Young People, Crime and Justice

Troubles of Youth: Young People, Crime and Justice

A Level Two Unit

Manchester Metropolitan University

B.A. (Honours) Criminology B.A. (Honours) Criminology and Sociology, B.A. (Honours) Criminology and Contemporary Culture B.A./ BSc (Honours) Criminology in Combined Honours 2008 /09

Unit Tutor: Other Staff: Dan Ellingworth Chris Fox Room 403 Room 411 Geoffrey Manton Building Geoffrey Manton Building Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Tel: 247 3001 Tel 247 3031

Wikisite: http://troublesofyouth.pbwiki.com Contents Page

Introduction ……………………………………………………………. p3

Session Outline ……………………………………………………….. p4

Assessment …...... p5

Reading List …...... p6

Troubles of Youth - 2 - Introduction

Welcome to the brand new unit “Troubles of Youth: Young People, Crime and Justice”. The unit will deal with a range of interconnected areas of study, but the core material of the unit will consider the strong relationships that are observed between the experience of being a young person, and the experience of crime.

You should be familiar enough, now, with critical approach implicit in the subject of sociology, and as such, you should recognise that the two terms “young person” and “crime” are both social constructions. By this we mean that the terms do not exist in a vacuum: both terms are subject to individual and societal emphases and interpretations.

At times, young people are seen in a positive light: enthusiastic, untainted by the errors of older generations, and vigorous in pursuing personal and moral ideals. However, as I am sure you are aware, young people are also, at other times, seen as ‘yobs’, rejecting of all values society hold true, and the source of a huge range of social ills – teenage pregnancy, anti-social behaviour and the cause of the elderly generation cowering in their homes as ‘feral youth’ run riot in their neighbourhoods. And who do we mean when we talk about ‘young people’ or ‘youth’? Are these different or overlapping groups of people? Are we interested in issues relating to children? When does ‘youth’ end? Do we define ‘youth’ by age, by rights or by responsibilities? What are wider society’s responsibilities to young people, and how do these vary for different groups of young people?

Similarly (as you will be aware after your first year of study) the history of crime control demonstrates that those behaviours subject to formal censure and punishment are not a given. It all depends…. on who committed the act, who or what the target was, at what point in history, and in what wider social context. Acts of drug use, assault, embezzlement, theft, anti-social behaviour sexual crime etc. have all been responded to with different levels of formal zeal in different situations. As criminologists, we need to consider issues relating to offenders (potential and actual), victims (potential and actual), society more widely (the ‘contexts’ in which crime does or doesn’t occur), and politics.

As a criminology unit, “Troubles of Youth” has, as already stated, crime at its core. We need, though, to consider some related, but wider questions. How do young people’s experiences of education impact on their experiences of crime, as either offender or victim? Does the world of work represent an alternative to a life of crime, opportunities for greater levels of offending, or indeed a source of personal risk to the young person? What divergent forms of social control are young people subject to, and in what arenas (e.g. sexuality, politics, leisure activity etc)? What different situations do people find themselves in, in different parts of the world?

In short, therefore, we are looking to understand the specific and varied experiences that young people go through in a range of different areas of

Troubles of Youth - 3 - society, and in particular, how these experiences impact on areas of criminological interest.

Session Outline (this may well be amended)

Term One Lecture Seminar 29th Sept Intro No Seminar 6th Oct Criminological Theory and Intro Young People 13th Oct Trends in the Experience of Youth & Crime: Public Youth Opinion and yours! 20th Oct Social Construction of Youth Outlining Key Issues 27th Oct Video – You’re not splitting up Images of Youth my family 3rd Nov Coursework Week Essay Planning 10th Nov Age-Crime Curve: Onset and Feedback from Essay Desistance Palling 17th Nov Young people and Risk Video – Cotton-wool kids 24th Nov Youth Culture and Identity Risk Aversion and its impact 1st Dec Gender and Youth Gangs and Identity 8th Dec Family and Crime Youth& Crime: Gender

Term Two Lecture Seminar 12th Jan The Politics of Youth Justice Parenting 19th Jan Youth Incarceration Political Approaches to Young People – Every Child Matters 26th Jan Evaluating Youth Policy Experience of Youth Incarceration 2nd Feb Restorative Justice Evaluation Exercise 9th Feb Schools and Delinquent RJ Video Behaviour 16th Feb Drug and Alcohol Use School based interventions 23rd Feb Anti-social Behaviour Report Planning 2nd March Youth Violence ASB Debate 9th March Working with Young Community Offenders Interventions 16th March Resettlement and Re- Report Planning offending

Troubles of Youth - 4 - Assessment

The assessment for the unit is carried out through two 3000 pieces of coursework. For submission dates, please refer to:

http://www.hlss.mmu.ac.uk/support/acw-schedule/

Assessment One Answer ONE of the following questions: word limit is 2000 words.

1. To what extent are young people’s lives affected by ‘risk aversion’, and what are the effects of this? 2. How useful is the concept of ‘gangs’ to explaining young people’s deviance? 3. What significance should be placed on economic and political shifts since 1980 in understanding the experiences of young people? 4. How can an understanding of the age-crime curve inform appropriate ways of responding to young offenders? 5. What are the important differences in the experience of young women and young men? 6. Critically assess the links drawn between parenting and youth deviance. 7. Why do youth justice professionals argue for a reduction in the use of incarceration for young people, and why has this been unsuccessful?

Assessment Two Word limit is 2000 words

Choose ONE of the following ‘social problems’ that relating to young people, and evaluate how effective policy and practice has been in responding to it.  Disengagement with school  Drug and/or alcohol abuse  “At-risk-of-offending” young people  The resettlement of incarcerated youth  Cutting re-offending  Knife and/or gun Violence  Gang Crime

Write a report on this topic which has two sections: i. an analysis of the dimensions and causes of the problem. ii. a critical evaluation of the policy response to this problem  You can interpret ‘policy response’ in a range of ways: this can include legal changes, changes in practice made nationally or more locally, and/or local innovative projects.  You should provide a clear description of the aim(s) of the policy response, and an evaluation of whether this aim(s) have been met  Your research for the case study can combine standard academic sources (books, journal articles, research monographs) with

Troubles of Youth - 5 - information gained from contact with agencies working in the subject area.

Reading List

The following reading list is far from complete, and you should only treat this as a guide. A number of criminological texts that you should be familiar from your first year units will have chapters of direct relevance to issues relating to this unit, but there will also be chapters that you may find of considerable help. One particular area is criminological theory: these are not directly referred to here, but you will need to apply these theories to the specific concerns of this unit.

Also note that considerable amounts of the reading list is available online: most of the journals listed here are available through the library computer catalogue, and reports by organisations such as NACRO, the Youth Justice Board, IPPR and the Home Office are nearly always published online in their entirety, or occasionally in summary.

General Texts

Bateman, T. and Pitts, J (2005) The RHP Companion to Youth Justice, Lyme Regis, RHP

Brown, S (2005) Understanding youth and crime, Buckingham , OUP

Goldson, B (ed) (2000) The New Youth Justice, Lyme Regis, Russell House Publishing

Kirton, D (2005) Young people and crime in Hale, C et al (eds) (2005) Criminology, OUP, Oxford

Muncie, J (1999) Youth and Crime: A Critical Introduction, Sage, London

Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage

Scraton, P (ed) (1997) Childhood in Crisis?, London, UCL Press

Smith, R (2003) Youth Justice: Ideas, Policy, Practice, Willan, Cullompton

Context Setting

Aries, P (1973) Centuries of Childhood, Harmondsworth, Penguin

Boyle, J (1977) A Sense of Freedom, Canongate Press, Edinburgh

Brooks, L (2006) The Story of Childhood: Growing up in Modern Britain, Bloomsbury, London

Troubles of Youth - 6 - Campbell, B (1993) Goliath: Britain’s Dangerous Places, London, Methuen

Davis, J (1990) Youth and the Condition of Britain, Athlone Press, London

Flood-Page, C., Campbell, S., Harrington, V., and Miller, J. (2000) Youth Crime: Findings from the 1998/99 Youth Lifestyles Survey, Home Office Research Study 209, London, Home Office

Jenks, C (2005) Childhood, Routledge, London

Kozol, J (1995) Amazing Grace: The Lives of Children and the Conscience of a Nation, New York, Harper Perennial

Newburn, T (2002) Disaffected Young People in Poor Communities, PPRU Paper No.1, Goldsmiths College, Public Policy Research Unit

MacDonald, R (ed) (1997) Youth, the Underclass and Social Exlusion, London, Routledge

MacDonald, R and Marsh, J (2005) Disconnected Youth: Growing up in Britain’s poor neighbourhoods, Basingstoke, Macmillan

Nakou, S. and Pantelakis, S. (1997) The Child in the World of Tomrorrow, Oxford, Pergamon Press

Postman, N (1994) The Disappearance of Childhood, Vintage, New York

Roche, J and Tucker, S (1997) Youth in society: contemporary theory, policy and practice, London: Sage

Wyn, J and White, R (1997) Rethinking Youth, Sage, London

Wyn, J and White, R (2000) ‘Negotiating Social Change: The Paradox of Youth’, Youth and Society, Vol. 32, No 2 165-183

Patterns of Young People’s Offending

Bachelor, S, Burman, M and Brown, J. (2001) ‘Discussing Violence: Let’s Hear it from the Girls’, Probation Journal, 48 (2): pp 125-34

Bachelor, S and Burman, M (2004) Working with Girls and Young Women in McIvor, G (ed.) Women who Offend, Jessica Kingsley, London

Curtis, S (1999) Children who Break the Law, Waterside Press

Davies, B (1996) Threatening Youth, Milton Keynes, Open University Press

East, K and Campbell, S (2000) Aspects of Crime: Young Offenders 1999, Home Office, London

Troubles of Youth - 7 - Estrada, F. (2001) ‘Juvenile violence as a social problem: Trends, media attention and societal response’, British Journal of Criminology, 41: 639-55

Farrington D. (1992) `Trends in English juvenile delinquency and their explanation' International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice Vol. 16, No 2 pp. 151-163

FitzGerald, M.,Stockdale, J. and Hale, C. (2003) Young People and Street Crime. Youth Justice Board for England and Wales: London.

Graham J. and Bowling, B (1995) Young People and Crime, HORS 145, London, Home Office

Hagell, A and Newburn, T (1994) Persistent Young Offenders, London, Policy Studies Institute

Jeffrey C., and Mcdowell, L ‘Youth in a Comparative Perspective: Global Change, Local Lives’, Youth & Society, Vol. 36 No. 2, December 2004 131-142

McNeill, F., and Batchelor, S. (2004) Persistent Offending by Young People, London, National Association of Probation Officers

NACRO (2004) Some Facts About Young People who Offend 2002, Youth Crime Briefing, London, NACRO

Shaw, C and McKay, H. (1942) Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas, Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Tonry, M and Doob A. (eds) (2004) Youth Crime and Youth Justice. Comparative and Cross National Perspectives, Vol. 31 Crime and Justice: a Review of Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Wikstrom, P-O and Loeber, R. (2000) ‘Do disadvantaged neighbourhoods cause well- adjusted children to become adolescent delinquents? A study of male serious juvenile offending, individual risk and protective factor, and neighbourhood context, Criminology, 38: 1109-42

Wright, R., Brookman, F. and Bennett, T.H. (2006) ‘The foreground dynamics of street robbery in Britain’, British Journal of Criminology. Vol. 46, no. 1. pp.1-15.

Young People in Political and Media Discourse

Audit Commission (1996) Misspent Youth: Young People and Crime, Audit Commission, London

Audit Commission (1998) Misspent Youth ‘98: the Challenge for Youth Justice, Audit Commission, London

Troubles of Youth - 8 - Chief Secretary to the Treasury (2003) Every Child Matters (Green Paper), Cm 5860, HMSO, London

Clarke, J (1975) ‘The three Rs – repression, rescue and rehabilitation: ideologies of control for working class youth’ in Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage

Edwards, L and Becky Hatch (2003) Passing Time: A report about young people and communities, IPPR, London

Franklin, B., and Petley, J., (1996) ‘Killing the age of innocence: newspaper reporting of the death of James Bulger’ in in J. Pilcher and S.Wagg (eds) Thatcher’s Children? Politics, childhood and society in the 1908s and 1990s, Falmer Press, London

Goldson, B.; Lavalette, M.; McKechnie, J. (eds) (2002) Children, Welfare and the State, London, Sage

Hendrick, H. (1997) Constructions and Reconstructions of British childhood: an interpretative survey, 1800 to the present, in Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage

Home Office (1997) Tackling Youth Crime: A Consultation Paper, London, Home Office

Home Office (2003) Using Powers to Take a Stand against Yobs, London, Home Office

Jewkes, Y. (2004) Crime and the Media, Sage, London esp. Ch4. “Media Constructions of Children: ‘Evil Monsters’ and ‘Tragic Victims’”

Labour Party (1996) Tackling Youth Crime: Reforming Youth Justice, London, Labour Party

Magarey, S (1978) ‘The invention of juvenile delinquency in early nineteenth-century England’ in Labour History No 34. pp11-25 (also available abridged in Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage

McRobbie, A. and Thornton, S. (1995) Rethinking ‘moral panic’ for multi-mediated social worlds, British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 46, No 4, pp 559-74 (also available in Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage)

Mizen, P (2003) ‘The best days of your life? Youth, policy and Blair’s New Labour’, Critical Social Policy, 23(4): 453-76

Morrison, B (1997) As If, London, Granta

Newburn, T. (1996) ‘Back to the Future? Youth crime, youth justice and the rediscovery of ‘authoritarian populism’’ in J. Pilcher and S.Wagg (eds) Thatcher’s

Troubles of Youth - 9 - Children? Politics, childhood and society in eth 1908s and 1990s, Falmer Press, London

Pearson, G (1983) Hooligan, a History of Respectable Fears, Macmillan, London

Pearson, G (1993/4) Youth Crime and moral decline: permissiveness and tradition, in Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage

Pitts, J (2001) The new politics of youth crime: discipline or solidarity? Basingstoke : Palgrave

Platt, A (1969) The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency, Chicago, Il, Chicago University Press

Rose, N (1989) Governing the Soul, London: Routledge

Scraton, P. and Haydon, D. (2002) Challenging the criminalization of children and young people available in Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage

Welch, M., Price, E., and Yankey, N. (2002) ‘Moral Panic over Youth Violence: Wilding and the Manufacture of Menace in the Media’, Youth and Society, Vol. 34, No 1, 3-30

Age and development

Agnew, R (2003) ‘An integrated theory of the adolescent peak in offending’, Youth and Society, Vol. 34, No 3 pp263-299

Farrington, D.P. (2002) Ch 19 Developmental Criminology and Risk-focused prevention, in Maguire, M., Morgan, R., and Reiner, R (2002) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 3rd edition, Oxford, OUP

Farrington D.P.(1992) Criminal Career Research in the United Kingdom; Brit. J. of Crim. Vol 32. No 4.

Hirschi, T and M.Gottfredson (1983) Age and the Explanation of Crime, The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 89, No. 3.

Homel, R (2005) Ch 4. ‘Developmental crime prevention’ in Tilley, N (2005) Handbook of Crime Prevention and Community Safety, Cullompton, Willan

Moffitt, T.E (1993) Adolescence-Limited and Life-Course-Persistent Antisocial Behavior: A Developmental Taxonomy, Psychological Review, Vol. 100, No. 4.

Rutherford, A (1992) Growing out of crime: Society and young people in trouble, Penguin, Harmondsworth

Troubles of Youth - 10 - Sampson, R.J. and Laub, J.H. (1993) Crime in the making: pathways and turning points through life, London : Harvard University Press

Sampson, R.J. and Laub, J.H. (2003) Shared beginnings, divergent lives: delinquent boys to age 70; London: Harvard University Press

Smith, D.J. (2002) Ch 20 Crime and the Life Course, in Maguire, M., Morgan, R., and Reiner, R (2002) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 3rd edition, Oxford, OUP

Young People and Risk

Cieslek, M and Pollock, G (eds) (2002) Young People in Risk Society: The Restructuring of Youth Identities and Transitions in Late Modernity, Aldershot, Ashgate

Collinshaw, S., Maughan, B., Goodman, R. and Pickles, A. (2004) ‘Time Trends in adolescent mental health’, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(8):1350-62

Fleming, M et al (2006) Safety in Cyberspace: Adolescents’ Safety and Exposure Online; Youth & Society, Volume 38 Number 2

France, A (2000) Towards a sociological understanding of youth and their risk taking, Journal of Youth Studies, 3(3): 317-31

Furedi, F (2001) Paranoid Parenting, London, Allen Lane

Gill, T (2007) No Fear: Growing Up in a Risk Averse Society; London, Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation

Green, E., Mitcehll, W., and Bunton, R. (2000) ’Contextualising risk and danger: an analysis of young people’s perceptions of risk, Journal of Youth studies, 3 (2): 109-26

Hazard, B.P and Lee, C ‘Understanding Youth’s Health-Compromising Behaviours in Germany: an application of the risk-behaviour framework’ Youth and Society, Vol. 30, No 3, pp348-366

Mitchell, W., Burton, R., and Green, E. (eds) Young People, Risk and Leisure: Constructing Identities in Everyday Life’, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan

Palmer, S (2007) Toxic Childhood: How The Modern World Is Damaging Our Children And What We Can Do About It, London, Orion

Plant, M. and Plant, M. (1992) Risk Takers: Alcohol, Drugs, Sex and Youth, London: Routledge

Thom, B, Sales, R and Pearce, J (eds) (2007) Growing up with Risk, Bristol, Policy Press

Troubles of Youth - 11 - The Youth Justice System

‘Juvenile Crime and the State’s Response’ in Joyce, P. (2006) Criminal Justice: and introduction to crime and the criminal justice system, Cullompton, Willan

‘Youth Crime and Youth Justice’ in Newburn, T (2003) Crime and Criminal Justice Policy (2nd ed.), Harlow, Longman

Ch 2 Youth Justice: discretion in pre-court decision making (Vicky Kemp and Lorraine Gelsthorpe) in Gelsthorpe and Padfield (ed.) “Exercising Discretion”

Ashford, M (1998) Making Criminals out of Children: abolishing the presumption of doli incapax, Criminal Justice, 16, 16-17

Austin, J and Krisberg, B. (1981) Wider, stronger and different nets: the dialectics of criminal justice reform’ Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 18, No 1, pp 165-196 (also available in Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage)

Burnett, R and Appleton, C (2004) Joined up Youth Justice: Tackling Youth Crime in Partnership, Lyme Regis, RHP

Burnett, R and Catherine Appleton (2004) Joined-Up Services to Tackle Youth Crime The British Journal of Criminology; 44, 1

Davies, Z and McMahon, W (eds) (2007) Debating Youth Justice: From punishment to problem solving?, Centre for Crime and Justice Studies, KCL

Easton, S. and Piper, C. (2005) Sentencing and Punishment: The Quest for Justice, Oxford, OUP Ch 7 & 9

Holdaway, S. et al. (2001) New Strategies to Address Youth Offending: The National Evaluation of the Pilot Youth Offending tams, Home Office RDS Occasional Paper no.69, Home Office, London

Hough, M and Roberts, J.V. (2004) Youth Crime and Youth Justice: Public Opinion in England and Wales, Policy Press, London (summary available online at http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/fileLibrary/pdf/summary.pdf )

Morgan, R (2007) ‘Youth Justice: Rearranging the deckchairs or real reform?’ Criminal Justice Matters no. 69 Autumn

NACRO (2000) Proportionality in the Youth Justice System, Youth Justice Briefing, London, NACRO

O’Mahoney, D (2000) Young People, Crime and Criminal Justice: Patterns and Prospects for the Future, Youth & Society, Vol 32, No 1

Troubles of Youth - 12 - Platt, A (1974) The Triumph of benevolence: the origins of the juvenile justice system in the United States, available in Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage

Tonry, M and Doob A. (eds)(2004) Youth Crime and Youth Justice. Comparative and Cross National Perspectives, Vol. 31 Crime and Justice: a Review of Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

United Nations (2002) Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Right of the Child: UK, United Nations (UNCRC/C15 Add.188)

Youth Incarceration

‘The Werrington Experience’ in Ramsbottom, D (2003) Prisongate: The Shocking State of Britain’s Prisons and the need for Visionary Change, Simon and Schuster, London

Farrington, D (et al) (2000) Evaluation of Intensive Regimes for Young Offenders, Research Findings No.121, Home Office RDS, London, Home Office

Goldson, B (2002a) Vulnerable Inside: Children in Secure and Penal Settings, London, The Children’s Society

Goldson, B (20002b) ‘New punitiveness: the politics of child incarceration’ in Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage

Howard League (1995) Banged Up, Beaten Up, Cutting Up: The Report of the Howard League Commission of Inquiry into violence in penal institutions for teenagers under 18, London, Howard League for Penal Reform

Lyon, J., Dennison, C., and Wilson, A (2000) Tell Them so they Listen: Messages from Young People in Custody, Research Study 2001, London, Home Office

Muncie, J (1990) ‘Failure never matters’, Critical Social Policy, No 28, pp53-60 (available in Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage)

NACRO (2003) A Failure of Justice: Reducing Child Imprisonment, London: NACRO

National Audit Office (2004) Youth Offending: The Delivery of Community and Custodial Services, HC 190 Session 2003-2004

Neustatter, A (2002) Locked in Locked Out: the experience of young offenders out of society and in prison, London, Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation

Simon, J (1995) The boot camp and the limits of modern penality, Social Justice, Vol. 22 No. 2 pp 25-48 (available in Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage)

Troubles of Youth - 13 - Stewart, G., and Tutt, N. (1987) Children in Custody, Aldershot, Avebury

Youth Justice Board (2000) Factors Associated with Differential Rates of Youth Custodial Sentencing, London, Youth Justice Board

Youth Justice Board (2001) Risk and Protective Factors Associated with Youth Crime and Effective Interventions to Prevent it, Research Note 5, London, Youth Justice Board

Working with Young Offenders

Baker, K., Jones, S, Roberts, C. and Merrington, S. (2000) The Evaluation of the Validity and Reliability of the Youth Justice Board’s Assessment for Young People who Offend: Findings from the first Two Years of the Use of ASSET, London, Youth Justice Board

Feilzer, M., Appleton, C., Roberts, C. and Hoyle, C. (2004) The National Evaluation of the Youth Justice Board’s Cognitive Behavioural Projects, London, Youth Justice Board

Pitts, J (1999) Working with Young Offenders, 2nd ed. London, MacMillan

Utting, D (1996) Reducing Criminality Among Young People: A Sample of Relevant Programmes in the UK, Home Office Research Study No. 161, London: HMSO

Wikstrom, P-O (2002) Adolescent Crime in Context. The Peterborough Youth Study: Report to the Home Office, Cambridge, University of Cambridge Institute of Criminology

Bjerregaard B. (2002) Self-Definitions of Gang Membership and Involvement in Delinquent Activities, Youth and Society, Vol34, No1 pp31-54

Cloward, R.A. and Ohlin, L.E. (1960) Delinquency and Opportunity: A theory of Delinquent gangs, Free Press, New York

Cohen, A (1955) Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang, New York, Free Press

Miller, W.B. (1958) Lower Class Culture as a Generating Milieu of Gang Delinquency, Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 15 No 1

Morash, M. (1983) Gangs, Groups, And Delinquency, British Journal of Criminology, Vol. 23 No. 4

Culture, Lifestyle and Identity

Troubles of Youth - 14 - Brake, M (1980) The Sociology of Youth Culture and Youth Subcultures, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London

Cohen, S (1980) Folk Devils and Moral Panics, Martin Robertson, London

Currie, E (2004) The Road to Whatever: Middle-class Culture and the Crisis of Adolescence, Metropolitan Books, New York

Erikson, E (1968) Identity: Youth in Crisis, Norton, New York

Flood-Page, C. et al (2000) Findings from the 1998/99 Youth Lifestyles Survey, London, Home Office

Hall, S and Jefferson, T (1976) Resistance through Rituals: Youth Subcultures in Post-War Britain, Hutchison, London

Hayward (2002) The vilification and pleasures of youthful transgression in Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage

Hebdige, D (1987) Subculture: The Meaning of Style, Methuen London

Katz, J (1988) The Seductions of Crime: Moral and Sensual Attractions of doing Evil, New York, Basic Books

Matza, D (1964) Delinquency and Drift, Wiley, New York

Matza, D (1969) Becoming Deviant, Prentice Hall, New Jersey

McRobbie, A (1991) Feminism and Youth Culture, Macmillan, London

McRobbie, A (1994) A Cultural Sociology of youth’ in A McRobbie (ed) Postmodernism and Popular Culture, Routledge, London

Miles, S (2000) Youth Lifestyles in a Changing World, Buckingham, Open University Press

Putnam, R. (2000) Bowling Alone, New York, Simon & Schuster

Raffo, C and Reeves, M. (2000) ‘Youth Transitions and social exclusion: developments in social capital theory’, Journal of Youth Studies, 3(2): 147-66

Redhead, S (1993) Rave Off: Politics and Deviance in Contemporary Youth Culture, Avebury, Aldershot

Families and Parenting

Barrett, H. (2003) Parenting Programmes for Families at Risk, London: National Family and Parenting Institute

Troubles of Youth - 15 - Bowlby, J (1946) Forty-Four Juvenile Thieves: Their Characters and their home lives,

Coleman, J. and Roker, D (eds) (2001) Supporting Parents of Teenagers, London, Jessica Kingley

Dallos, R (1981) Ch 17 ‘Moral development and the family: the genesis of crime’ in Fitzgerald, M., McLennan, G and Pawson, J (1981) Crime and Society: Readings in History and Theory, London, Routledge & Kegan

Dennis, N (1993) Rising Crime and the Dismembered Family, IEA, London

Dennis, N and Erdos, G (1992) Families without Fatherhood, IEA, London

Gelsthorpe, L (1999) ‘Youth crime and parental responsibility’ in Bainham, A., Day Sclater, S., and Richards, M (eds) What is a Parent? Oxford, Hart Publishing

Ghate, D and Ramella, M. (2002) Positive Parenting: The National Evaluation of the Youth Justice Board’s Parenting Programme, London, Youth Justice Board

Jones, G (1995) Family Support for Young People, London, Family Policy Stdies Centre

Muncie, J et al (eds) (1997) Understanding the Family, 2nd ed, Sage, London

Saraga, E (1996) Dangerous Places: the family as a site of crime, in Muncie, J and McLaughlin, E (eds.) The Problem of Crime, London: Sage.

Utting, D, Bright, J and Henricson, C (1993) Crime and the Family: Improving Childrearing and Preventing Delinquency, Family Studies Policy Centre, London

Wheal, A (ed) (2000) Working with Parents: Learning From Other People’s Experiences, Lyme Regis, RHP

Education and Employment

Berridge, D Isabelle Brodie, John Pitts, David Porteous and Roger Tarling (2001) The independent effects of permanent exclusion from school on the offending careers of young people, RDS Occasional Paper No71, Home Office, London

Cohen, P (1986) Rethinking the Youth Question, Post-16 Education Centre, Working Paper No.3, Institute of Education, London

Council of Eurpoe (2003) Violence in Schools – A Challenge for the Local Community. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing

Graham, J. (1988) Schools, Disruptive Behaviour and Delinquency, Research Study 96, London; Home Office

Troubles of Youth - 16 - Hayden C (2005) ‘Crime Prevention: the role and potential of schools’ in J. Winstone and F. Pakes (ed) (2005) Community Justice: Issues for probation and criminal justice, Willan, Cullompton

Hayden , C, Williamson, T and Webber, R (2007) ‘Schools, Pupil Behaviour And Young Offenders: Using Postcode Classification to Target Behaviour Support and Crime Prevention Programmes’ British Journal of Criminilogy; 47, 293–310

Karp, D.R. and Breslin, B (2001) ‘Restorative Justice in School Communities’, Youth & Society, Vol. 33, No 2, 249-272

MacDonald, R and Marsh, J (2004) ‘Missing School: Educational Engagement: Youth Transitions and Social Exclusion’, Youth and Society, Vol. 36, No 2 pp143-162

Roberts, K (1995) Youth and Employment in Modern Britain, OUP, Oxford

Skinner, A and Fleming, J. (1999) Mentoring Socially Excluded Young People, Manchester, National Mentoring Network

Stephenson, M (2007) Young People and Offending: Education youth justice and social inclusion, Willan, Cullompton

Willis, P (1977) Learning to Labour: How Working Class kids get Working Class Jobs, New York, Columbia University Press

Drug and Alcohol Use

Balding, J (1994) Young people and illicit drugs, Exeter, Health Education Unit, Exeter University

Goulden, C., and Sondhi, A. (2001) At the margins: drug use by vulnerable people in the 1998/99 Youth Lifestyles Survey, Home Office Research Study, Home Office Research Study No. 228, London, Home Office

Lloyd, C and Griffiths, P. (1998) ‘Problems for the future: Drug use among vulnerable groups of young people’, Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, Vol. 5 No 3, pp 217-32

Miller, P and Plant, M (1996) ‘Drinking, smoking and illicit drug use among 15 and 16 year olds in the United Kingdom’ in British Medical Journal, 17 August: 313, 394- 7

Newburn, T (1998) Young offenders, drugs and prevention’, in Drugs, Education, Prevention and Policy, Vol. 5, No 3, pp 233-43

Newburn, T (1999) Drug Prevention and Youth Justice: Issues of Philosophy, Politics and Practice’, in British Journal of Criminology, Vol. 39, No 4, pp 609-624

Parker, H, Aldridge, J and Measham, F (1998) Illegal Leisure: the normalization of adolescent recreational drug use, London, Routledge

Troubles of Youth - 17 - Pudney, S. (2002) The road to ruin? Sequences of initiation into drug use and offending by young people in Britain, Home Office Research Study 253, Home Office, London

Ramsay, M et al.(2001) Drug misuse declared in 2000: results from the British Crime Survey, Home Office Research Study 224, London, Home Office

Richardson, A and Budd, T. (2003) Alcohol, Crime and Disorder: A Study of Young Adults. Home Office Research Study 263, London, Home Office

Shiner, M and Newburn, T (1997) Definitely, Maybe Not? The normalization of recreational drug use amongst young people, Sociology Vol. 31, no 3 pp 511-29

Gender, Youth and Crime

Campbell, A (1984) The Girls in the Gang, Basil Blackwell, Cambridge MA

Chesney-Lind, M (1997) The Female Offender: Girls, Women and Crime, Thousand Oaks, CA; Sage

Gelsthorpe, L (1984) Girls and juvenile justice, Youth and Policy, II; 1-5

Heilman, E (1998) The Struggle for Self: Power and Identity in Adolescent Girls, Youth and Society, Vol. 30, No 2, pp182-208

Hudson, A (1989) ‘Troublesome Girls: towards alternative definitions and policies’ available in Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage

Hunt, G, Joe-Laidler, K., and MacKenzie, K (2005) ‘Moving into Motherhood: Gang Girls and Controlled Risk’, Youth and Society, Vol. 36 No 3 pp333-373 Youth Society 2004; 36; 131

Lees, S (1986) Losing Out: Sexuality and Adolescent Girls, Hutchison, London

Newburn, T and Stanko, E (eds) (1994) Just Boys doing Business: Men Masculinities and Crime, Routledge, London (esp. Messerschmidt)

Parker, H (1974) View from the Boys, David and Charles, London

Phillips, A (1993) The Trouble with Boys, London, Pandora

Wilson, D and Moore, S. (2004) Playing the Game: The Experiences of Young Men in Custody, London, The Children’s Society

Worrall, A (2001) Girls at Risk?: Reflections on Changing Attitudes to Young Women’s Offending, Probation Journal, Vol. 48(2) pp 86-92

Troubles of Youth - 18 - Black and Minority Ethnic Young People

Feilzer, M and Hood, R. (2004) Differences or discrimination? Minority ethnic young people in the youth justice system’, Youth Justice Board, London (Summary available online at http://www.yjb.gov.uk/Publications/Scripts/prodDownload.asp?idproduct=185&eP=)

Gilroy, P (1987) ‘Lesser breeds without the law’ in Muncie, J.; Hughes, G.; McLaughlin E. (eds) (2002) Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London, Sage

Goodey J. (2001) ‘The Criminalization of British Asian Youth: Research from Bradford and Sheffield’ Journal of Youth Studies, Vol. 4, No 4

Kirk, B.M. (1996) Negative images: a simple matter of Black or White? And examination of ‘race’ and eth juvenile justice system, Aldershot, Avebury

Policing and Young People

Anderson, S., Kinsey, R., Loader, I., and Smith. (1994) Cautionary Tales: Young People, Crime and Policing in Edinburgh, Aldershot, Avebury

McAra, L and McVie, S. (2005) The Usual Suspects? Street Life, young people and the police’, Criminal Justice, Vol. 5, pp 50-36

Anti-social Behaviour

Armitage, R (2002) Tackling Anti-social Behaviour: What Really Works, NACRO, London

Boys, L. and Warburton, F. (2000) Preventing Anti-Social Behaviour, Crime and Social Policy Briefing, London, NACRO

Burney, E (2002) ‘Talking Tough, Acting Coy: what happened to the Anti-Social Behaviour Order, Howard Journal 41(5): 469-84

Andrew Millie, Jessica Jacobson, Eraina McDonald and Mike Hough (2005) Anti- social behaviour strategies: Finding a balance, ICPR, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, Policy, York

National Association of Probation Officers (2004) Antisocial Behaviour Orders – Analysis of the first Six Years, Briefing Paper 14-04 (available at www.napo.org.uk)

Crime Prevention and Diversion

Bell, A., Hodgson, M. and Pragnell, S. (1999) Diverting Children and Young People from Crime and the Criminal Justice System, in Goldson, B (ed) (1999) Youth Justice: Contemporary Policy and Practice, Aldershot, Ashgate

Brown, S (1995) Crime and Safety in Whose “Community”?, Youth and Policy, 48 pp27-48

Troubles of Youth - 19 - Farrington, D.P. (1996) Understanding and Preventing Youth Crime, Social Policy Research Findings No. 93, York, Joseph Rowntree Foundation

Measor, L and Squires, P (2000) Young People and Community Safety: Inclusion, Risk, Tolerance and Disorder, Aldershot, Ashgate

Newburn, T and Souhami, A (2005) Ch 14 ‘Youth Diversion in in Tilley, N (2005) Handbook of Crime Prevention and Community Safety, Cullompton, Willan

Tarling, M., Burrows, J., and Clarke, A., (2001) Dalston Youth Project Part II (11- 14), London, Home Office

Tarling, R., Davison, T. and Clarke, A. (2004) The National Evaluation of the Youth Justice Board’s Mentoring Projects, London, Youth Justice Board

Tierney, J.P. (1995) Making a Difference: An Impact Study if Big Brothers / Big Sisters, Philadelphia: Public/Private Ventures

Youth Justice Board (2003) Speaking Out: The Views of Young People, Parent and Victims About the Youth Justice System and Interventions to Reduce Offending, London, Youth Justice Board

Alternative Justice Models: Restorative and Community Justice

Bazemore, G. (2001) Young people, trouble, and crime - Restorative justice as a normative theory of informal social control and social support. Youth & Society, 33, 199-226.

Braithwaite, J. (1989) Crime, Shame and Reintegration. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press

Crawford, A and Newburn, T (2003) Youth Offending and Restorative Justice: Implementing Reform in Youth Justice, Cullompton, Willan

Easton, S. and Piper, C. (2005) Sentencing and Punishment: The Quest for Justice, , OUP, Oxford Ch 6

McKenzie, N (2005) ‘Community youth justice: policy, practice and public perception’ in J. Winstone and F. Pakes (ed) (2005) Community Justice: Issues for probation and criminal justice, Cullompton, Willan

Morris, A and Maxwell, G (eds) (2001) Restorative Justice for Juveniles: Conferencing, Mediation and Circles, Oxford, Hart Publishing

National Audit Office (2004) Youth Offending: The Delivery of Community and Custodial Services, HC 190 Session 2003-2004

Troubles of Youth - 20 - Newburn, T., Adam Crawford, Ann Netten,, Guy Masters, K. S., Chris Hale, & Rod Earle, S. U., Shelagh Goldie, Robin Saunders (2001) The Introduction of Referral Orders into the Youth Justice System. London, Home Office.

Working with Young Offenders

Baker, K., Jones, S, Roberts, C. and Merrington, S. (2000) The Evaluation of the Validity and Reliability of the Youth Justice Board’s Assessment for Young People who Offend: Findings from the first Two Years of the Use of ASSET, London, Youth Justice Board

Feilzer, M., Appleton, C., Roberts, C. and Hoyle, C. (2004) The National Evaluation of the Youth Justice Board’s Cognitive Behavioural Projects, London, Youth Justice Board

Pitts, J (1999) Working with Young Offenders, 2nd ed. London, MacMillan

Utting, D (1996) Reducing Criminality Among Young People: A Sample of Relevant Programmes in the UK, Home Office Research Study No. 161, London: HMSO

Wikstrom, P-O (2002) Adolescent Crime in Context. The Peterborough Youth Study: Report to the Home Office, Cambridge, University of Cambridge Institute of Criminology

Young People and Victimisation

Aye Maung, N (1995) Young People, Victimisation and the Police, British Crime Survey Findings on the Experiences and Attitudes of 12-15 year olds, Home Office Research Study No. 140, London, Home Office

Benda, B and Corwyn, R.F.(2002) The Effect of Abuse in Childhood and in Adolescence on Violence among Adolescents, Youth and Society, Vol. 33, No 3, 339- 365

Fleming M. et al ‘Safety in Cyberspace: Adolescents’ Safety and Exposure Online’ Youth and Society, Vol. 38 No 2, pp135-154

Hartless, J, Ditton, J, Nair, G and Phillips, S (1995) More Sinned against than Sinning: a Study of Young Teenagers’ Experiences of Crime’, British Journal of Criminology, Vol. 35(1) pp114-33

Menard S. And Huizinga, D (2001) ‘Repeat Victimization in a High-Risk Neighborhood Sample of Adolescents’ Youth and Society 2001; 32; 447

Morgan, J and Zedner, L (1992) Child Victims: crime, impact and criminal justice, Oxford: Clarendon.

Morgan, J and Zedner, L (1992) The Victim's Charter: a new deal for child victims? The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, vol. 31, 294-307.

Troubles of Youth - 21 - Nacro (2003) Youth Victimisation: A Literature Review. Community Safety Practice Briefing. London, NACRO. http://www.nacro.org.uk/data/briefings/nacro-2003021903-csps.pdf

Nayak, A. (2003) 'Through children's eyes': childhood, place and the fear of crime. Geoforum, 34, 303-315

Pitts, J. (2005) The Criminal Victimisation of Young People. in Bateman, T. & Pitts, J. (Eds.) The RHP Companion to Youth Justice. Lyme Regis, Russell House.

Porteous, D. (1998) Young People's Experience of Crime and Violence: Findings from a Survey of School Pupils. In Marlow, A. & Pitts, J. (Eds.) Planning Safer Communities. Lyme Regis, Russell House.

Radford, J and Stanko, E (1991) Violence Against Women and Children: the contradictions of crime control under patriarchy, in Stenson, K and Cowell, D (eds.) The Politics of Crime Control, London: Sage.

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