is maintained, and a web-page in local languages enables active community participation in the operation of the radio. Easy and free access to information has been effectively used by community members for business, educational, recreational and other purposes. More than 30 web pages have been created by community youths. In addition, an Internet club and a listeners club have been formed. The radio station has

1 http://infolanka. com/org/srilanka/tech. html 2. APCTT (1986) – Technology Policies and Planning Sri Lanka, Asian and Pacifica Center for Transfer of Technology.

232 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera become an integral part of the community, with people actively participating in interactive programs, contributing compact disks and songs to the station, and using the information aired on various programs to upgrade their businesses or learn more skills. However, the operational and financial sustainability of the project needs more attention and consideration needs to be given to better utilization of technical capacities for increasing revenue. In addition, the project has reached a point where staff-management coordination requires review and remedial action.

Vulnerabilities in the current situation

Lack of awareness, resistance to using information technologies, inadequate communications infrastructure and limited collaboration between different regulatory and educational organizations are some of the constraints on the greater use of information technologies for education. There is an urgent need to establish a government intranet and to provide Internet access to it. At present the Lankan Educational, Academic & Research Network (LEARN) provides an Internet and e-mail service to universities and a few research institutes, but does so with much difficulty owing to the lack of funds and the difficulties in obtaining stable communication links. Appropriate changes to the existing legislation, introduction of new legislation and the development of the necessary infrastructure are urgently needed to obtain maximum benefits from technology. For international players to enter the Sri Lankan market, it is also necessary to enact laws for the protection of personal privacy and intellectual property.

The Knowledge and Information Systems of the Urban Poor serves to investigate how they access the information and technologies they need to improve their livelihoods, and to strengthen their knowledge and information systems. Poor

233 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera men and women living in urban informal settlements need knowledge and information to cope with risks and to improve their livelihoods. Not knowing about their rights, the services they could access, plans for their areas or what options there are for tackling certain problems puts them at a disadvantage and increases their vulnerability.

Poor people have limited assets and are particularly vulnerable to social, political or environmental factors. They may have limited access to markets. The use of technology increases production, so there is no point in introducing technology if they have limited access to markets. There is little point in providing electricity if user charges are going to be unaffordable.

Information technology is a powerful tool, but one which is not always used in a positive way. For example, the Internet is already being employed to promote sexual exploitation. The ways in which people’s information technology access, participation, and leadership are addressed will determine whether information technology empowers people, or contributes to their further economic and social marginalization. While information technology is not without risks, the greatest risk for people is in not joining the global information society.

One of the major drawbacks is the lack of a proper technology policy framework integrated with an industrial development framework. First, the government should try to improve the macroeconomic policies to encourage faster innovation. They can introduce tax and other incentives for innovation, with special emphasis on speeding up the innovation in response to foreign challenges.

Technical issues such as difficulties in obtaining computer maintenance services, and user support services etc. at the village level have also caused problems for rural folk. In this context, the introduction of information and communication technologies in rural areas should be prioritized as the proliferation into rural areas has been rather insignificant in terms of volume. The fact that a majority of the poor population living in the country are in rural areas should also be considered.

Another interesting point is that the rural user has to pay more than his urban counterpart does to use Internet facilities. This is because in many cases an outstation user has to dial a server in Colombo paying national telecommunication charges, while the Colombo users pay only local charges. Some telecommunication service providers have taken steps to address this situation by specifying local charges for Internet users irrespective of the location from where they dial-in, but that solution has still failed to overcome1 the issue completely.

The low level of computer literacy in the country is a major drawback. Unlike in India, where vernacular languages constitute a large percentage of the local web content, in Sri Lanka English still holds sway. Not many of the local government organizations have bothered to present their content in Sinhala and Tamil. This creates an unbridgeable gap between technology and users given the comparatively low level of English particularly among the rural folk.

The opportunities offered by information technology have to be seized deliberately because both the potential benefits and the costs of not doing so are very high. However, it would be

1 www. iyp. org. Internet 235 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera a mistake to approach information technology solely from the perspective of not leaving people behind.

The following common problems can be identified as the major factors which degrade the performance in Sri Lanka:

1. Limited funds 2. Poor access to knowledge (lack of IT facilities) 3. Non-empowerment of researchers 4. No clear commercialization policies 5. Lack of information about market signals 6. Slow bureaucratic structure and rigid policies 7. Lack of commitment of top management 8. Poor relationship with industry

CONCLUSION

The Digital Divide has become a central international development concern. Following the Okinawa Summit in August 2000, the Group of Eight nations set up a Digital Opportunities Task Force (DOT Force) to devise ways to eliminate the divide. Moreover, the United Nations places access to Information Technology as the one of most important issue globally. Given the importance and high profile of this issue, the time is right to act to ensure that people in Sri Lanka can enter the information age. Information technology holds tremendous potential for improving the lives of people, including opportunities for employment, education, political empowerment, access to resources and information, and communication with a world outside the boundaries of home. Yet without deliberate action, people may be left out of the push to narrow the digital divide. Although most people in the Sri Lanka have had little contact with information technology to date, it is not too late to get off the ground floor of information technology policy and infrastructure development in Sri

Lanka. The early stage of information technology development is a critical time to advocate for universal access, low-cost extension of services to under-served rural areas, and an enabling regulatory environment. A focused and timely effort to provide people with information technology education and skills can enable them to compete successfully in the global information economy and play a leadership role in its development. To fully benefit from new technology, people must act as leaders in its development and as agents of change, using technology to accelerate their economic and social progress. If pursued thoughtfully and strategically, information technology can position people as global leaders in the mainstream of those seeking development solutions in the information age.

Information technology has become a potent force for transforming social, economic, and political life globally. Yet the uneven distribution of information technology within societies and across the globe is resulting in a “digital divide” between those who have access to information resources and those who do not.

Technology should be adopted after analyzing the specific needs of communities, and the level of acceptability on the part of the community to use this technology and by targeting it specifically towards the pro-poor population in order to eliminate poverty.

New technologies have a significant impact on economic growth, which in turn leads to poverty reduction. Though economic growth prompts gradual elimination of poverty, other factors if not addressed at the outset will halt the progress made to eradicate poverty. These factors include the

237 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera context within which the poor are based, their specific needs, government policies such as macroeconomic management and the proper management of the technology that is introduced as a measure of poverty reduction. The needs of the poor and the contexts within which they live are different across countries and even within the same country. The factors that propel them towards poverty are also significantly different. Thus, the necessity to consider these factors in the adoption of technology is crucial. Maintenance and training the poor to make vital decisions about the use of technology are important to ensure that technology is used effectively. This will mean that technology is adapted to the specific contexts of the poor and will give greater benefits to them in the long run.

The use of technology in agriculture

As Sri Lanka is an agricultural country, the Rice Research and Development Institute (RRDI) continues to play a major role in the country’s rice sector by releasing new high- yielding rice varieties and introducing improved rice production and protection technologies to help farmers realize the yield potentials of the varieties that they grow. The research and development programs at RRDI focus on increasing farm productivity from the current 3.6 tons/hectare to 4.5 tons/hectare within the next five years, reducing the cost of production and improving the grain quality of rice. Efforts are being made to develop techniques that will help increase nutrient use efficiency. A need-based fertilizer application method is being tested. This would help maximize effectiveness of fertilizers applied and reduce the cost of production. At present, the country produces 96 % of the required amount of rice. However, to meet the growing needs of the population in the face of a shortage of land for cultivation, RRDI is1 seeking to strengthen R&D activities to

1 www. agridept. gov. lk/RRDI/Rrdi index. htm 238 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera improve soil fertility and sustainability, pest, disease and weed management, post harvest grain quality and production technologies. Variety improvement programs have been launched by the Rice Research Development Institute to incorporate new plant types into new varieties. The traditional variety Suduru Samba has a highly preferred quality grain. Therefore, efforts were made to shorten the plant maturity through mutation. The focus has been on the development of technology for obtaining high yields with excellent quality. RRDI has also identified the line Bg 1816 (120 d) for immediate release as it is superior to the present standard variety and therefore will be recommended for island-wide cultivation. Bg 305, Bg 358, Bg359 and Bg360 were released for commercial cultivation and it is expected that these varieties will give farmers an opportunity of more varietal options for their paddy lands. The yield potential and adaptability of these varieties are better than the present recommended ones.

Efforts are also being made to produce seeds of some of the promising F1 hybrids by the Isolation Free method and Artificial Barrier Isolation method. Through this methods 0. 5-1 t/ha seed yield was obtained.

Continuous farming on the same land causes degradation of soil. The fallowing of such land is a widely adopted practice for many years. However, soil amelioration by fallowing the land is a lengthy process. Therefore, it is necessary to find methods to accelerate this process. Studies were in initiated in this respect by using Citronella and Sunnhemp as vegetation. Results show that the adoption of grass with 7 seasons increases the dry and wet aggregate stability by 12 and 17 %, soil available water at 0.l bar suction by 21 %, exchangeable K by 45 % and OM by 25 %. Adoption of Sunnhemp increases the dry and wet aggregate stability by 8

2. http://www. slt. lk 239 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera

% and 10 % and exchangeable K by 44 %. These studies have improved the productivity of farmed land in general.

The Field Crop Research & Development Center conducts experiments on maize, sorghum and finger millet. Experiments have revealed that hybrid maize and variety Pacific 11 showed significant yield increase to added nitrogen. Utilization of sorghum in different foods and in industry is successfully studied. The potential of the variety for feed purposes, both seed and fodder is being tried at several farms in the country.

The use of technology in education

Information and communication technologies can be used to facilitate education among the rural poor, who often do not have access to education. The Central Bank Report for 2002 reveals that the number of schools in rural areas has dwindled compared to 2001. In this context, distance learning-based education can fill the gap created by the lack of formal education. Technology can be a very useful tool, as it is to able to facilitate distance learning, and this method has been used by several non-government organisations to reach children and women in rural areas. The ability to transfer a great deal of information across various regions to different types of people at the same time is a very distinct advantage. The crucial factor would be whether rural people have access to these technologies and can afford them.

The use of technology to improve sanitation

Safe drinking water at both community and household level can be provided through the deepening of existing wells and the installation of additional hand pumps in each area. Sanitation and refuse disposal should be improved to reduce water contamination.

The use of technology in irrigation

Agriculture in these communities is dependent on sustainable ground-water supplies. Through repairing existing reservoirs, improvements in water conservation have been possible. Water-harvesting systems have been able to minimize the wastage of water.

The use of technology in transport

The lack of a developed road network is evident in the rural areas of Sri Lanka. The bicycle is the main mode of transport for the communities living in these areas. Simple innovations such as adding a cart to the bicycle can improve the livelihood of these people.

The use of technology in rural areas of Sri Lanka

The Kothmale Community Radio Internet Project is an attempt to extend the benefits of information and communication technology to some of the remote areas of Sri Lanka through the innovative convergence of two media, the radio and the Internet.

Training

There is evidence of utilisation of information technology in various sectors of the economy in Sri Lanka, but not much for instructional purposes. One project, the Training of Teachers in Information Technology, co-ordinated by the Ministry of Education and supported by UNESCO and the National Open School of India, seeks to bring together students, teachers, information technologies professionals, research and development institutions and private sector organizations to upgrade the knowledge and skills of

241 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera teachers and facilitators and to integrate educational technologies in their work. More broadly, it also aims at tapping the potential of new information technologies (including distance-education methods) to provide more easily accessible and better teacher education and professional development.

In the era of globalization, new technologies are rapidly reshaping the livelihoods of people throughout the world. The pace of technical change is increasing, and it is beyond the capacity of society to understand and manage its impact. Technical change has helped people in their daily battle for survival. New and improved technologies can help people living in poverty improve their livelihood options, increase productivity and incomes, improve the quality of goods and services that they use and enhance the quality of their lives, if technologies are used in ways that are appropriate to their context and needs.

We first need to understand the complex relationship between information technology and development. How can information technology be used to accelerate development. Without access to information technology, an understanding of its significance, and the ability to use it for social and economic gain, people in the developing world will be further marginalized from the mainstream of their communities, their countries and the world.

Information technology presents unique and timely opportunities for people. It promises better economic prospects, fuller political participation, communication with the outside world, easy access to information, and an enhanced ability to acquire education and skills and to transcend social restrictions. Information technology is

242 Sri Lanka Shaluka Gnanendra Ediriweera especially important to poor people because it can provide increased access to resources, the absence of which defines poverty. Hence, it should be viewed as a tool to facilitate access to a variety of development resources rather than as a competing interest. In the context of communication, transportation, and other constraints, information technology may be even more important for people in developing countries like Sri Lanka than it is for people in the developed world who have access to an abundance of alternatives.

The Sri Lankan key action plans should include the development of physical infra-structure, deregulation of the telecommunication sector, mobilisation of private sector investment, introduction of measures to protect intellectual property, capacity-building and provision of e-Governance services.

Technology change at the micro level undoubtedly can contribute to poverty reduction, whether through poverty increases or quality-of-life changes. However, a one-off change in technology is not enough. The need to enable men and women to continue to adapt and develop technology in response to the changing circumstances that they live in is of paramount significance.

Adoption of new technologies should also focus on upgrading the skills and capabilities of the user. This will enable poor people to make the choices that they want to. The relationship between the capability to make technological change and human development is the key to understanding how technology can be made to contribute to poverty reduction.

243 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan

SUDAN by Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan

INTRODUCTION

Size of country

Sudan is situated in North-East Africa. It is the largest country in the continent and the region of the Middle East, covering an area of 2,505,813 square kilometers (967,449 sq. mi. ). The area occupied by Sudan is slightly more than one- quarter of the size of the United States of America, and ranks it as the tenth largest country in the world.1

The last population census in Sudan was the fourth census carried out in the year 1993, and the total population according to the outcome of that census was around 29 million. According to the estimation of 2006, the Sudan population is currently around 41 million. This estimation placed the country, according to the United Nations, as number 33 in population among the 193 nations of the world. Approximately 3 % of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 40 % under 15 years of age. There were 101 males for every 100 females in the country. The annual

1 General Information about Sudan, Sudan Permanent Mission to the United Nations, www. sudanmission. org 244 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan population growth rate is 2.17 %. The population density in 2002 was 13 per sq km (34 per sq mile).

It was estimated by the Population Reference Bureau that 36 % of the population lived in urban areas in 2001. The capital city, Khartoum had a population of 2,628,000 in that year. The population growth rate for 2000-2005 was 4.5 %. 1

Sudan is a host to one of the largest foreign refugee populations on the continent. Refugee populations have been arriving at various times in the Sudan over the past 35 years, with the result that UNHCR’s program in Sudan was the longest-running refugee program in Africa. The Ugandan and Congolese refugees who sought asylum in Sudan 20 to 30 years ago were the first to arrive. From the mid-1980s, civil war and natural disasters drove large numbers of people from the war affected areas to the towns, particularly to Khartoum. At the end of 2003, Sudan was host to more than 285,000 refugees from Eritrea, Ethiopia, Chad, Uganda, DRC and Somalia. Internal displacement affected some 5 million Sudanese by the end of 2003 while another 600,000 sought refuge or asylum status outside the country.

Sudan is predominantly agricultural economy, although the development of the oil-export industry has led to substantial shifts in the economic structure. Estimates for 20032 indicate that the services sector is the leading contributing sector to Sudan’s GDP; services contribute 41 % to the GDP, agriculture 38.7 % and industry 20.3 %. With more than half of the state budget devoted to the war effort, economic development is inhibited by the country’s security situation,

1 Ibid. 2 Economic Performance of Sudan, Ministry of Finance, Khartoum, 2004 (in Arabic) 245 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan the severe shortage of foreign exchange, inadequate infrastructure and exorbitant debt.

The national economy has, however begun to show recovery symptoms. The GDP grew by 6 % in 1999 and inflation dropped sharply to 16 % after peaking at 166 % in 1996. By 2004 the inflation rate was down to 8.8 %. The GDP real growth rate for 2004 was 5.9 %. The growth was attributed to oil, which has boosted state income since exports began in mid-1999, and to the new program of the IMF reforms, started in 1997. Nevertheless, oil exports that now account for about some 70 % of export earnings, are unlikely to boost the economy significantly unless the civil war in Darfur came to an end. GDP growth, driven by developments in the oil sector, is expected to remain strong in the next few years. Agriculture, which contributes 38 % to the GDP and employs some 80 % of the population, remains the most important sector. However, it is highly vulnerable to climatic conditions and subject to volatile commodity prices. According to the statistics of the year 2004 the annual per capita income was only $ 530, which leads Sudan to remain within the category of the least developed countries (LDCs).1

General education, i.e. pre-university education, is divided into two main sections: popular education and state education.

Popular education features; Koranic tuition and recital schools known as Khalawa in Arabic. This type of education is regarded as the genuine beginning of the system of general education in Sudan, as the khalawas have played a

1 Ibid 246 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan significant role in literacy before the advent of the current academic education system. Khalawa tuition is then succeeded by religious high schools whose curriculum adapts to that of Al Azhar Al-Sharif in Cairo.

State education on the other hand, was introduced at the outset of this century by the British colonial rule. It comprised formal state education and consisted of three levels: primary, elementary and secondary education. The duration of these levels was four years each and hence succeeded by university education.

In the later years after Independence (1956), this system was altered whereby the primary and elementary levels were merged into two levels only; a foundation level of eight years, succeeded by a secondary level of three years.

Technical secondary schools enroll students who fail to continue their academic education. They also serve to meet the country's needs for specialists, technicians and experts in different fields. Schools of general education for both sexes are found everywhere throughout the country, with an average of 150,000 to 200,000 students being matriculated each year.

State universities: Khartoum University is the pioneer of higher education in Sudan. It firstly began with the founding of Gordon's Memorial College in 1902 as a higher educational institute for the provision of the government with junior-level, skilled, clerical and other professional manpower. It was upgraded to a college in the 1940s, and in 1952 was made into a full university. It presently includes a number of colleges and departments providing graduate and post graduate studies in different fields. A succession of well-educated generations graduated from it and provided the country with a trained and well- informed manpower that

247 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan is scientifically and culturally qualified in different fields. The establishment of a campus for Cairo University in Khartoum followed, and in the early 1960s, Khartoum Polytechnic Institute was founded. In recent years, higher education has greatly grown with the government establishing a number of universities in Khartoum and in other states of Sudan. The number of Sudanese public universities has now reached 36, apart from the ongoing plans for establishing more universities throughout the country. The private sector is notably contributing in the advancement of higher education in Sudan. Ahfad University for Women, founded by the well-known advocate of women's education, Sheikh Babikir Badri, is considered to be the pioneer in this field. Other private universities and colleges were setup at Khartoum and different states to enroll students who were not able to join state universities. Private and popular higher education boasts studies of modern technology, languages, accountancy, statistics and other disciplines.1

No recent data is available on financing of education in Sudan, however, the available statistics upto 19952 show that expenditure on general education increased considerably in 1994-95 as compared to previous years. The expenditure represents 1.03 % of Gross National Product (GNP) at fixed prices for the year 1994-95. Local communities and parents contributions represent 1.3 % for the same year. The total expenditure on general education amounts to 2.2 % of GNP. According to a study conducted in 1996, communities'

1 Education in Sudan, Embassy of the Republic of the Sudan, London, www. sudan-embassy. co. uk. 2 Financing of Education in Sudan, World Data on Education, www. nt5. scbbs. com 248 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan contribution represented 58.6 % of the total expenditure in 1994-95.

In 1994-95, government and community expenditure on education reached $37.7 million, basic education expenditure was $14.4 million (44. 1 %) and secondary education expenditure was $4.8 (12.5 %). The major part of expenditure on general education is allocated to salaries of educational staff. In the same year, the higher education budget (public and private) reached $13.5 million.1

No data is available on the number of computers in the country and their geographic distribution; however if it assumed that the number of computers connected to the Internet is identical to the number of Internet subscribers, the conclusion could be that the number of computers in Sudan is 200,000 as a minimum estimation.

No data was collected on the computer prices, however according the personal experience of the researcher the average price of a fully equipped desktop computer is around $600, an amount which exceeds the per capita income in the country as explained earlier. The average price of a lap top computer is $1000, but the demand for them is very low due to the fact that wireless connection to the Internet is available

1 Financing of Education in Sudan, World Data on Education, www. nt5. scbbs. com

249 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan only in the capital of the country within a radius of 50 km from the city center.

Sudan was connected to the Internet since 1997 and since that time the number of the Internet users is increasing. The number of Internet users is estimated at more than 600,000 users now. The gateway in Sudan is managed and operated by Sudanese Telecommunication Company (SUDATEL) under the supervision of the National Telecommunication Corporation (NTC). Sudatel has two Internet gateways, a VSAT connectivity with about 40mbps, and a Sea Cable connectivity at the city of Port-Sudan by the Red Sea, with 200mbps. Sudatel provides about ten ISPs with Internet bandwidth. Most of Sudan ISPs operate dial-up Internet access. Internet connection is priced by minutes of dialup at the rate of $ 1.00 per twenty minutes. Last year Sudatel introduced broadband connectivity in major cities and started to provide its services at a lower rate equivalent to $50 per month (7days/24 hours)1

Number of Internet subscribers is around 200,000, 30 % of them are in the commercial business and 20 % in the academic field such as high schools, universities and research centers.

1 Eltayeb Mustafa Abdelrahman, Technology at Work for Small and Medium Businesses in Sudan, Article in Connect World, www. connect- world. com

The Government of the Sudan has increasingly come to recognize the opportunities for Sudan and the special needs of the emerging knowledge-based economy. A Ministry of Science and Technology was established in 2001 to assume the responsibility for developing science and technology. A draft medium-term strategy was prepared detailing inputs, activities and outputs that will enhance the achievement of quantifiable objectives including ways and means of verification. The draft was endorsed by the Government and the legislative body. The Ministry is committed to maintain efficient and environmentally sustainable technologies, and to expand partnerships for promoting science and technology innovations. The strategy for science and technology is based on key building blocks of science and technology infrastructure, community awareness, investments, cultivating relations with friendly countries and incentives for commercialization and growth.1 It is a major priority of the Ministry of Science and Technology in collaboration with other concerned ministries and institutions. The Ministry seeks to encourage development of IT industries through twenty-four projects under six programs as follows:2

The Informatics Policies and Legislations Program includes projects of drafting and ratifying informatics legislation and the drafting and ratifying of related financial legislation.

The Program of Establishment of a National Information Network includes projects of drafting and ratifying a national information network law, the designing of a database and its operating system, a data entry system and procedures, and interconnection of the local networks and training project.

1 Statement by the Minister of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, www. most. sudan. net 2 Ibid. 251 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan

The Infrastructure Development Program aims at the designing of seven projects in the areas of creating the national committee, the development of human resources, the model feasibility study, the network of national research centers, the hardware industry, the super gateway project and the Sudanese silicon valley project.

The Software Industry Program is mainly concerned with the survey of private and public information technology needs, care and encouragement of talented workers, encouragement and support for using Arabic in data processing.

Electronic Publishing and Content Program is a three project program dealing with an exploratory project in educational content delivery, the model Sudanese tourism content and the model Sudanese cultural content.

The Informatics Services Program it has been divided into two projects which are the program for a digital library and the assessment of the size of the present information services.

ANALYSIS

The global expansion of information technology has done much to shape and improve international relations both economically and socially, with unprecedented advances being made in all aspects of life. However, there is an unequal distribution of these benefits, with developing countries and specifically African countries such as Sudan gaining far less than their Western counterparts.

In Sudan there has been a high correlation between the country's economic development and telephone penetration.

This correlation was one of the principal reasons for the privatization of the telecommunication sector by the government in 1993 and the subsequent establishment of the Sudanese Telecommunication Company (SUDATEL) as a public shareholder company, split between the Government of Sudan and thirty-seven private sector stakeholders.

Domestic telecommunications in Sudan had historically been sparse, with the system suffering from poor maintenance. As recently as the early 1990s the country had less than 75,000 telelphone lines, with 50,000 of those being in Khartoum, the capital of the country. However with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of around 30 % since that period, the countries fixed telephone market has grown significantly, with investments increasing from $500,000 in 1994 to over $100 million in 2006.

There is however potential for development since the market penetration for fixed-line and Internet usage is still at only 3 %, and 6 % for mobile services. DSL broadband services were introduced in 2004, while in July 2005 Investor Holding announced that it had launched its arena network in Sudan to become the second mobile phone operator in the country.

Meanwhile the majority share of (MOBITEL), the Sudan’s leading mobile network operator, was sold to the Mobile Telecommunications Company (MTC) in February 2006 for a record price.

The recent signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) has also meant that the southern region of Sudan has been able to establish its own individual telecommunication regime, creating new opportunities for service providers and equipment suppliers.

A major trend that is expected to contribute positively to the development of the information technology sector was the government decision to completely abolish all taxes and customs duties for all imported cultural material including computers, scanners, printers, paper and ink and other cultural inputs. As a result, computers are now being assembled in Sudan. A local private factory, Saria, produces 10,000 PC monitors, 1,000 HF communication equipment and 2,500 VHF annually.

The government is trying to set a model scheme of managing and utilizing information technology as a step in mainstreaming it across the country. In this regard a national information center (NIC) was established in 2005 and structured within the Ministry of Council of Ministers. NIC is providing the national network backbone and e- Governance support to the central government, the state governments, districts and other governmental bodies. It offers a wide range of IT services including a nation-wide communications network for decentralized planning, improvement in government services and wider transparency of national and local governments. NIC also assists in implementing information technology projects in close collaboration with the central and state governments. It endeavors to ensure that the latest technology is available to its users. NIC is also mandated with establishing a national information policy to govern how government information is collected, analyzed, stored, disseminated and disposed of. The information policy will also consist of security and protection procedures and best practices. 1

As in other developing countries, particularly the least developed countries (LDCs), information technology in

1 Sudan National Information Center, www. nicsudan. gov. sd 254 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan

Sudan is subject to many vulnerabilities that hinders its expansion and proper utilization. These vulnerabilities are multi-faceted and include economic, cultural and infrastructural vulnerabilities.

The low per capita income in the country holds back household demand for IT related capital goods and services. According to the latest statistics, the population in Sudan lives on $530 per capita, and this low annual per capita places the country’s households below the poverty line, and hence create problems of lack of the savings which are essential for individual families and groups needing access to information technology, particularly computers.

Poverty also affects patterns of consumption when subsistence expenditure lags in household budgets, leaving little for education and training which are essential for producing a large highly skilled work force needed for the progress in the IT sector. The Government’s annual expenditure on education reached $32 million with a big share out of it directed to salaries.

In the cultural side the marginal use of the local language may lead to a national failure to meet the requirements of information technology. The majority of population is Sudan is Arabic speaking, and their vulnerability will be featured by the fact that Arabic web-sites represented only 1 % of total sites in 2001.1 As regards content, although the government in Sudan is controlling the gateway for the Internet access and prohibits pornography, the content of media and Internet is always subject to heavy criticism by

1 Arab Strategic Reform, Al-Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies, www. ahram. org. eg

255 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan the Muslim clerics who used to devote most of their speeches in mosques to warn people against allowing their families, specially teen-agers and women, to access Internet web-sites as they see them as a vehicle for unacceptable content that might affect the social and religious behavior.

With regard to infrastructure, it goes without saying that modern information technology applications requires a fairly well developed information infrastructure, especially electricity and the telephone lines. These basic infrastructures which are taken for granted in the developed world are unfortunately poorly provided in Sudan. The power supply is so erratic that it is generally believed that it is normal to have black-outs and abnormal to have uninterrupted power for the whole day. The situation in the rural areas is far worse.

Consistency in public policy is a crucial factor that guarantees the validity of each part of this policy. Laws and regulations should mutually reinforce each other. This is not the case in the rules and regulations that regulate information technology policies in Sudan. This is because each ministry or governmental body is working on achieving the objectives set for it regardless of its implications on other national segments. Despite the removal of national tax on IT equipment, states and local governments are still subjecting these equipments to heavy local taxation. Furthermore the taxation on IT services income still exists for the reason that the Ministry of Finance and State and Local Governments are looking only to raise revenue for their budgets, no matter how these measures can affect the development of the IT sector. This lack of consistency in public policies will definitely hinder any development in the sector.

Another short-coming in public policy is the lack of one unified body for the management and coordination of IT sector. The responsibility of IT management and coordination is distributed among different competing bodies such as the Ministry of Science and Technology, Ministry of Information and Communication and the Ministry of the Council of Ministers. This will lead to misuse of resources and contradictions in provisions and trends.

Although these various institutions working in IT sector have their own very ambitious strategies and plans for its development, these strategies and plans are still mere dreams, due to the lack of finances. Despite the fact that the Government is opening the IT sector to private investors, the latter are hesitating to direct large investments into the field due to the high risks they perceive. As for the Government, investment in IT is not yet a priority and it lags far behind basic needs.

Much, therefore, need to be done to re-insert the IT sector as a priority in government policies.

It is a common fact that the world has become a single large family. Peace and development in one country will influence all the others. Developing countries, including Sudan, ought to be assisted by the whole international community. This entails a sound communication system between Sudan and the rest of the world, as well as within Sudan. Global communications with Sudan will depend principally on the level of information technology adopted and achieved by the country. Without this, Sudan will lose a lot of potential, economically, politically, socially and culturally. Without mobilizing national resources and capacities, and without

257 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan getting external assistance, Sudan will be impotent to address the huge problems that exist in the country.

Sudan is a country that suffers from poverty and hunger due to many factors including natural, political, and security factors. In order to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, IT can increase access to market and weather information and reduce transaction costs for poor farmers and traders. IT can increase efficiency, competitiveness and market access for Sudan. It can enable the country to participate in the global economy and to exploit its comparative advantages in factor costs. 1

To achieve the targeted level of education and to eradicate or mitigate illiteracy, IT can increase the supply of trained teachers through the enhanced and distance training of teachers. It can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of education ministries and related bodies, both nationally and locally, through the strategic application of technologies and IT-enabled skill development. Moreover, IT broadens the availability of quality educational materials and resources to ensure that education is well catered for.

Sudan is an unstable country, affected by war much more than any other country in Africa in recent years. War has made food production impossible in conflict areas and it often results in serious hunger. Nutrition and education programs cannot succeed in the areas of war, and billions of dollars will be wasted due to the war and aggression.

In order to stop the war and to build a peaceful Sudan, IT can play important roles in conflict management and post- conflict building. In conflict prevention, IT can help to

1 Information &Communication Technology for Africa, MEP Diva, www. esoa. net

258 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan address the root causes of conflicts, increase the visibility of potential conflicts, and promote better communications and dialogue. Also IT can make logistics more efficient, and contribute to the coordination of the bodies working in quick impact projects.

In post-conflict building, IT can serve as vector and catalyst of national reconciliation. It can help to disseminate terms of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) concluded in January 2005 between the Government of Sudan and the rebel movement in Southern Sudan. The Agreement ended a more than twenty years of civil war in the south. Its major provision is to conduct a referendum on self-determination for the people of Southern Sudan in the year 2011, the sixth year of signing of the Agreement. The referendum should be preceded by a census to be conducted three months ahead of the referendum. Information technology will play a considerable role in facilitating that census and the related referendum in a timely and accurate.

E-Governance is an international trend which Sudan will lose its benefit to the government and the country as a whole. In e-Governance the public sector will make use of IT with the aim of improving information and delivering services, encouraging citizen participation in the decision-making process and making government more accountable, transparent and effective. Moreover, IT can reduce communication costs for accessing services, reduce corruption, and help citizens to learn about policies and processes.1

CONCLUSION

1 Information and Communication Technology for Africa, MEP Diva, www. eosa. net 259 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan

The Sudan Government showed considerable interest in the strategic planning of information technology using a national committee for strategic planning. The committee organized several conferences attended by large gatherings of scientists and others interested parties. This has resulted in the formulation and adoption of a Comprehensive National Strategy for the period 1992-2017. It is regrettable that the Strategy, even though it approximately covered all fields, does not have a separate chapter for information technology, which only considered within the chapter on transportation and communications. Perhaps it was because the information revolution had not reached the peak at the time of formulation of the Strategy, as is the case today. It is therefore strongly recommended that the Comprehensive National Strategy be subjected to a review with the view to accommodating the missing targets, including information technology which should have a separate chapter bringing together all the strategies, plans and programs for information technology, now widely scattered within several institutions without any link between them.

Studies have shown that Sudan enjoys huge sources of new and renewable energy that include solar, wind, bio-mass and small hydro energies. Several proposals to exploit these sources exist1. Researchers recommend expedition in the implementation of those plans in order to break the bottlenecks of energy supply in many sectors, especially the IT sector, which is wholly dependent on electric power. Although these sources of power could be available in both urban and rural areas, the majority of shortages are in the

1 Electricity and Renewable Energy in Sudan: Past, Present and Future, Igbal Ahmed, National Center for Media Production, Khartoum, 2005 (in Arabic). 260 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan rural nature. The exploitation of these sources of energy will contribute in mitigating the vulnerability of the rural population as regards access to IT, and at the same time achieving the objective of realizing equity among citizens to have access to IT, both in rural and urban areas.

A recommendation that is hopefully expected to revolutionize the IT industry in Sudan is the establishment of an electronic city. The concept of electronic city has started to expand globally, and their number stood at 212 all over the world in the year 2001 compared to 122 electronic cities in 1994.1

The proposed electronic city could be established jointly through finances provided by the Government, the internal and external private sector and the contribution of the foreign aid. It has to include universities, research centers, factories, laboratories, hardware and software industries, IT clubs and other related subsidiary services. Many objectives could be achieved via the electronic city, such as development of IT industries, increasing local consumption and exportation of information and electronic industry products. It could also contribute in building the manpower capacity in information technology, developing civilian life, enhancing the welfare of citizens and increasing the national income in the long- run.

Since such cities are already planned in other countries, Sudan would benefit from studying their experience in planning its own.

1 Technology and Development, Zubair Taha & Hamid Faki, Sudan Media Center, Khartoum, 2005 261 Sudan Mohamed Yousif I. Abdelmannan

Information technology is one of the primary influences in globalization. It is increasingly playing an important role in organization’s and society's ability to produce, access, adapt and apply information technology. It plays an important role in the ability of nations to participate in global economic, social and cultural activity. Notably, the use of the Internet is playing a significant role in socio-economic development. The Internet could have an impact on economic productivity, health, education, poverty alleviation and empowerment.

Slackness or inaction in dealing rightly and promptly with information technology in the context of globalization will result in the avoidable isolation of the country and the widening of the existing gap between it and the rest of the globe. The machinery of globalization will isolate the idle and the lazy while benefiting those who learn its lessons.

It is therefore necessary for Sudan to raise the level of preparedness and speed up its activities on information technology to minimize the risks and to take the advantages of the endless opportunities linked to the globalization process.

Urgent action is needed. Analyzing and implementing the suggested recommendations could become a genuine step in approaching the global world and communicating with it in the language of information technology that it understands.

262 Swaziland Chief Phesheya M. Dlamini

SWAZILAND by Chief Phesheya M. Dlamini

INTRODUCTION

The reality of the changes that are associated with the Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) is felt in all the continents of the world. This has, undoubtedly, necessitated that each and every country must have, inter alia, a sound ICT policy in order to meet the attendant challenges. Therefore, the Kingdom of Swaziland is no exception to this phenomenon.

In launching the National Information and Communication Infrastructure Policy (NICI) and Plans, the Honorable Thandi Shongwe, Minister for Tourism, Environment and Communications, said “The Government of Swaziland is pleased to present this National Policy document which represents a strong political will, commitment and institutional support at the highest level to drive the policy process forward. ”

The Honorable Minister further stated that “ICTs are strategic in facilitating national development and the Government will play a prominent role in establishing the required enabling environment, the provision of the necessary resources, financial and otherwise, for the realization of the promulgated vision and mission.”

These assertions, coming from the Minister of Tourism Communication and Environment, are very important indeed, particularly in so far as they relate to the Kingdom’s political will and commitment. However, even more important are the benchmarks and measurables that are indicative of the status of utilization ICTs or the lack thereof on the ground. In the following paragraphs, the author seeks to identify and evaluate these benchmarks and measurables.

Size of country

The Kingdom of Swaziland is a mountainous, small and land-locked country, bordered by the Republic of South Africa on the North, South and West, and by Mozambique on the East.

Swaziland is virtually a homogeneous society. Its demographical and other related data are contained in the table below:1

1 Swaziland Information and Communication Technologies Policy and Plan Task Team Report - P 7 264 Swaziland Chief Phesheya M. Dlamini

Description of indicator Measurement Area 17,363 sq km Total population 1.1 M Growth rate 2.9 % Ratio men/women 53 % women, 47 % men Population density/ sq km 225.94 City population 20 % Rural population 80 %

Break-up of Population Under 15 years 40.6 % 15 to 64 55.6 % 65 years and over 3.8 % Literacy 81.3 % Life expectancy 38 – Reduced due to HIV/AIDS

Swaziland is classified as a lower middle-income country. The income trends typify the trends of most developing countries namely about 66 % of the population live below the poverty line, and about 43 % of the total income is received by only 10 % of the population. This appears more fully in the 2004 statistics below:

GDP (purchasing power parity):1 $6.02 billion GDP — real growth rate: 2.5 % GDP — per capita: purchasing power parity: $5,100 GDP — composition by sector: agriculture: 16.1 %, industry: 43.4 % services: 40.5 % Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5.4 % Investment (gross fixed): 23.6 % of GDP

1 Ibid P 10 265 Swaziland Chief Phesheya M. Dlamini

Swaziland Posts and Telecommunications Corporation (SPTC), the posts and telecommunications sector operator that is currently wholly owned by the Government, dominates the tele-communications sector for fixed service provision, albeit with private participation in mobile and Internet services. Fixed and mobile penetration is relatively high compared with some of the neighboring Southern African states and Internet usage is growing fast, but the expansion rates are still below international standards.

The fixed network is 100 % digital and supported by a countrywide optical fiber network. There is a single international gateway linking the UK and USA satellites and the Republic of South Africa via terrestrial microwave radio and optical fiber systems. There is also in existence an Internet Protocol (IP) Gateway via UK and the Republic of South Africa. Further relevant data and information is provided below.

81.6 % of the population aged 15 and over can read and write. Males: 82.6 %; Females 80.8 %

The education budget accounts for the biggest slice, but due to health and related issues particularly the HIV/AIDS pandemic there has been a marked change. The change is also due to other factors such as underperforming economy and capital expenditure.

Percentages of education budget trends

2004/05 % of 2005/200 % 2006/07 % Actual Total 6 of Estimate of Estimate Tota Total l 1,083,629 26.25 1,146,722 23.9 1,143,51 19.9 1 8 9

The public communication component of the infrastructure, 44,000 fixed lines, 240,000 mobile subscribers, 40,000 Internet users, and an unknown number of personal computers. Available evidence suggests that telecommunication services are comparatively more affordable in the Kingdom than elsewhere in Africa and the world.

In order for the Kingdom to attain its target in terms of the 2022 Vision, the following minimum levels would have to be achieved; 240,000 fixed telephone lines, 440,000 mobile cellular subscribers, 360,000 Internet users and 390,000 PCs.

This may not be easy, given the indicators and cost comparisons which are set out below.

Basic national indicators1

Indicators 1999 2003 2005 Population (in millions) 0.98 1.0 1.1 Telephone lines per 100 inhabitants 3.0 3.5 4

1 Ibid P 12 267 Swaziland Chief Phesheya M. Dlamini

Number of fixed operators 1 1 1 Number of mobile operators 1 1 1 Mobile cellular subscribers per 100 4 10 13 inhabitants Percentage of population covered 13 70 90 by mobile telephony Data communications operators 1 1 1 Internet service providers (ISPs) 2 7 6 Internet capacity (Kbytes) 256 2500 6500 Number of Internet subscribers per 0.5 1 1.2 100 inhabitants Broadband Internet subscribers per n/a n/a n/a 100 inhabitants Number of PCs per 100 inhabitants 2.3 2.7 3.3 Percentage of localities with Public 2 9 15* Internet Access Centers (PIACs) by number of inhabitants (rural/urban) Internet access tariff (20 hours per n/a n/a n/a month) as a percentage of per capita income Television sets per 100 inhabitants 7 9 11 % of households with radio 79 % of households with electricity n/a n/a n/a Computer cost comparisons with reference to average incomes

On average a PC costs around E5000 including software, and even though these costs have been coming down with improvements in technology, it is very costly when you combine with network terminating units as well usage costs for dial-up customers.

Import duties also add to the high cost of IT equipment.

The Swaziland Government network infrastructure (WAN/LAN) is quite extensive. It extends to all the regional and sub-regional offices and to some police, correctional service stations and border-gates. The plan is to link all offices including border-gates to the central computing facilities, and to move ICT services closer to the people.

The network topology is composed of VSAT, fiber, radio and data digital lines. The Government opted for a centralized computing strategy as opposed to a decentralized strategy.

The number of hosts is estimated to be 20,000 for all seven ISPs including the Government one. There are a number of Internet cafes concentrated around the main cities and on average they charge about E15.00 per hour.

A number of corporate businesses in Swaziland have PCs and access to the Internet but there are fewer numbers of Internet users. Only 20 % of business utilize e-Commerce and trade facilities.

Public Policy details, with actual tests of government policy documents1

Swaziland is part of the Southern African Development Community’s Human Resources Sector. The SADC Protocol on Education and Training was signed in 1997 to address various aspects, including curriculum development and Training. The specific clause referring to ICT is as

1 Ibid 269 Swaziland Chief Phesheya M. Dlamini follows: “… to promote and co-ordinate the formulation and implementation of policies, strategies and programs for the promotion and application of science and technology including modern information technology, and research and development in the region. ”

Swaziland has already establishing an Internet section that will be responsible for providing and maintaining Internet service for government. This is being done through the Ministry of Finance’s Computer Department. The main objective is to become a government ISP.

ANALYSIS

The National Information and Communication Infrastructure Policy (NICI) process started in May 2004, when the Government requested technical and financial support from the Economic Commissioner for Africa to develop an inclusive National Information and Communication Infrastructure Policy Plan for the country to address the following specific objectives amongst others:

(1) increase the national consciousness about the role and potential of ICTs for sustainable development; (2) chart a roadmap for ICT development in the country and define the roles and responsibilities of different players in the development of the ICT sector whilst mainstreaming gender in the development implantation of all ICT programs; (3) facilitate the deployment, expansion, rehabilitation and modernization of the national information and communications infrastructure; (4) provide universal access to information for all citizens in order to improve the quality of life through inclusive access to education, science and technology, health, culture,

270 Swaziland Chief Phesheya M. Dlamini entertainment and many other important aspects of human nature.

Challenges in the current situation

- Low levels of ICT literacy; - Insufficient number of ICT professionals and their mobility both in government and the private sector; - Rapidly changing ICT environment requiring a new set of professional and technical skills, expertise and management tools to successfully manage the ever-changing ICT environment. - Lack of cyber-legislation to address issues of crime, confidentiality and privacy.

- Absence of a comprehensive national ICT master plan; - High reliance on external consultations resulting in capital flight; - Absence of an institution to set standards and accredit ICT training offered by local institutions focusing on life-long leaning;

- Loss of benefits of a full e-Government set up - Loss of benefits from e-Commerce; - Government accountability and transparency; - National economic competitiveness;

The Information and Media Policy and ICTs

The Government of the Kingdom of Swaziland approved its Information and Media Policy in October 2005. In its preamble, the policy document recognizes the importance and impact of ICTs in the media sector through the following statements: New challenges have been furthered by the incorporation of the information and communications technologies and media sector. At operational levels, there is a demand for new skills and capacities. At a regulatory level, these positively enabling capabilities are allowing a new presence and penetration on new platforms. This now requires inter-sectional introspection as how traditional media should be defined in the new era, and how regulation should be synchronized.

Government further recognized the need to diversify developmental priorities by explaining the potentialities of these emergent opportunities brought about by innovative technologies in the information and communications environment for the purposes of expanding job opportunities, entrepreneurship, communications and managerial efficiency, in its quest to enhance all efforts at poverty alleviation.

In accordance with the requirements of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), the broadcasting sector in Swaziland has began to digitalize production and transmission facilities in order to meet the stipulated 2015 deadline. This began with ongoing training for the production facilities. The next phase shall include maintenance and engineering staff. Through the government, Swaziland attempted to take part in the relevant digital migration meetings in the region in order to learn from best practices. ICTs have equally changed the working landscape within the print media environment in Swaziland, and Government continues to encourage media proprietors to

272 Swaziland Chief Phesheya M. Dlamini upgrade the skills of their employees in accordance with these new demands.

Recognizing that ICTs would pose regulatory challenges through new capabilities of information dissemination on new platforms, the policy document anticipated the need to develop legislation that would be in congruence with reality: Government, in consultation with stakeholders, may introduce legislation to regulate the migration into the Internet platform by print and electronic media. It further envisioned the application of ICTs as an essential component in the dissemination of information to the public as well as the promotion of the image of the country internationally: Through the application of ICTs, Government will enhance its public communication mandate by delivering information to the public through its web-site, which will also be used to maintain a positive image of the Kingdom internationally. Finally, in its guidelines for implementation, the policy called for a regulatory framework that would appreciate the ongoing developments in the ICT sector and progressively introduce a new regulatory model to cover all existing and new services.

CONCLUSION

Specific recommendation, with explanation of importance of each

- Development of an ICT policy; namely to guide the development of requisite applications, infrastructure, institutional arrangements, and human capital, in order to ensure that ICT application enables national development needs, priorities, and strategies.

- The development of an e-Government strategy aligned to Vision 2022; namely launching e- Government initiatives and new applications such as e-Banking, e-Cards, e-Money, e-Commerce and e-Education . This is line with the Government’s National Development Strategy (NDS) which articulates the Kingdom’s vision for development targets and delivers a set of macro and sectoral strategies for its attainment.

- The deployment of an all inclusive ICT infrastructure; adequate ICT infrastructure is a critical component in the development of a meaningful knowledge economy in general, and e-Business and e-Government in particular.

- The creation of an enabling institutional environment; namely legal and regulatory environment for service provision. A strong legal framework with laws that permit and enable electronic business and protect parties to such transactions is an essential component.

- The provision of an enabling ICT governance framework; and

- The provision of political and administrative leadership demonstrating political will and championship. e-Government poses major challenges to governments all over the world at both political and administrative levels.

Need of action in the current context of globalization

The phenomenon of information technology is receiving attention at sub-regional, regional, continental and

274 Swaziland Chief Phesheya M. Dlamini international levels albeit with varying efforts and consequences due to a number of factors.

These efforts and the consequences become very pertinent in many areas in view of globalization. To paraphrase the words of Kofi Annan (the former Secretary General of the United Nations), it is important for developing countries to benefit from opportunities emerging from the digital revolution hence the important need to bridge the digital divide between industrialized and developing countries in key fields like health, education, income, gender equity, environment and humanitarian aid.

The international community is grappling with this matter particularly through the United Nations and its agencies and systems such as Information Technology Centers, United Nations Information and Communication Technologies Task Force and United Nations Information Technology Service.

At the level of the African continent, there are a number of important initiatives but they are yet to produce the much awaited results. These include the Information Technology Center for Africa (ITCA) which focuses on exhibition and learning to demonstrate to African policy makers and planners the value of ICT for development led by the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), Technology in Government in Africa (TIGA), and African networks like the Global Alliance for ICT and Development (GAID).

However, true as it is, the call for bridging the digital divide between developing and industrialized countries, the digital divide does not only exist between developing and industrialized countries but even exists within a country, sub- regions, regions and continents.

In the SADC sub-region, of which the Kingdom of Swaziland is a member, notwithstanding all the enumerated initiatives and programs, one sees marked differences among the fourteen member states due to a variety of factors.

It is befitting to conclude this paper with the following words:

“ By any reckoning, the phenomenal growth of the global information technology infrastructure has been one of the most decisive events which distinguishes our contemporary times. In just over the past five years, the number of Internet users has sky-rocketed from 0.5 million to 6.5 million – a thirteen fold increase”.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

a) The Law of Cyber-Space, Ahmad Kamal, United Nations Institute for Training and Research. b) Information Technology in Africa: A Proactive Approach and Prospects of Leapfrogging Decades in the Development Process c) 2007 Technology in Government in Africa (TIGA) http://www.uneca org d) African Network or the Global Alliance for ICT and Development (GAID) launched 26 March, 2007 http://www.uneca. org e) Information Technology key theme for SADC Conference in Lusaka http://www.sardc net f) Swaziland Information and Communication Technologies Policy and Plan Task Team Report 2006