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Internationalization of the Curriculum: A Remedy for International Students' Academic

Adjustment Difficulties?

A final paper submitted to Dr. Lenora Perry

Sherri Williams Victoria, BC

In partial fulfillment of the requirements of Education 6890

For the degree of Master of Education

Faculty of Education

Memorial University of Newfoundland

St. John's

Newfoundland and Labrador

August 4, 2008 2

Abstract

International student recruitment is an important internationalization initiative of post-secondary institutions in Canada and around the world. International students’ diverse cultural backgrounds, experiences, and learning styles may not be met by the traditional, Euro-centric curriculum and pedagogy inherent in most Western post-secondary institutions. This paper critically examines whether 'internationalizing the curriculum', or incorporating an international and intercultural dimension into the curriculum and pedagogy of Western educational institutions, provides a more inclusive learning environment for international students and improves their chances for academic success. It includes a discussion of the academic challenges facing international students; the challenges inherent in the curricular reform process; the roles of the stakeholders; and the rationale, tenets, and approaches underlying internationalizing the curriculum. The research indicates that although the infusion approach to internationalizing the curriculum is the most-widely used in Canadian post-secondary institutions, the more culturally inclusive transformation approach is the goal towards which institutions should aspire to best meet the diverse learning needs of international students. 3 Internationalization of the Curriculum Table of Contents Page

Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………ii

Preface …………………………………………………………………………………………. v

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………. 1

Rationale for Internationalizing the Curriculum ………………………………………………..4

Academic Adjustment Difficulties of International Students …………………………………. 7

Linguistic Challenges ………………………………………………………………….. 7

Pedagogy and Expectations for Learning ……………………………………………… 9

Curricular Concerns …………………………………………………………………...11

Challenges in Internationalizing the Curriculum ……………………………………………...12

Institutional Policies and Support …………………………………………………….. 12

Funding and Resources ………………………………………………………………..13

Organizational Structure and Communication ……………………………………….. 14

Faculty Autonomy and Academic Freedom …………………………………………. 15

Commodification of Education ………………………………………………………..16

Hiring and Reward Policies ………………………………………………………….. 16

Faculty Development and International Experience …………………………………. 17

Intercultural Knowledge, Skills, and Interest ………………………………………… 18

Pedagogical and Content Concerns …………………………………………………... 19

Internationalization of the Curriculum ………………………………………………………...19

Tenets, Goals, and Approaches ………………………………………………………. 19

Roles of Stakeholders ………………………………………………………………… 28 4

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………. 32

References ……………………………………………………………………………………..33

Appendices …………………………………………………………………………………….44 5 Internationalization of the Curriculum Preface

"Today…internationalization of the university means far more than inter-personal or even inter-institutional cooperation across borders. It is a necessary, vital, and deliberate transformation of how we teach and learn and it is essential... to the future of Canada. In a world characterized by challenges and opportunities of global proportions, universities are key agents of change."

(The University of British Columbia, 2006, ¶ 2) 6 Internationalization of the Curriculum

Internationalization of the Curriculum: A Remedy for International Students' Academic

Adjustment Difficulties?

Introduction

Canadian universities have a long history of involvement in international education activities (James & Nef, 2002; Lemasson, 1999; Shute, 2002). However, the internationalization of higher education has become much more firmly entrenched within the Canadian post- secondary system over the past two decades (Knight, 1997, 2000a, 2000b). Although numerous definitions of the concept of internationalization exist, Knight (2003), a renowned expert in the field, defines the internationalization of higher education as "the process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of post- secondary education" (p. 2).

The importance of valuing diversity within the teaching and learning functions of higher education is essential as post-secondary institutions engage in one of their many avenues of internationalization: the increased recruitment of international students to their campuses. In recent years, the recruitment of international students has become an important and highly competitive focus of post-secondary institutions in both Canada and around the world. If

Canadian post-secondary institutions wish to remain competitive within the international education marketplace (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada [AUCC], 2007a;

Savage, 2005) it is crucial that they understand the diverse needs of their international student clientele, and provide a learning environment that meets their special needs (Canadian

Association of University Teachers, 2008; Cunningham, 1991; Reus, 2007; Vertesi, 1999).

Taylor (2004), in his study of internationalization practices at four universities worldwide summed it up nicely when he stated, "a strategy for internationalization is much more far 7 Internationalization of the Curriculum reaching and inclusive than is implied simply by the recruitment of international students. At the heart of the development process lies a fundamental reexamination of teaching provision to reflect the challenge of internationalization" (p. 157).

International students often encounter pedagogical and curricular adjustment difficulties due to teaching methods, styles, and expectations that may be different from those they are accustomed to in their native cultures (Andrade, 2006; Arthur, 2004; Crabtree & Sapp, 2004;

Dalili, 1982; Durkin, 2008; Grey, 2002; Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007; Zhai, 2002; Zhou, Jindal-

Snape, Topping, & Todman, 2008). International students often perceive the content of the curriculum as exclusionary and cite concerns that instructors show a lack of interest in their prior knowledge (Arthur, 2004; Chen, 1996; Grey, 2002; Robertson, Line, Jones, & Thomas, 2000).

Part of the difficulties these students encounter may be due to the traditional teaching and learning environment within Western higher educational institutions that may not reflect the cultural backgrounds and diverse learning needs of the international student population (Adams,

1992; Guo & Jamal, 2007; Hayle, 2008; Joseph, 2008; Samuel & Burney, 2003; Schapper &

Mayson, 2004; Schuerholz-Lehr & van Gyn, 2006). Lynch (1997) indicated that students from diverse cultures who are exposed to the traditional "Euro-centric, male-biased curriculum using narrow methods of instruction,…may feel isolated and alienated from the educational goal that they are pursuing" (p. 57).

Curricular and pedagogical change, or what is commonly referred to as the internationalization of the curriculum may be an effective means of providing an academic environment that supports the diverse cultural learning needs of international students. Bond

(2006) defined this curricular transformation as "changing fundamentally what we teach and how we teach it" (p. 3). Leask (2001) suggested that, "internationalizing university curricula is a 8 Internationalization of the Curriculum powerful and practical way of bridging the gap between rhetoric and practice to including and valuing the contribution of international students" (p. 100). Although the phrase internationalization of the curriculum can refer to such varied internationalization activities as study abroad programs, foreign language courses, interdisciplinary or area programs, or the provision of programs or courses with an international, intercultural, or comparative focus

(Bremer & van der Wende, 1995), within this paper the intent of an internationalized curriculum will be on "introduc[ing] an international, intercultural or global dimension into course content and materials and into teaching and learning methods" (AUCC, 2007b, ¶ 1). The focus, therefore, is not only on the subject matter of the curriculum, but also on the pedagogical implications of teaching and learning approaches that will promote the inclusion of international students

(Adams, 1992; Bond, 2006; De Vita & Case, 2003; Leask, 2001; Marchesani & Adams, 1992;

Maidstone, 1995; McKellin, 1998; McLoughlin, 2001).

This paper will examine whether an internationalized curriculum may be a means of creating a more pluralistic or culturally inclusive classroom environment for international students that could embrace the diversity required for their success. It will present an overview of the academic adjustment difficulties and learning needs of international students in higher education and propose a link between these students' unique needs and the necessity of curriculum and pedagogical reform. The internationalization of the curriculum will be presented as a potential remedy for alleviating the academic difficulties international students, from non-

Western backgrounds, may face as a result of the traditional Euro-centric or Western biased curriculum and traditional pedagogical practices commonly found in Western post-secondary institutions. Support for and challenges inherent in internationalizing the curriculum will be 9 Internationalization of the Curriculum examined along with the roles of the major stakeholders involved. A critical review of the literature in the field will attempt to answer the following research questions:

1. Does the Western, Euro-centric bias evident in the curriculum and pedagogical

practices of Western higher education impede the academic success of international

students?

2. If so, how can an internationalized curriculum better support the learning needs of this

student population?

3. What constitutes an internationalized curriculum and how can it be implemented?

Rationale for Internationalizing the Curriculum

Numerous researchers emphasize the centrality of the curriculum and the internationalization of the curriculum and teaching and learning processes as critical elements of internationalization (Bond, 2003a; Bond, Qian, & Huang, 2003; Green & Olson, 2003; Knight,

1994, 1997, 2000a; Lemasson, 2002; Paige, 2003; Tonkin & Edwards, 1981). Knight (1994) described the curriculum as "the backbone of the internationalization process" (Knight, 1994, p.

6). Other researchers concur, emphasizing the importance of an internationalized curriculum in providing a student-centered learning experience for all students and in preparing students to be successful in today's increasingly interdependent global society (Bonfiglio, 1999; Leask, 2001;

Lemasson, 2002; Schuerholz-Lehr, 2007; Schuerholz-Lehr, Caws, van Gyn, & Preece, 2007).

Education and the curriculum play a key role in shaping students' values (Khalideen,

2006). Because curriculum is typically reflective of the values, attitudes, and beliefs of a particular culture and an institution, forcing students to assimilate to an unfamiliar learning culture is unlikely to be successful and may negatively impact on their sense of identity (Cortazzi

& Jin, 1997; Freedman, 1998; Kennedy, 1995; Khalideen, 2006; Mestenhauser, 2002b). The 10 Internationalization of the Curriculum ethnocentric values underlying the curriculum and pedagogy in Western post-secondary institutions "keeps foreign students in their ghettos, makes it difficult for them to deal with our academic ethnocentrism and with abstracting theoretical principles from culture-bound instruction" (Mestenhauser, 2002b, p. 23). The combination of a didactic lecture format with tutorials and seminars that emphasize the discussion, critical thinking, and active learning inherent in Western post-secondary institutions "privilege[s] western forms of knowledge"

(Joseph, 2008, p. 34) and disregards the diverse ways of knowing of international students. An optimal learning environment reflects students' "cultures, experiences, and perspectives" (Banks,

2004, p. 243). Because the manner in which people think, reason, and view knowledge is culturally and socially determined (Mestenhauser, 2002a; Peelo & Luxon, 2007), international students from diverse cultural backgrounds may have difficulty balancing the expectations of the traditional Western curricular perspective and pedagogical strategies with their own culturally based learning expectations and values.

Students' preferred learning styles and strategies are greatly determined by their social and cultural backgrounds (Harris, 1995; Mestenhauser, 2002a; Myles, Qian, & Cheng, 2002;

Peelo & Luxon, 2007); however, faculty members' ethnocentric values and cultural framework also impact on how they judge students' learning styles and performance (Jin & Cortazzi, 1997;

Miles et al., 2002; Valiente, 2008). Joseph (2008), a former international post-graduate student in

Australia, suggested that the focus on "critical thinking and analysis, notions of plagiarism and ethics of research, language nuances and academic traditions as practiced within…western post- industrial countries are concepts located within a western ideology of academe" (p. 33). Valiente

(2008) questioned the attitude of superiority embraced by Western faculty towards their preferred styles of learning and teaching and the Western assumption that international students 11 Internationalization of the Curriculum use "the 'wrong' style of learning" (p. 73). McLoughlin (2001) and Biggs (2003) also cautioned against viewing an inclusive approach to learning and teaching from the 'deficit model' perspective. The deficit view posits that, "international students (students of diverse language, race and ethnic backgrounds) can be brought up to a 'normal' standard by redressing their

'deficits'" (McLoughlin, 2001, p. 12). Instead, these authors recommended that an inclusive learning and teaching environment should recognize, value, and accommodate students' cultural differences and worldviews. These researchers remind us of the importance of assessing our ethnocentric attitudes towards learning and of being sensitive to the diverse learning needs of students. Furthermore, both students and faculty should engage in a critical examination of their cultural differences in order to better understand each other's academic cultures, cultures of learning, and cultures of communication (Cortazi & Jin, 1997; Grey, 2002).

In comparing the educational outcomes of domestic and international students at four

Canadian universities, Grayson (2006) concluded that, "the educational outcomes of international students are lower than those of domestic students" (p. 15). Despite the fact that the international students in Grayson's study entered university with equivalent or slightly higher grades than their domestic counterparts, their grade point averages and accumulated credits after their first year of studies were lower than those of domestic students. This underlines the importance of academic institutions providing support for international students and of committing "resources to deal with problems such as low levels of English linguistic capital"

(Grayson, 2006, p. 26). One might also add the importance of institutions recognizing that international students' cultural backgrounds may demand a modification in curriculum and pedagogy to better meet the academic learning needs of these students. 12 Internationalization of the Curriculum Academic Adjustment Difficulties of International Students

International students who choose to study in a foreign environment face a host of cross- cultural adjustment difficulties as part of their transition experience. Carroll and Appleton (2007) aptly referred to the academic adjustment problems facing transitioning students as "academic

'culture shock'" (p. 72). Regardless of their cultural or linguistic background, all new students transitioning into higher education must learn to navigate and adjust to a new educational system and to the individual disciplines (Carroll & Appleton, 2007; Dalili, 1982; Ellis, Sawyer, Gill,

Medlin, & Wilson, 1992; Mullins, Quintrell, & Hancock, 1995; Terenzini et al., 1994), each of which "has its own culture" (Ellis et al., 1992, p. 67). However, international students often face a myriad of cross-cultural adjustment problems that domestic students from Western society do not typically encounter (Andrade, 2006; Burns, 1991; Church, 1982; Pavel, 2006). As Peelo and

Luxon (2007) emphasize, "learning means different things to different groups" (p. 68). It is important to recognize that international students cannot be considered a homogeneous group

(Bond 2003a; Burns, 1991; Cunningham, 1991; Kuhlman, 1992; Mestenhauser, 2002b); therefore, international students, pending their personal and cultural background, experience varying types and levels of adjustment problems. Andrade (2006) noted that, "students from families, communities, and schools with widely different norms and behaviors from those in the college environment may have difficulty adjusting to the new environment" (p. 61). International students' academic adjustment difficulties can be exacerbated by variables such as their English language competency, difficulties with unfamiliar pedagogical styles and expectations for learning, and curricular content which does not recognize their unique cultural experiences and worldviews.

Linguistic Challenges 13 Internationalization of the Curriculum International students whose first language differs from that of the host country cite linguistic and communication difficulties as foremost amongst their academic challenges

(Chapman Wadsworth, Hecht, & Jung, 2008; Dalili, 1982; Ellis et al., 2005; Galloway &

Jenkins, 2005; Kennedy, 1995; Samuelowicz, 1987; Zhai, 2002; Zhang & Brunton, 2007). Lack of familiarity with the linguistic and culturally determined communication norms of the new academic environment can be very stressful for international students (Chapman Wadsworth et al., 2008). A lack of confidence in their second language competency may inhibit international students from actively participating in group work, class discussions, and presentations

(Andrade, 2006; Burns, 1991; Chen, 1996; Grey, 2002; Hellstén & Prescott, 2004). In addition, difficulties in comprehending the idiomatic or colloquial language and cultural references utilized by their classmates and instructors are common complaints of international students

(Ellis et al., 2005; Grey, 2002; Lacina, 2002; Robertson et al., 2000). International students often encounter difficulties comprehending lectures and class discussions due to a speaker's rate of speech (Chen, 1996; Heikinheimo & Shute, 1986; Mullins et al., 1995; Poyrazli & Graham,

2007; Robertson et al., 2000; Zhai, 2002). However, some international students in Hellstén and

Prescott's (2004) study felt that if lecturers slowed their rate of speech, it reduced the challenge for them and prevented them from advancing their English skills. One important caution with the results of Hellstén and Prescott's (2004) study, however, is the lack of reliability due to sampling bias. Other researchers have stressed the levels of fatigue and anxiety international students experience as a result of the increased time they require to take notes, read academic texts, and complete written assignments in their second language (Andrade, 2006; Burns, 1991; Chen,

1996; Ellis et al., 2005; Grey, 2002; Heikinheimo & Shute, 1986; Mullins et al., 1995; Pedersen,

1991). 14 Internationalization of the Curriculum Faculty must become cognizant of these linguistic difficulties faced by international students when planning and delivering their courses. For example, they may wish to avoid using excessive amounts of idiomatic or casual language and should clearly explain any culturally biased references they may use. As a faculty participant in Schuerholz-Lehr et al.'s (2007) study indicated, "in an international setting, it is critical to clarify/define the terms you are using, as the common ground that we often assume, may not exist, and meaning is grounded in cultural context" (p. 80). However, an international student in Chen's (1996) study stressed that faculty must also avoid equating international students' linguistic difficulties with levels of intelligence.

This student stated that faculty members "should be patient and listen to them, and try to share and exchange opinions" (p. 10).

Pedagogy and Expectations for Learning

Pedagogical styles and expectations for learning approaches that differ from those to which the international students are accustomed in their own cultures may also be a source of difficulty (Andrade, 2006; Arthur, 2004; Cortazzi & Jin, 1997; Crabtree & Sapp, 2004; Dalili,

1982; Durkin, 2008; Grey, 2002; Polyrazli & Grahame, 2007; Zhai, 2002; Zhou, Jindal-Snape,

Topping, & Todman, 2008). Despite the diversity of students in Canadian post-secondary institutions today, the "traditional Anglo-American lecture-and-discussion format" (Vertesi,

1999) prevails. In addition, participation in small group tutorial or seminar sessions and the interactive teaching and learning process required within many Western institutions is an unfamiliar and challenging concept to many international students (Mullins et al., 1995;

Samuelowicz, 1987). Studies have indicated conflicting results vis-à-vis international students' expectations of learning difficulties in the foreign environment. An early study of international students in Australia indicated that the majority of the students did not anticipate any problems 15 Internationalization of the Curriculum adapting to the foreign educational system (Samuelowicz, 1987). However, Burns' (1991) study of first-year South East Asian students' indicated that 79% of the students felt unprepared for university level study in the foreign environment. Although there are concerns with

Samuelowicz's (1987) study, including questions about the sampling method used, its limited literature review, and the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, the presentation of thick descriptions from international students within the study makes reference to the results worthy of consideration.

International students from collectivist Asian cultures in particular may be accustomed to and more at ease with the lecture method of instruction (Chapman Wadsworth et al., 2008;

Harris, 1995); however, independent, self-directed learning, actively engaging in class discussions, asking questions in class, and critical and analytical thinking may be skills they are not comfortable with and have not developed in their own academic cultures (Burns, 1991;

Chapman Wadsworth et al., 2008; Harris, 1995; Robertson et al., 2000; Samuelowicz, 1987).

The need to adapt to these new required styles of learning may prove particularly onerous for international students whose cultural backgrounds emphasize passive learning and respect or deference for authority, and would not tolerate challenging, criticizing, or questioning the instructor (Andrade, 2006; Burns, 1991; Durkin, 2008; Hellstén & Prescott, 2004; Samuelowicz,

1987). Students from some cultures may have difficulties not only asking questions, but also understanding questions, knowing how to ask questions, and knowing whom to approach when they experience difficulties in class (Ellis et al., 2005).

Other studies indicate that international students from particular cultures may experience

"difficulty conducting research" (Robertson et al., 2000, p. 93) and understanding the academic writing requirements of Western cultures including the emphasis on referencing and avoiding 16 Internationalization of the Curriculum plagiarism (Burns, 1991; Durkin, 2008). Students in Durkin's (2008) study felt constricted by the inability to express their own thoughts and opinions within their research. Burns (1991) indicated that students from Asian cultures, who have been taught to employ a circular, holistic argument, often encounter difficulties with academic writing expectations in Western institutions. A typical Western approach values the comparison, discussion, and evaluation of numerous arguments found in the research and presentation of the findings in a logical and linear sequence.

Assessment mechanisms in Western post-secondary institutions may also be problematic and discriminate against the preferred learning styles of some international students (Burns,

1991; Harris, 1995; Mullins et al., 1995; Samuelowicz, 1987). Burns (1991) suggested that, "no assessment instrument is culturally neutral" (p. 76). Institutions need to develop diverse assessment mechanisms to better support their international students (Harris, 1995; Mullin et al.,

1995; Schuerholz-Lehr & van Gyn, 2006).

Curricular Concerns

Studies have also indicated that some international students take issue with the cultural bias or "monocultural focus" (Samuel & Burney, 2003, p. 95) evident in Western curricula and the lack of interest that some instructors show towards their prior knowledge (Arthur, 2004;

Chen, 1996; Grey, 2002; Miles et al., 2002; Robertson et al., 2000). International students in three studies (Chen, 2006b; Grey, 2002; Samuel & Burney, 2003) felt excluded and marginalized in their classes by what they perceived to be the "Euro-centric emphasis with a penchant towards

Anglo-Saxon assumptions and premises" (Samuel & Burney, 2003, p. 103). Many students cited the content of their courses, which they believed to be fundamentally Canadian or North

American and the examples and texts utilized in their classes as problematic (Chen, 2006; 17 Internationalization of the Curriculum Samuel & Burney, 2003). However, some students in the humanities, social science, science and engineering fields did not react negatively to the content of their courses because they had chosen to come to Canada to acquire Western knowledge (Chen, 2006b).

Despite this powerful evidence of the problems international students encounter with the curricular and pedagogical practices inherent in most Western post-secondary institutions, studies indicate that faculty members neglect to consider the social, cultural, and academic problems that many international students experience (Bond et al., 2003; Bowry, 2002; Myles et al., 2002; Vertesi, 1999). In light of this research, the need for a more culturally inclusive academic environment and curriculum, which considers these students' unique needs, is readily apparent.

Challenges in Internationalizing the Curriculum

There are numerous challenges inherent in the process of internationalizing the curriculum. Institutional barriers, internal structures, and factors associated with faculty's reluctance to engage in the curricular reform process can all impede the progress of reform.

Institutional Policies and Support

Internationalization is an ongoing, multifaceted, holistic process that impacts on the entire institution (Paige, 2003; Schoorman, 2000a). Written policy statements and strategic plans defining the institution's internationalization goals are an important element and must be acted upon (Knight, 1994, 1995). Knight (1994) emphasized the necessity of permanent commitment to internationalization at an institution: "Internationalization must be entrenched in the culture, policy, planning and organizational processes of the institution so that it is not treated as, nor does it become, a passing fad" (p. 5). 18 Internationalization of the Curriculum The lack of a curricular review and assessment process at the majority of Canadian universities is a major barrier to the curricular reform process (Knight, 2000a; McKellin, 1998).

Respondents within Knight's (2000a) study indicated that the responsibility for internationalizing the curriculum rested with individual departments and faculties or in some cases, a faculty member, who was assigned a facilitative role in the process. Only 1.6 % of Canadian post- secondary institutions have developed internationalized curricula specifically for foreign students

(Taylor, 2000). Knight (1994, 2000a) emphasized the important role an international office, staffed by leaders who have credibility with faculty, and who possess the requisite academic, administrative, and cross-cultural skills can play in the curricular development and review process.

Faculty in other Canadian studies (Bond et al., 2003; Schuerholz-Lehr & van Gyn, 2006) indicate that a lack of support and encouragement for the curricular reform process at both the departmental and institutional levels and "limitations placed on instructors by the infrastructure, policies, and procedures of their departments and the institution in general" (Schuerholz-Lehr et al., 1997, p. 87) are barriers to the successful internationalization of the curriculum.

Funding and Resources

Insufficient funding and resources can also be serious impediments to internationalizing the curriculum (Bond, 2003a; Bond et al., 2003; Castenada, 2004; Cleveland-Innes, Emes, &

Ellard, 2001; Ellingboe, 1998; Knight, 1995, 2002a; Jones & Andrews, 2002; Schoorman,

2000a; Schuerholz-Lehr & van Gyn, 2006). In this era of fiscal restraint, the establishment of new international programs and curricula must compete with many other institutional demands for funding (Knight, 1995; Taylor, 2000). Closely associated with this issue are time constraints on faculty due to downsizing of departments, increased teaching loads, and larger class sizes 19 Internationalization of the Curriculum which may inhibit faculty from successfully designing and delivering an internationalized curriculum (Bond, 2003a; Bond et al., 2003; Castenada, 2004; Schuerholz-Lehr & van Gyn,

2006). Faculty may also be reluctant to engage in curricular reform if insufficient release time and financial rewards are not allocated for their efforts (Taylor, 2000). However, McKellin's

(1998) study of British Columbia post-secondary institutions indicated that the majority of respondents surveyed provide "release time for faculty to undertake international projects or to develop course curricula" (p. 45). It appears that the priority institutions place on funding this important aspect of internationalization will determine its level and extent of development.

Organizational Structure and Communication

Although the curricular reform process will vary by institution, the discipline-based focus of many North American institutions and the traditionally decentralized nature of the curricular reform process within Canadian institutions can negatively impact on the internationalization of the curriculum (Carter, 1992; Maidstone, 1995; Taylor, 2000). The majority of the respondents in Knight's (1995) study suggested that, "internationalization needs to occur at local academic and administrative units within a broad policy framework" (Knight, 1995, p. 20). However, faculties, which have diverse goals and characteristics, tend to address curricular reform within the context of their own disciplines and classes. Faculty members don't often collaborate with colleagues, including those who have international experience, in designing and delivering their courses (Bond, 2003a; Cleveland-Innes et al., 2001; Ellingboe, 1998; Jones & Andrew, 2002;

Mestenhauser, 1998). Since successful internationalization of the curriculum requires a collaborative, interdisciplinary approach, one of the greatest challenges in internationalizing the curriculum is bringing together large numbers of faculty from diverse disciplines to collaborate 20 Internationalization of the Curriculum towards this goal (Cleveland-Innes et al., 2001; Ellingboe, 1998; Jones & Andrews, 2002;

Maidstone, 1995; Mestenhauser, 1998).

Closely connected with the decentralized nature of post-secondary institutions are communication difficulties. The use of both formal and informal communication and information-sharing strategies amongst the stakeholders involved within the institutional internationalization process is crucial to its success (Jones & Andrews, 2002; Knight, 1994).

However, respondents in Knight's (1995) study of 89 Canadian institutions indicated that communication was very helpful to the internationalization process but not fundamental.

Nevertheless, the participants within this study did note the importance of communication to promote the cross-disciplinary aspect of internationalization.

Faculty Autonomy and Academic Freedom

A fear of loss of personal autonomy and academic freedom may provide another barrier to the curriculum reform process. Faculty who have not been involved in the development of the institution's mandate to internationalize may perceive the call to internationalize their courses to be mandated from a top-down perspective and may resent what they regard as an intrusion into their rights of academic freedom and integrity (Khalideen, 2006). Khalideen (2006) stressed that many faculty members "find it difficult to relinquish 'power' over what is taught because in some ways they benefit from the status quo. Others are opposed to change since they see change simply as a criticism of their current practice" (p. 5). Nevertheless, a faculty member within

Castaneda's (2004) study indicated the need for increased departmental and/or administrative support for addressing diversity within the curricular and pedagogical practices of the institution and lamented the climate in which some faculty members view this as mandated reform which infringes upon their rights to academic freedom. Faculty within Knight's (1995) study indicated 21 Internationalization of the Curriculum academic freedom to be both a facilitator and a barrier within the internationalization process. As one respondent indicated, "academic freedom is both a facilitator, allowing faculty members to pursue international interests and a barrier in that those who are not interested must be convinced or co-opted and cannot be asked to change their focus of interest" (Knight, 1995, p. 20).

Commodification of Education

Additionally, some faculty may be suspicious of internationalization efforts as indicative of the 'commodification of education', which focuses on the economic benefits of internationalization initiatives rather than traditional humanistic or academic rationales

(Cleveland-Innes et al., 2001; Knight, 1997). The recruitment of international students is often seen as an important source of revenue for post-secondary institutions. A great number of academics disagree with this consumer approach towards the view of education and curriculum as a commodity (DeVita & Case, 2003; Schapper & Mayson, 2008; Vertesi, 1999). These researchers caution against the standardization approach to internationalizing the curriculum that has occurred in Australia in which faculty have little or no input into curriculum design and are required "to deliver prepackaged education with efficiency and economy" (Schapper & Mayson,

2008, p. 197). Knight (1999) highlighted the importance of achieving a balance between the economic and academic rationales for recruiting international students. In order for faculty to fully embrace the internationalization of the curriculum, institutions must focus on the recruitment of international students not simply as "cash cows" (Brown & Jones, 2007, p. 2), but as positive forces of diversity who can enrich the learning environment for the benefit of everyone on the campus (Bond & Thayer Scott, 1999; Taraban, Dippo, Fynbo, & Alsop, 2006).

Hiring and Reward Policies 22 Internationalization of the Curriculum Institutions that neglect to reward faculty involvement in internationalization initiatives in their tenure and promotion policies provide another barrier to faculty involvement (Bond et al.,

2003; Bond & Thayer Scott, 1999; Burn, 2002; Carter, 1992; Castaneda, 2004; Harari, 1992;

O'Brien & Sarkar, 2002). Knight's (1995) survey of Canadian institutions indicated that 84% of respondents did not explicitly recognize the contribution to or participation of faculty in international activities within their assessment and reward policies. Although 62% of faculty in

Bond et al.'s (2003) study disagreed that international or intercultural experience is an important criteria in hiring new faculty, the majority of researchers recommended that institutions consider faculty's international experience and competence in their recruitment and hiring processes and introduce reward and promotion strategies for faculty based on their involvement in international activities such as internationalizing the curricula (Bond, 2006; Bond & Thayer Scott, 1999;

Carter, 1992; Knight, 1994; Maidstone, 1995; Tonkin & Edwards, 1981).

Faculty Development and International Experience

Lack of funding to support faculty development and to aid faculty in increasing their levels of international awareness and expertise through international research, study, and teaching activities can also impede curricular reform (Cleveland-Jones et al., 2001; Ellingboe,

1998; Harari, 1992; Knight, 1994, 2000; Paige, 2003; Taylor, 2000; Tonkin & Edwards, 1981).

Some researchers propose a direct link between faculty who are 'internationalized' and their interest in and ability to reform and deliver an internationalized curriculum (Knight, 1994;

Taylor, 2000; Maidstone, 1995). However, other research shows that such international involvement and experience does not necessarily result in these faculty members transferring their experiences into internationalizing their classes and courses (Ellingboe, 1998; Tonkin &

Edwards, 1981). In Ellingboe’s (1998) study, some faculty, despite having international 23 Internationalization of the Curriculum experience, "had not made the cognitive shift to internationalize their curriculum. Those who had international experiences had not connected them with their teaching, and ways of infusing their disciplines with international perspectives were unknown to them" (p. 211). This underscores the importance of providing professional development opportunities to assist faculty with translating their international expertise and knowledge into the content and pedagogy of their courses.

Bond and Thayer Scott (1999) indicated that it may be a challenge to convince some

Canadian faculty to participate in such internationalization activities since they may view them as an extra burden and a drain on human and financial resources that have already been cut in times of fiscal restraint. Many faculty members find the choice of participating in international work a difficult one considering that it may negatively impact on their colleagues at home who are faced with increasing class sizes and decreasing resources.

Intercultural Knowledge, Skills, and Interest

Lack of personal knowledge, skills, or interest in internationalization, and a lack of intercultural knowledge and sensitivity are other reasons for the lack of faculty involvement in international curricular reform initiatives. Bond (2006) indicated that issues such as ethnocentricity, a disbelief that knowledge is socially constructed, a belief that their discipline is already international, and a neglect to engage in self-reflection regarding the impact of their personal cultural beliefs on their choice of course content and pedagogical practices are all issues in faculty reluctance to engage in curricular internationalization and reform. Benick et al.'s

(1996) survey, examining faculty resistance to change within Ontario post-secondary institutions, also found that many faculty lack the motivation, "interest…experience, commitment, flexibility and openness [to revise their curricular and pedagogical practices]….They don't seem to understand the principles of an inclusive environment" (p. 26) 24 Internationalization of the Curriculum Consequently, the need for faculty development programs and workshops that promote intercultural sensitivity and increase understanding of how and why to internationalize the curriculum are also essential (Bond et al., 2003; Carter, 1992; Castaneda, 2004; Cleveland-Jones et al., 2001; Harari, 1992; Knight, 1994; Maidstone, 1995; Odgers & Giroux, 2006; Otten, 2003;

Schuerholz-Lehr & van Gyn, 2006).

Pedagogical and Content Concerns

Canadian faculty members and instructors engaged in a workshop focusing on internationalizing curricula at the University of Victoria expressed difficulty with determining appropriate methods of validating the international students and their prior learning experiences while maintaining equity (Schuerholz-Lehr et al., 2007). The instructors in this workshop also questioned whether they should be creating a distinction between the international and traditional content within their courses or integrating the two. Another participant was also wary "that the emphasis on internationalization of the classroom does not impede the learning of basic ideas and processes that students are coming here to learn" (Schuerholz-Lehr et al., 2007, pp. 79-80).

Moreover, mindful as they are of the need for diverse assessment mechanisms to better meet the needs of international students, faculty in Schuerholz-Lehr and van Gyn's (2006) study commented on the difficulties inherent in this process due to large class sizes and lack of resources to comprehensively assess students' learning.

Institutions desiring the successful development and delivery of internationalized courses for their international student populations must be mindful of this myriad of challenges inherent in the curricular and pedagogical reform process.

Internationalization of the Curriculum

Tenets, Goals, and Approaches 25 Internationalization of the Curriculum There is no 'one size fits all' method of internationalizing an institution or of internationalizing the curriculum (Bond, 2003a; Harari, 1992). The decision of how to internationalize an institution and the extent of the internationalization process must be based upon an institution's unique history, context, goals, mission, values, and resources (Harari, 1992;

Knight, 1994, 1995, 2004; Lemasson, 1999; Schoorman, 2000a).

Research has emphasized that the internationalization of the curriculum should be part of an ongoing, comprehensive, integrated, interdisciplinary approach to institutional internationalization (Bonfiglio, 1999; Edwards & Tonkin, 1990; Ellingboe, 1998; Green &

Olson, 2003; Harari, 1992; Schoorman, 1999, 2000a, 2000b; Taylor, 2000). Bonfiglio (1999) stressed that within the traditional discipline-based focus of North American post-secondary education "learning becomes isolated and disconnected" (p. 11) and the diverse perspectives inherent in today's global society are ignored. She also cautioned that within this single disciplinary approach, faculty is seen as conveyors of knowledge and students have little opportunity for personal input and participation. Curricular reform needs to occur not only at the faculty and departmental level, but also at the institutional level in order that students' experiences with an internationalized curriculum are not isolated to a particular course or department (Schuerholz-Lehr & van Gyn, 2006). Transforming the curriculum requires a move from individual faculty members working in isolation to a more comprehensive, collaborative strategy in which the tenets of internationalized pedagogy and curricular reform infiltrate all of the faculties and departments within an institution.

Research indicates that some academic disciplines such as anthropology, foreign languages, fine arts, science, history, and political science see themselves as inherently international and may not see a need to further internationalize their curricula (Bond 2003a; 26 Internationalization of the Curriculum Edwards & Tonkin, 1990; Schoorman, 1999; Tonkin & Edwards, 1981). However, as a faculty member within Schoorman's (1999) U.S. based case study recognized, although "the problems of science are international, and the same for all,…the approach to that problem depends on the culture" (p. 29). Faculty members who deny the need to internationalize their courses are neglecting to consider the diverse learning styles and experiences of international students within their classes. As Benick and Saloojee (1996) indicated, "an inclusive learning environment can be created in any course regardless of discipline because it is about respecting students and valuing them as partners in teaching and learning" (p. 2). For an overview of the

"internationalized curricula by discipline" (Taylor, 2000, p. 12) at Canadian institutions, please refer to Appendix A.

An internationalized curriculum demands a move from a teacher-centered learning environment, in which the traditional lecture and discussion style of teaching dominates (Bond,

2003a, 2006; Jones & Young, 1997; Lynch, 1997; Vertesi, 1999), to a more inclusive, student- centered, interactive, and experiential learning environment (Benick, Newby, & Samuel, 1996;

Bond, 2003a; Saloojee, 1996; Schuerholz-Lehr et al., 2007). Such an environment would value the diverse learning styles and previous experiences of international students (Guo & Jamal,

2007; Lynch, 1997; McLoughlin, 2001; Peelo & Luxon, 2007; Saloojee, 1996; Vertesi, 1999).

Moreover, it would incorporate intercultural and international dimensions to facilitate the academic achievement of culturally diverse students (Banks, 2002; Bond, 2003a, 2006;

Maidstone, 1995; Otten, 2003; Whalley, Langley, & Villarreal, 1997; Vertesi, 1999). Bond

(2006) indicated that 80% of Canadian faculty utilizes the lecture format as the predominant method of instruction; however, 90% of students indicated that interactive pedagogies promote improved learning environments. 27 Internationalization of the Curriculum Researchers propose incorporating a range of learner-centered instructional strategies that encourage international students' participation such as peer learning; small and large group discussions and projects that incorporate diverse groups of students and examine particular issues from various cultural perspectives; reaction papers and reflective writing assignments focusing on intercultural issues; analyses of international case studies; problem solving exercises focusing on international or intercultural contexts; the use of multimedia and technology within the classroom; and the incorporation of international students and international guest speakers in the class (Castaneda, 2004; Grey, 2002; Schuerholz-Lehr et al., 2007; Taylor, 2004; Whalley et al.,

1997). However, the majority of faculty members within Schuerholz-Lehr et al.'s (2007) study expressed uncertainty about how to incorporate an international perspective within their teaching, implying a need to offer professional development opportunities for faculty members to assist them in providing effective and relevant teaching and learning strategies for their culturally diverse students. Bond et al. (2003) proposed a number of practical "best practices/good practices" (p. 11) for teaching and learning within an internationalized curriculum derived from faculty across Canada. (See Appendix B for a list of these strategies.) These strategies would be appropriate for faculty from diverse disciplines to employ in order to enhance the learning environment for all students within their classes, regardless of students' cultural or ethnic backgrounds.

Whatever techniques are employed, it is incumbent upon faculty to modify their pedagogical approaches to meet the diverse learning needs of a multicultural student population

(Adams, 1992; Banks, 2002; Maidstone, 1995; Vertesi, 1999). Faculty must explicitly outline the academic expectations and teaching and learning style requirements of the new educational environment (Lim & Ilagan-Klomegah, 2003; Mullins et al., 1995; Samuelowicz, 1987). Faculty 28 Internationalization of the Curriculum should also guide and support students in understanding their reasons and goals for utilizing particular teaching strategies within the classroom environment (Bond et al., 2003; Burns, 1991;

Carroll & Appleton, 2007; Mullins et al., 1995). Furthermore, faculty members must provide sufficient time to enable international students to modify and add to their existing repertoire of learning styles to more successfully engage in their new learning environment (Valiente, 2008).

As Schuerholz-Lehr and van Gyn (2006) noted, "good teaching is at the heart of internationalizing the curriculum" (p. 13).

Schuerholz-Lehr and van Gyn (2006) proposed a 'course design wheel' (see Appendix C) based on the tenets of student-centered learning and encompassing the three essential elements of an internationalized curriculum: internationalized content, internationalized pedagogical strategies, and culturally sensitive assessment strategies. The learning outcomes within their wheel include "intercultural competence, global awareness, world mindedness, global literacy, embrace of pluralism, and shift in frames of reference" (Schuerholz-Lehr & van Gyn, 2006, p.

23).

The three approaches to internationalizing the curriculum most common in Canadian post-secondary institutions are the add-on, infusion, and transformation approaches (Bond,

2003a, 2003b).

The first approach used to internationalize the curriculum was the add-on approach (Bond

2003b). It is characterized by adding "content, concepts, themes, and perspectives…to the curriculum without changing its structure" (Banks, 2004, p. 246), nor its pedagogical approaches.

Nevertheless, as Harari (1992) stressed, curricular reform requires more than "adding a course here and there, more than repackaging of old courses" (p. 54). 29 Internationalization of the Curriculum The infusion approach to internationalizing the curriculum is the one most commonly employed in Canadian post-secondary institutions today (Bond, 2003b). Within this approach, the curriculum is infused with "course content that reflects diverse perspectives [and]… provides students with knowledge of the differences in professional practices…across cultures" (Whalley et al., 1997, p. 16). The infusion approach focuses on the interdisciplinary nature of the internationalization of the curriculum and provides opportunities for students in all fields of study to experience "an international, multicultural and if possible intercultural dimension"

(Maidstone, 1995, p. 63-64). However, DeVita and Case (2003) cautioned against the use of an infusion approach, which they regard as perpetuating Western approaches and philosophies of learning. They expressed concern that this approach focuses on knowledge dissemination rather than on the active and critical learning required for the development of intercultural skills and attitudes, and insisted that questions need to be asked about the "source of knowledge that is infused, its history and geography, and the legitimacy of labeling Western constructions as international content" (DeVita & Case, 2003, p. 389). In a similar vein, Brookfield (2007) cited

Marcuse's (1965) research as a rationale in opposition to such an infused approach to curricular reform. As Brookfield (2007) suggested, the emphasis in higher education on exposing students to diverse perspectives and ways of knowing stems from the humanistic value of "hav[ing] all student voices heard, all experiences analyzed, and all viewpoints honored" (p. 557). However,

Brookfield (2007) summarized Marcuse's (1965) argument that diversifying the curriculum is ultimately repressive rather than liberating. By incorporating diverse perspectives and radical values within their curricula, faculty members simply juxtapose mainstream, Euro-centric perspectives and values against minority views, which "always dilutes their radical qualities"

(Brookfield, 2007, p. 558). The majority ideology will always end up overshadowing that of the 30 Internationalization of the Curriculum minority, thereby ensuring "its continued dominance" (Brookfield, 2007, p. 560). Faculty must be cognizant of the cautions proposed by these researchers if they choose to employ the infusion approach.

The final approach to internationalizing the curriculum, the transformation approach, is probably the most difficult to adopt and the least utilized approach to modify the curriculum

(Bond, 2003a, 2003b). Bond (2003a) stated that the goal of the transformation approach is "to enable students to move between two or more worldviews" (p. 5). This culturally inclusive approach, which is based upon the student-centered tenets of critical pedagogy, promotes a counter-hegemonic view of curricular reform aimed at eradicating inequitable social structures through the educational process and helping students appreciate the multiple realities that exist in today's global society (Banks, 2002, 2004; Joseph, 2008; Khalideen, 2006; Kitano, 1997; Morey,

2000; Schapper & Mayson, 2004; Schoorman, 1999, 2000a, 2000b). The transformation approach recognizes that the intellectual skills and knowledge that institutions impart to their students within the curricula are culturally biased (Kennedy, 1995; Mestenhauser, 2002a, 2002b;

Rivzi & Walsh, 1998); therefore, a transformed curriculum demands a critical examination and transcendence of the cultural assumptions and traditional, male dominated, Euro-centric values espoused within the traditional curriculum of many Western post-secondary institutions

(Maidstone, 1995; Marchesani & Adams, 1992; Rivzi & Walsh, 1998). Schoorman (1999) indicated that this counter-hegemonic approach to internationalization requires "the representation (not confined tokenism) of multiple cultural perspectives in the knowledge generated and in the organizational practices of the education institution" (p. 23). Marchesani and Adams (1992) stressed that a transformed curriculum honours the multiple "experiences, perspectives, and worldviews of traditionally marginalized peoples….It encourages new ways of 31 Internationalization of the Curriculum thinking, incorporates new methodologies, so that different epistemological questions are raised, old assumptions are quested, subjective data sources are considered, and prior theories either revised or invalidated" (pp. 15-16). Within the transformation approach, the internationalization of the curriculum moves beyond the simple exploration of cultural diversity (Rivzi & Walsh,

1998). Students must be encouraged to critically question and examine "the politics of difference in relation to histories of knowledge and power [within society and the]…dominant values and other competing values " (Rivzi & Walsh, 1998, p. 10). Consequently, a transformed approach to an internationalized curriculum aims to assist students with developing the required critical consciousness, values, awareness, skills, and knowledge of cross-cultural differences to thrive as global citizens in a constantly changing world (Khalideen, 2006; McTaggart, 2003; Rivzi &

Walsh, 1998; Schuerholz-Lehr, 2007; Schuerholz-Lehr & van Gyn, 2006). Students' diverse cultural backgrounds are valued and respected within the classroom environment and students are encouraged to explore reality through the lenses of varied cultural and ethnic groups (Banks,

2002, 2004; Quan, 1996). Moreover, the transformation approach to curriculum development provides the opportunity for students to have a voice within the learning environment; students actively participate in the learning process and teachers and learners share the power within the classroom and learn from each other (Kitano, 1997; Quan, 1996; Schoorman, 1999). As Morey

(2000) indicated, although "certain disciplines lend themselves more readily to transformation, such as those in the humanities and social sciences…even those in mathematics and the basic and applied sciences (including those taught in large lecture formats) can be modified or transformed" (pp. 29-31) to be more culturally inclusive.

Within the transformation perspective, an internationalized curriculum provides students with an opportunity to explore the impact of diverse cultures on knowledge construction within 32 Internationalization of the Curriculum the field of study (Whalley et al., 1997). Course content should incorporate, wherever possible, sources representing local, national, and international perspectives (Freedman, 1998; Knight,

1997; Schoorman, 2000b; Whalley et al., 1997). Knowledge should be examined not from the perspective of a single discipline, but from multidisciplinary contexts (Bond, 2003a; Freedman,

1998) and should "include sources that may be fragmented [and] conflicting" (Freedman, 1998, p. 50). Internationalized course content should be carefully chosen to ensure it accurately reflects different countries and cultures and should encourage students to critically reflect on their own socially determined cultural identity in order to "provide emancipatory learning experiences" (p.

16).

Although the infusion approach to internationalizing the curriculum may be the most prevalent in Canadian post-secondary institutions and is viewed by many researchers as being an effective means of internationalizing the curriculum (Bond, 2003b; Cogan, 1998; Harari, 1992;

Maidstone, 1995), one questions whether this method is truly sufficient to meet the needs of culturally diverse students in today's global society. As Mestenhauser (1998) indicated,

"knowledge is not universal, but culture-specific, and…the infusion model merely adds to the existing traditional structure of knowledge without confronting its origin" (p. 17). The transformation approach, on the other hand, encourages students and faculty to critically explore diverse ways of knowing and being and "has the potential to…change, in fundamental ways how faculty and students think about the world and their place in it" (Bond, 2003b, p. 8). This student-centered approach to curriculum and pedagogy, in which faculty and students act as partners in the learning and teaching process (Kitano, 1997; Quan, 1996; Schoorman, 1999), aims to transcend the Euro-centric content and ways of knowing that may impede the academic success of some international students (Maidstone, 1995; Marchesani & Adams, 1992; Rivzi & 33 Internationalization of the Curriculum Walsh, 1998). Although further research is required to determine which approach would result in the greatest gains for international students in terms of their academic achievement and success, it would appear that the transformation approach has the greatest potential to create culturally inclusive classroom environments that would meet the needs of today's diverse student populations, and in particular, international students.

Roles of Stakeholders

The internationalization of the curriculum is an ongoing, multifaceted process that requires the collaboration and support of faculty members, students, academic departments, the institutional administration, and international offices on campuses. Taylor (2000) also suggested the importance of teaching and learning centers in providing support for this process; however, within Canadian post-secondary institutions, "few centers appear to be proactive in the internationalization of the curriculum" (Taylor, 2000, p. 19). For stakeholders to work together to successfully internationalize the curriculum, it requires commitment to the process, intercultural sensitivity, financial support, willingness, interest, open lines of communication, and interdisciplinary cooperation (Ellingboe, 1998). Additionally, as Harari (1992) stated, "there is no substitute to a consensus-building process which must be initiated and nurtured on campus"

(p. 69).

Researchers overwhelmingly contend that faculty members are the key to the reform process required for the internationalization of the curriculum (Bond, 2006; Bond et al., 2003;

Carter, 1992; Ellingboe, 1998; Green & Olson, 2003; Harari, 1992; Paige, 2003; Saloojee, 1996;

Schuerholz-Lehr & van Gyn, 2006; Taylor, 2000). "Faculty are in a preferential and privileged position to influence the classroom atmosphere and to create environments where students learn effectively and successfully" (Samuel & Burney, 2003, p. 84). In Bond et al.'s (2003) study of 34 Internationalization of the Curriculum faculty members at Canadian post-secondary institutions, 80% of faculty respondents envisioned themselves as having the primary responsibility for internationalizing the curriculum. Moreover, only "20% [of participants] said they did not make 'every effort to internationalize' their courses"

(p. 5). Although these results are hopeful for internationalization at Canadian institutions, Bond

(2006) reminds us that in order to engage faculty in the curricular internationalization process, faculty members need to see a clear link between the curricular reform process and their personal projects and missions.

Nevertheless, faculty cannot act alone in this process (Harari, 1992; Tonkin & Edwards,

1981). Although it is the responsibility of faculty to devise and deliver curricula, visionary senior administrators and institutional leaders, including the president, the Senate, academic deans, and faculty-administrators, through a consensus-seeking process, must provide guidance, leadership, professional development opportunities, and support to assist faculty in internationalizing the curriculum (Ellingboe, 1998; Green & Olson, 2003; Harari, 1992; James & Nef, 2002; Jones &

Andrews, 2002; Knight, 1994, 1995; Maidstone, 1995; Paige, 2003; Schoorman, 2000b; Taylor,

2004; Tonkin & Edwards, 1981). Institutional leaders must support faculty in creating more inclusive learning environments that reflect the present and future needs of the institution and its students (Benick et al., 1996). Green and Olson (2003) emphasized that effective leaders provide the energy and momentum required for institutional change and have the power to remove the barriers inhibiting change. Maidstone (1995) cautioned that internationalization of the curriculum will remain a marginalized activity undertaken by a limited number of faculty working in isolation unless senior administration provides the support and structural framework necessary for change. However, Mestenhauser (1998) admonished that the senior administrators who traditionally make decisions regarding the curricular reform process often don't have the 35 Internationalization of the Curriculum required interdisciplinary, intercultural, and pedagogical competencies required to engage in this process.

Other studies have emphasized the role of a centralized international office staffed by experienced, inter-culturally sensitive personnel in supporting internationalization efforts such as the curricular reform process (Harari, 1992; Jones & Andrews, 2002; Knight, 1995). For example, although the role of the international office at the University of Alberta is to provide assistance with program development and to promote collaboration amongst faculties and between senior administrators and individual faculties (Jones & Andrews, 2002), this does not appear to be the case with the majority of Canadian post-secondary institutions. Very few of the institutions within Knight's (2000a) and McKellin's (1998) studies alluded to the role that an international office on their campus plays in promoting and facilitating the internationalization of the curriculum.

Students also play a crucial role in internationalizing the curriculum. The importance of including a cross-cultural perspective within the curriculum and pedagogical techniques of a course and of drawing upon the knowledge and experiences of international students as a resource towards this goal is essential for successful curricular reform (Bond, 2006; Bond et al.,

2003; Edwards & Tonkin, 1990; Harari, 1992; Knight, 1994; Leask, 2001; Maidstone, 1995;

Mestenhauser, 1998; Tonkin & Edwards, 1981; Vertesi, 1999). Nevertheless, numerous researchers denounce that faculty neglect to call upon the international students or domestic students in their classrooms with international or intercultural experience as potential resources

(Bond, 2003a, 2003b, 2006; Mestenhauser, 1998, 2002b; Taylor, 2004; Vertesi, 1999). Knight

(2000a), in her longitudinal Canadian study, noted that fewer than 20% of the Canadian universities surveyed provide "support to faculty on how to use the experience and knowledge of 36 Internationalization of the Curriculum international students…in the classroom" (p. 45). Nevertheless, Bond et al.'s (2003) national study on the role of faculty in internationalizing the curriculum at Canadian institutions found that "faculty strongly agrees (90%) that they encourage international students and students who have lived in another culture to contribute their understanding and experience to classroom discussions, projects and assignments" (p.10). A limitation of this study, however, is connected with response bias in that the participants self-selected to participate in the Internet survey on a voluntary basis. Bond's (2003, 2006a) study of the role of Canadian faculty members in internationalizing the curriculum revealed that female faculty members, faculty who speak several languages, and faculty who have lived or studied in a foreign country are more likely to encourage the contributions of such students within their classes. Schoorman's (1999) case study, which examined the views of faculty at a large Midwestern American research university towards the value of incorporating international students as educational resources within the classroom, found that faculty members who employed a "facilitative, dialogical instructional style" (p. 37) tended to recognize the cultural knowledge and experiences of foreign students in their classes. However, faculty from the Department of Science, in particular, indicated that, "the culture of students made no difference in the teaching and learning…[T]o pay attention to the culture of students implied a lowering of the standards of excellence" (Schoorman, 1999, p. 37).

This research appears to support Vertesi's (1991) belief that, "international students in all courses are an untapped force for internationalization" (p. 154). Nevertheless, it is important that in attempting to engage the international students in their classes, that faculty not be seen as singling out these students as different or exotic since this may succeed in further marginalizing these students rather than making them feel valued and included (Bond et al., 2003, Schuerholz-

Lehr et al., 2007). 37 Internationalization of the Curriculum Conclusion

The extensive body of research examining the academic adjustment difficulties of international students appears to provide evidence that the traditional Euro-centric curricular and pedagogical practices evident in post-secondary institutions within the Western world do not provide a learning environment readily conducive to many international students' academic success. An internationalized curriculum, encompassing curricular and pedagogical reforms that recognize the diverse backgrounds and learning styles of international students, could be an ideal remedy for better supporting the learning needs of this group of students. However, the establishment of an internationalized curriculum would require an ongoing, collaborative, interdisciplinary approach combining the support, knowledge, efforts, and skills of inter- culturally sensitive and internationally experienced faculty, students, and administrators. Such a curricular reform process must be institution-wide in order to best meet the needs of all students in all departments and faculties. Furthermore, institutions need to be aware of the numerous factors that can inhibit the successful development and delivery of an internationalized curriculum in order to address and minimize the effects of these variables on their curricular reform process. Although the infusion approach to the internationalization of the curriculum prevails in many Canadian post-secondary institutions today and is preferable to the earlier add- on approach, it is still not sufficient to meet the diverse needs of today's international students.

The move towards a transformation approach, which promotes a critical awareness of the bias and values inherent in Western pedagogical and curricular approaches, honours and acknowledges culturally diverse ways of knowing and being, and values students as active partners in the learning process, is the goal towards which post-secondary institutions should aspire for the benefit of future generations of domestic and international students. 38 Internationalization of the Curriculum References

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Figure 2. Internationalized curricula by discipline: Canada

Note. From Canadian University Efforts to Internationalize the Curriculum (p. 11), by F. Taylor, 2000, Ottawa, ON: Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. Copyright 2000 by The Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. 50 Internationalization of the Curriculum Appendix B

Best Practices/Good Practices For Teaching and Learning in an Internationalized Curriculum (Bond et al., 2003, pp. 11-12)

Get to know your students very early in the course  Make up a handout so that students can tell you about themselves  Ask students about their different experiences (including education) in Canada and outside North America  Be careful not to single out international students as different, exotic  Find out how many languages are spoken in your class  Find out how many students have lived or worked abroad, and where  Ask about the ways in which your students have been taught before, particularly recently  Ask students what teaching strategy seems to work best for them  Disclose the languages you speak, even a little

Develop a climate of trust and respect  Make it known in your course outline and in your first meeting with your students that you invite them to contribute their ideas and experiences  Describe your own experiences living and working in different cultures to help shape the course  Tell your students about yourself, including your cultural heritage  Disclose in your course outline what you believe about respect, diversity and inclusivity  Make these beliefs explicit; practice them in the presence of students  Set out in the course outline, or develop with the students, guidelines for conflict resolution should they be needed  Discuss with students your choice(s) of teaching strategies and your reasons for making the choices; convey strategies in your course outline  Try to use as many different teaching strategies as possible  Be open to and invite disagreement  Recognize that some students do not feel comfortable speaking in large groups; provide different types of opportunities for participation

Instructional strategies  Build on your students' linguistic and cultural distinctiveness  Use current issues whenever possible to present or contextualize your course content  Use experiential learning whenever possible (e.g. field-based assignments, group work, case studies); the more active the learning the better  While group work has the potential to enhance learning, students who look or speak differently may be at a disadvantage  Effective group work/assignments require students who are prepared for what is expected and know how to handle issues such as conflict or non-participation  If you use group work, structure the membership to be diverse  Assess group work based on individual effort  Create assignments which build on students' background knowledge and experience 51 Internationalization of the Curriculum  Encourage your students to think critically and abstractly

Preparing to internationalize course content  Find out what your International Student Office and other campus services can offer you  Collaborate with colleagues at home and abroad  Join networks of faculty who teach the same or similar courses in Canada and outside North America  Make good use of international guest speakers who are on campus  Use examples in all assignments that introduce original materials from other countries and cultures  Avoid stereotypes

52 Internationalization of the Curriculum Appendix C

Figure 1. Teaching for world-mindedness: The course design wheel

Note. From "Internationalizing Pedagogy or Applying Pedagogy to Internationalism - The Journey of a Professional Development Workshop," by S. Schuerholz-Lehr and G. van Gyn, 2006, p. 23. Paper presented at Internationalizing Canada's Universities: Practices, Challenges, and Opportunities symposium.

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