Federal Democratic Republic Of Ethiopia

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Commission of the European Community

Ministry of Agriculture

Farming in Tsetse Controlled Areas of Eastern Africa Ethiopia National Component

Project 7 ACP ET086

Farming Systems and Natural Resource Management Short Term Technical Assistance Consultancy Report

David Bourn Farming Systems and Natural Resource Management Specialist

May 2002 FITCA-Ethiopia: Farming Systems and Agricultural Expansion in South-Western Ethiopia

Agristudio S.r.l. in association with Technipan S.p.A FITCA-Ethiopia: Farming Systems and Agricultural Expansion in South-Western Ethiopia

Contents Summary...... iii Acknowledgements...... iv Disclaimer...... iv Acronyms...... v 1 Introduction...... 1 1.1 Geographical Setting and Historical Background...... 1 1.2 Demographic Context...... 3 1.2.1 Ethnic Composition...... 3 1.2.2 Regional State Populations...... 4 1.2.3 Migration...... 4 1.2.4 Resettlement in Relation to Trypanosomosis Risk...... 5 1.3 Deforestation...... 6 1.4 Livestock Population Trends...... 6 1.5 Land Tenure...... 7 2 Findings...... 8 2.1 Main Farming/Land Use Systems of South-Western Ethiopia...... 8 2.1.1 Cereal Land Use Systems...... 8 2.1.2 Enset Farming Systems...... 15 2.1.3 Woody Fallow Cultivation Systems with Few Cattle...... 16 2.1.4 Livestock Production Systems...... 17 2.2 Agriculture in the Upper Dhidessa Valley...... 18 2.2.1 Human Population...... 19 2.2.2 Farming Zones...... 20 2.2.3 Land Use and Land Cover...... 21 2.2.4 Arable Farming...... 21 2.2.5 Forestry and Agro-Forestry...... 24 2.2.6 Livestock Resources and Animal Husbandry...... 24 2.2.7 Wild Honey Collection...... 26 2.2.8 Fishing...... 26 2.2.9 Farmers Problems...... 26 2.3 Indicators of Change in Tsetse Controlled Areas...... 26 3 Conclusions...... 30 3.1 Agricultural Expansion and Environmental Change...... 30 3.1.1 Land Use and Land Cover Change in the Dhidessa Valley...... 30 3.1.2 Land Use and Land Cover Change in the Ghibe Valley...... 32 3.2 Need to Mitigate the Risks of Increased Land Degradation...... 36 4 Recommendations...... 37 4.1 Guidelines for Strategy Formulation and Targeting...... 37 4.1.1 Other Areas Similar to the Dhidessa Valley...... 37 4.1.2 Information Requirements...... 39 4.2 Appropriate Parameters for Comparison of With and Without Project Scenarios...... 40 4.2.1 Agricultural and Socio-Economic Parameters...... 40 4.2.2 Environmental Parameters...... 40 4.2.3 Comparative Costs of Disease Control Measures...... 40 4.3 Towards More Sustainable Farming...... 42 4.3.1 Understanding Farmers’ Needs and Priorities...... 42 4.3.2 Working with Farmers to Control Trypanosomosis...... 42 4.3.3 Working with Farmers to Conserve Soil and Water...... 44 4.4 National Co-ordination (and Technical Advisory) Committee...... 45 4.5 Computerisation of Records...... 45 4.5.1 Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Survey Data...... 45 4.5.2 Trypanosomosis Treatment Figures...... 45 5 References...... 46 Appendix I: Terms of Reference...... 49 Appendix II: Itinerary and Contacts...... 50 Appendix III: Upper Unta Sub-Watershed Soil and Water Conservation Project...... 53 Appendix IV: SITE Criteria...... 55 Appendix V: Cost of Trypanocides and Insecticides...... 58 Appendix VI: Koisha Community Based Tsetse Control Project...... 59

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List of Boxes Box 2: AACMC/Westphal’s Farming Systems of South-Western Ethiopia...... 9 Box 3: WBISPP Land Use Systems of South Western Ethiopia...... 11 Box 4: Nature and Causes of Land Degradation in the Oromiya Region...... 31 Box 5: Effects of Land Use and Tsetse Control on Bird Species Richness in SW Ethiopia...... 34 Box 6: Environmental Impacts of Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Control...... 36 Box 7: When and Where is Trypanosomosis Control Likely to be Profitable?...... 38 Box 8: Checklist of FITCA-Ethiopia GIS Information Requirements...... 39 Box 9: Partnerships for Tsetse Control...... 43 Box 10: Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation in Ethiopia...... 44

List of Figures Figure 1: Location of the Dhidessa Valley in Western Ethiopia...... 2 Figure 2: Highlands and Lowlands of South-Western Ethiopia...... 3 Figure 3: Ethnic Composition – 1994 Census...... 3 Figure 4: Regional State Populations – 1994 Census...... 4 Figure 5: Regional State Population Densities – 1994 Census...... 4 Figure 6: Number of Migrants in Regional States – 1994 Census...... 5 Figure 7: Deforestation in Oromiya Regional State by Zone: 1990-2020...... 6 Figure 8: National Livestock Population Trends: 1980-2000...... 6 Figure 9: Wereda Agro-Ecological Zonal Areas...... 20 Figure 10: Wereda Cropping Profiles...... 23 Figure 11: Coffee Marketed by Wereda in 1997...... 24 Figure 12: Oxen Ownership...... 25 Figure 13: Population Trends in Tsetse Controlled Areas...... 28 Figure 14: Household Trends in Tsetse Controlled Areas...... 29 Figure 15: Probable Causes and Ecological Consequences of Land Use/Cover Change...... 35

List of Tables Table 1: Resettlement and Trypanosomosis Risk...... 5 Table 2: Human Population...... 18 Table 3: Rural Population Support Capacities...... 20 Table 4: Agro-Ecological Zones...... 21 Table 5: Main Arable Crops...... 22 Table 6: District/Wereda Livestock Statistics for 1997...... 25 Table 7: With and Without Project Scenarios for FITCA-Ethiopia...... 41

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Summary The upper Dhidessa (=Didessa) valley is the initial designated focal point for the promotion of Farming in Tsetse Controlled Areas in south-western Ethiopia. The geographical setting and history of tsetse and trypanosomosis control in the valley are outlined. National demographic, land use and livestock trends are identified, and important land tenure changes are noted.

The characteristics of the main farming/land use systems in south-western Ethiopia are described and a comparative assessment of the agricultural resources of the ten weredas (administrative districts) in the upper Dhidessa valley is presented.

Various indicators of agricultural and demographic change in three tsetse-controlled areas of the Dhidessa valley (Chello-Damocha, Galle and Limu Shay) are summarised. Cattle, people and cultivation have all increased substantially in the past decade.

Land cover and land use changes in the upper Dhidessa and neighbouring Ghibe valleys are assessed in terms of expansion and contraction of agricultural settlement associated with human population growth, immigration, socio-political change and land tenure reform.

As farmland expands, vegetation cover is reduced and soils are exposed to increased risk of erosion, especially in hilly or mountainous terrain, where there is little flat land, and hillside farming on steep slopes is common.

Environmentally responsible development requires that appropriate mitigation measures be instigated to offset potential adverse consequences and promote more sustainable forms of agriculture.

Potential mitigation measures include: land use planning and the promotion of soil and water conservation, agro-forestry and other sustainable farming practices, involving the active participation of local farming communities in the decision making process and prioritisation of activities.

Recommendations include:  Appointment of a National Coordination and Technical Advisory Committee;  Adoption of socio-economic, institutional, technical and environmental (SITE) criteria for the formulation of tsetse and trypanosomosis control strategies;  Commissioning of a review of non-governmental experiences in community-based tsetse and trypanosomosis control in Ethiopia, and assessment of lessons learnt;  Establishment of a geographical information system for analysis and presentation of tsetse and trypanosomosis related data;  Examination of the benefits and costs of alternative disease control strategies;  Computerisation of tsetse and trypanosomosis survey records and trypanocidal drug treatment figures;  Investigation of farmers’ needs and priorities at all potential interventions sites;  Promotion of farmer participation in project activities and sustainable farming practices.

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Acknowledgements Many thanks to everyone who contributed to this study, especially the following: Belachew Ametse, Senior Tsetse Control Officer, Bedelle; Dr. Debebe Argogo, NTTICC Project Leader, Bedelle; Lishaan Damisee, Soil and Water Conservation Officer, Jimma; Stanley Flint, FITCA-Ethiopia Technical Adviser, Addis Ababa and Bedelle; Bultuma Jaleta, Senior Tsetse Control Officer, Bedelle; Dr. Mirresa Keno, FITCA Ethiopia, National Co-ordinator, Addis Ababa; Dr. Bruce King, Remote Sensing and Land Use Planning Specialist; Samuel Gabrie Madihin, Soil and Water Conservation Officer, Jimma; Tom Lunsford, veterinarian with SIM, Ethiopia; Dr. Ezio Moriondo, Agristudio/Techniplan Representative and Technical Adviser; Gedefa Negera, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection, Mettuu; Chris Rhodes, Forest Resource and Community Resource Management Specialist; Ato Tefessa, Bureau for Planning and Economic Development for Oromiya, Jimma; Martin Roberts, SOS Sahel Project Manager, Addis Ababa; Peter Sutcliffe, Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project, Addis Ababa; Shibru Wakuma, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection, Mettuu;

Disclaimer This document has been realized with the financial assistance of the European Commission. The views expressed herein are those of the consultant and do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the European Commission, the Federal Government of Ethiopia, Agristudio S.r.l. or Technipan S.p.A.

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Acronyms

AACMC Australian Agricultural Consulting and Management Company CSA Central Statistical Authority DEM Digital Elevation Model EMA Ethiopian Mapping Authority EMMC Environmental Monitoring and Management Component EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations FITCA Farming in Tsetse Controlled Areas GIS Geographical Information System IBAR Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources ILRI International Livestock Research Institute ISCTRC International Scientific Council for Trypanosomosis Research and Control MoA Ministry of Agriculture MoH Ministry of Health NDVI Normalised Difference Vegetation Index NGO Non Governmental Organisation NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NTTICC National Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Investigation and Control Centre OAU Organization of African Unity ORS Oromiya Regional State PAAT Programme Against African Trypanosomosis PACE Pan African Programme for the Control of Epizootics PMAC Provisional Military Administrative Council PATTEC Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Eradication Campaign SEMG Scientific and Environmental Monitoring Group WBISPP Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project (MoA, Addis Ababa) UNDP United Nations Development Programme

- v - FITCA-Ethiopia: Farming Systems and Agricultural Expansion in South-Western Ethiopia

1 Introduction

1.1 Geographical Setting and Historical Background FITCA-Ethiopia’s designated project area is located in the catchment of the upper Dhidessa (=Didessa) river in western Ethiopia (Figure 1) and includes all or parts of ten wereda (administrative districts): Bedelle-Dabo, Dhidessa and Gechi-Borecha in Illubabor Zone, and Gomma, Kersa, Limu Kossa, Limu Seka, Manna, Setema and Tiro Afeta in Jimma Zone of Oromiya Regional State (ORS).

The Dhidessa has three main tributaries: the Anger, Dabana and Wama rivers, and flows northwards into the Abay (Blue Nile) (Figure 2). The valley of the upper Dhidessa is 4-15km wide and some 100km in length, with steep escarpments rising from 1,300-1,500m to plateaux at around 2,000m on either side. The catchment of the Ghibe river lies immediately to the east and drains southwards into the Omo river, and ultimately into Lake Turkana (=Rudolph).

To the north of the project area, lie the Anger and lower Dhidessa valleys, which have a remarkable recent history of small holder settlement, large-scale mechanised farming, very extensive land clearance and conversion of savanna woodlands to arable land, dating back more than a 25 years to the pioneer establishment of the Anger Gutin Settlement Scheme in 1972 (Bourn and Scott, 1978; and Bourn et al., 2001).

The Lower Didessa Outline Development Plan (AACMC, 1987b) includes a map showing the location of a proposed integrated rural development project covering some 103,000ha of the southern Anger valley, state farms (ca 50,000ha), Didessa Dimtu, Didessa Kerisa and Didessa Kone Settlement Projects, Wama State Farm and a “proposed” Upper Didessa Settlement Project (ca 50,000ha.) Informed sources confirm that the latter settlement project was never fully implemented, although some land clearance did occur.

Two species of tsetse are present in the upper Dhidessa valley: Glossina morsitans submorsitans and G. tachinoides, and appear to have extended their range since the late 1930s. Ford et al. (1976) refer to an informant whose family “had owned many gashas of land in the now tsetse-infested Didessa valley, where they also kept cattle. They (and presumably others) had been compelled, by unspecified epidemics and epizootics, to leave the valley in about 1938.” This is consistent with the progressive recovery of tsetse belts in eastern Africa, following their catastrophic reduction in the aftermath of the great rinderpest epizootic, which annihilated livestock and wildlife populations across Africa in the 1890s (Ford, 1971).

A more recent expansion of tsetse and increase in reported cases of cattle trypanosomosis in the 1980s was brought under control using a combination of trypanocidal drug therapy and prophylaxis, and community-based vector control measures, supported by FAO from 1986 to 1990 (Slingenbergh, 1992b). Odour-baited, insecticide impregnated targets were deployed at four sites: Chello, Limu Shay, Bedelle and Dembi-Toba. Since then, vector control operations have been maintained and extended to cover some 1,200-1,500km2 of the upper Dhidessa valley (NTTIC, 1996). Erkelens et al. (2000) have developed a geographical information system of the Dhidessa valley to explore the identification and prioritising of potential tsetse control areas in south-western Ethiopia.

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Figure 1: Location of the Dhidessa Valley in Western Ethiopia

Source: Derived from Erkelens et al. (2000).

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Figure 2: Highlands and Lowlands of South-Western Ethiopia

Source: Derived from Erkelens et al. (2000).

1.2 Demographic Context The most recent census of human population in Ethiopia was held in 1994 and revealed a total of some 53.5 million inhabitants, increasing at a rate of 2.9% per annum. The population is projected to double in size by 2022, and to have reached 63.5 million by 2000 (CSA, 1998).

1.2.1 Ethnic Composition More than 80 ethnic groups are recognised in Ethiopia, the most numerous of which are the Oromo (32.2%) and Amhara (30.1%), as indicted in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Ethnic Composition – 1994 Census

e 25 g a t

n 20 e c

r 15 e

P 10 5 0 p p p r y p i e o s o a l i a u u u r a r a u e a f g m o o o m e f a o w d r r r a r o m a h h A r a e r t G G o G r d G u i

G O O g S i a a a S A G a t f t y T f i i l a e d e b K a m W H e K

Source: CSA (1998).

1.2.2 Regional State Populations With relatively few major towns and cities, the great majority (86.3%) of Ethiopians live in rural areas. Regional state populations are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Regional State Populations – 1994 Census

20,000,000

15,000,000

10,000,000

5,000,000

0 i r a i a y z a r a a l l P a r l b y a w u a a f i r r f a N e a a m m g a m h b b A i N D a o o H A T m m S r

S G e a A s - r O i i G S d D B d A

Source: CSA (1998).

Figure 5: Regional State Population Densities – 1994 Census

. 80 m k

q 60 s

l 40 p o e P 20

0 i r l a y a z a P l r a l a a y f - u i f a r N e S m h g m A N b i m o B a o T m S m r S G A a O G

Source: CSA (1998).

1.2.3 Migration Ethiopia has experienced significant movement and redistribution of human population over the past few decades, arising from a combination of factors relating to recurrent droughts and famines, and both government organised and spontaneous resettlement. The latter continues apace today and is a cause of mounting social and political discontent.

The magnitude of this movement and redistribution of people is reflected in the 1994 census, in which some 7 million people or 14.1% of the population, excluding nomadic Afars and

Somalis, were classified as migrants. (For people in rural areas, migrants were defined as those who had come from any urban area, or who had moved from a rural area in another wereda. For people in urban areas, migrants were defined as those who came from any rural area, or who had come from any other town.) The number of migrants in regional states, excluding Afar and Somali, is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Number of Migrants in Regional States – 1994 Census

3,000,000

2,500,000

2,000,000

1,500,000

1,000,000

500,000

0 i z a P a y a a l r a l u y r a N b a i w e r a r a m N a g b h a m b a i S D o m H m T A r G

a - e A s O r i i S G d D B d A

Source: CSA, (1998).

1.2.4 Resettlement in Relation to Trypanosomosis Risk Table 1 indicates the scale of government-organised resettlement that took places in western Ethiopia during the late seventies and early eighties in relation to anticipated trypanosomosis risk. With an average family size of 5, the figures suggest that some 1.6 million people were resettled and that the great majority of settlement sites were in areas considered to have a high risk of trypanosomosis, as determined by altitude and potential presence of tsetse.

Table 1: Resettlement and Trypanosomosis Risk Trypanosomosis Risk High Medium Low Total Location Family Units/ Family Units/ Family Units/ Family Units/ Heads PAs Heads PAs Heads PAs Heads PAs Keffa 55,517 124 1,343 9 2,774 72 59,634 205 Ilubabor 58,925 83 9,535 201 12,354 125 80,814 409 Wellega 56,702 135 5,749 76 17,019 500 79,470 711 Gojjam 50,000 100 50,000 100 Gonder 50,000 100 50,000 100 Grand Total 221,144 442 16,627 286 82,147 797 319,918 1,525 Source: MOA, 1984. PA = Peasant Association.

1.3 Deforestation A general indication of current and projected future rates of agricultural encroachment of Ethiopia’s remaining high forests is shown in Figure 7, based on studies in Oromiya Regional State by WBISPP (2001a). The highest rate of deforestation was 2.6% per annum in Jimma Zone. By 2020, it is estimated that 27% of the Regional State’s forests in 1990 will have been turned to cultivation. Greatest forest losses will be in Jimma (225,500ha), Bali (161,500ha) and Illubabor (110,000 ha).

Figure 7: Deforestation in Oromiya Regional State by Zone: 1990-2020

900,000

800,000 Bale Illubabor

. 700,000

a Jimma H

g Borena

n 600,000 i n

i West Wellega a 500,000 m West Shew a e R

a 400,000 Arsi e r

A East Wellega

s 300,000 West Harerge e r

o East Shew a F 200,000 East Harerge 100,000 North Shew a

0 1990 2000 2010 2020

Source: WBISPP (2001a)

1.4 Livestock Population Trends The first national livestock census of Ethiopia since 1983 has recently been conducted as part of a complete agricultural census and its results are awaited with considerable interest. Available information shown in Figure 8, based on sample surveys of livestock holdings of settled farming communities conducted by the Central Statistical Authority (CSA), provides an indication of livestock population trends over the past twenty years.

Figure 8: National Livestock Population Trends: 1980-2000

35 Cattle

30 Sheep Million 25 Goats s 20 All equines 15

0 80/81 82/83 84/85 86/87 88/89 90/91 92/93 94/95 96/97 98/99 Sources: WBISPP (2001b) derived from CSA survey reports.

1.5 Land Tenure Land tenure has long been a contentious issue in Ethiopia and remains a topic of political controversy and heated debate. According to Article 40(3) of the 1994 Federal Constitution: “The right to ownership of rural and urban land, as well as natural resources, is exclusively vested in the State and in the peoples of Ethiopia. Land is a common property of the Nations, Nationalities and Peoples of Ethiopia and shall not be subject to sale or to other means of exchange”

Nevertheless, the allocation and reallocation of land is possible and has been undertaken in Amhara and Tigray Regions, but the status quo prevails in other regions, including Oromiya, where land holdings range from as little as 0.5ha in densely populated areas, such as Harerge, to 10ha in sparsely populated areas (ONRG, 2000).

For twenty years prior to the 1994 Federal Constitution, the Provisional Military Administrative Council’s (PMAC) Proclamation Number 31 of March 1975 had been in force. This radical reform of land tenure in Ethiopia abolished all forms of private land ownership and prohibited the sale, lease, or mortgage of rural land. Peasants were given only usufructory rights over land holdings, which were limited to ten hectares. Tenancy was abolished. Land litigation, a common feature of pre-revolutionary Ethiopia, was terminated. The Proclamation also provided for the setting up of Peasant Associations, which were given primary responsibility for its implementation and the administration of land allocations and periodic redistributions (Zewde, 2001).

A series of other measures were also introduced by the PMAC, including: establishment of producer co-operatives, control of agricultural marketing, resettlement, collectivisation, villagisation and the relocation of peasant neighbourhoods to new areas, all of which had profound and far reaching consequences for rural life and land use (see Section 3.1).

Although some Peasant Associations have been criticised for enforced eviction, fragmentation of holdings, corruption and malpractice (ONRG, 2000), they remain the primary unit of community organisation in rural areas and retain authority over land allocation.

2 Findings This section begins with an overview and brief descriptions of the main farming/land use systems in south-western Ethiopia. This is followed by a comparative assessment of the agricultural resources of weredas in FITCA-Ethiopia’s designated project area in the upper Dhidessa valley. Various indicators of agricultural and demographic change in three tsetse- controlled areas of the Dhidessa valley are summarised graphically in the final section.

2.1 Main Farming/Land Use Systems of South-Western Ethiopia Ethiopia’s farming systems have been described by Westphal (1975) and mapped by AACMC (1987a). The variety and complexity of indigenous farming systems reflects the country’s geographical and ethnic diversity – see Box 1. A feature of most, if not all, farming systems, however, is that they are dynamic entities, responsive to anthropogenic factors and prevailing environmental, social, political and economic conditions.

Westphal’s classification has been brought up to date recently by the Ministry of Agriculture’s Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project (WBISPP, 2001b) as outlined in Box 2 and characterised in the following sections.

2.1.1 Cereal Land Use Systems The main distinguishing feature of the cereal systems is that nearly all crops are produced from seed. The crops are mainly cereals, pulses and oil crops, with root crops generally being of minor importance. Livestock play many roles in such systems: a store of wealth, draught power, dung fuel, manure, food and transport. Perennial crops, such as coffee, chat and gesho are important in some systems. The degree of integration between crops, livestock and trees varies considerably between systems. Most rely on draught power and the plough (maresha). The plough has replaced the hoe in many areas.

2.1.1.1 Cereal Land Use Systems in the Bale-Arsi Highlands Very large open fields characterise the agricultural landscape on the plateau, which is almost totally devoid of trees. Field boundaries are unmarked. There are no infields (enclosed or not). Homestead gardens are very small, or absent. Patches of remnant coniferous (Podocarpus and Juniperus) forest are found on the steeper uncultivated slopes of the Chilalo and Kaka massifs.

Barley and wheat are the main crops, with barley predominating. Other crops below 2,500m include maize and teff. Pulses are represented by field pea and horse bean. Above 2,800m only barley and a small amount of field pea are cultivated.

Livestock comprise cattle, sheep and goats. Sheep tend to predominate at higher altitudes and areas of higher rainfall, and goats in other areas. Cattle are kept for draught purposes, milk and as a store of wealth. Oxen to cow ratios are less than 1, indicating the relative importance of milking cows.

Livestock feed is obtained from areas of communal grazing land (which are relatively extensive in the east), crop residues and stubble grazing. In the east there are seasonal movements of livestock, with lowland herds moving up to the highlands in the dry season, leading to competition for crop residues, and highland herds moving down to the lowlands, leading to competition on the wet season grazing areas.

Box 1: AACMC/Westphal’s Farming Systems of South-Western Ethiopia

Farming systems in south-western Ethiopia may be broadly classified into four major groups:

1. Cerial Farming Complex a. Grain-plough complex of Gojam b. Grain-plough complex of Welega c. Barley-hoe complex of Guji Oromo d. Grain-plough complex of Bale e. Sorghum-maize cattle complex of easternmost lowlands f. Sorghum-hoe complex of the Konso cluster

2. Enset-Root Complex a. Enset as staple b. Enset as co-staple with cereals and tubers c. Enset not a co-staple: tubers dominant d. Enset not a co-staple: cereals dominant

3. Shifting Cultivation Gumuz People Berta People Anuak Mekam Mursi

4. Pastoral Complex Borenna Somali Nuer Oromo (Arsi) Alabdu Rift Valley Nomads (Enua, Geleb, Bume, Hamar, Male, Mursi)

Livestock occur in all farming systems with cattle being an integral part of most of them. Animals play a variety of roles in different settings; they may constitute a store of wealth and or an insurance against times of famine; or provide draught power for land preparation and threshing; transport; manure for soil improvement; manure for fuel; and a variety of products for sale or home consumption, milk, meat, butter, skins etc..

Sources: AACMC (1987), based on Westphal (1975).

Integration between crops, livestock and trees is very weak. Oxen provide the only source of draught power, but manure is not important in the cropping system. Trees are not left in fields, or placed on field boundaries.

Wood fuel is extremely scarce, with annual per capita consumption rates between 90 - 280kg. The main substitute fuel is dung, with an annual per capita consumption rate of 450 - 1,100kg. Residues are hardly used because of their high value as livestock feed. Settlements within walking distance of the Bale mountain range obtain fuel wood from the Dodola forests.

Large areas were designated as state farms in the 1970's and local farmers displaced. Since the change in government, local farmers have reclaimed some areas of these state farms. There are still relatively large areas under communal grazing, particularly in the west to the south of Assela and in the east between Gasera and Genir. Lowland livestock also use the latter in the dry season. The population support capacity analysis indicates that most areas are within capacity to support their populations, although most will reach capacity within 10 years.

2.1.1.2 Cereal Land Use Systems on Vertisols in the Central Highlands North, West and East Shewa Zones to the southwest and southeast of Addis Ababa.

Very large open fields with little or no grazing land characterize the agricultural landscape. Except on Debre Zeit-Mojo plains, trees do not occur in fields and the only trees in the landscape are Eucalyptus around homesteads. Field boundaries are not marked by vegetation.

Because of its ability to withstand water logging, teff is the dominant crop on the flat Vertisols, together with some wheat and pulses (chickpea and lentils). Where soils are better drained on slightly steeper slopes, maize and sorghum with field pea and faba bean are more extensively cultivated. On the flood plains of the upper Awash around Tefki, pulses (chickpea and lentils) are grown on residual soil moisture from November onwards after floodwaters have subsided.

Livestock comprise cattle, sheep and goats. Cattle are very important for draught power on these heavy Vertisols.

On the flat and gently sloping areas, little or no grazing land remains. On the more steep topography, some grazing land remains on slopes too steep or rocky to cultivate. Crop residues (particularly teff) are therefore a very important component of livestock feed. In some areas (e.g. Mojo), where there is virtually no grazing land left, cattle are moved to the middle Awash valley during the wet season when crops are in the ground.

Generally there are very few indigenous trees left except between Debre Zeit and Mojo where Acacia albida are still found in the fields, but are heavily pollarded. Until recently there was little tree planting in this land use system. In the past eight years, however, there has been a dramatic increase in tree planting (mainly Eucalyptus) around homesteads (see below).

Crops and livestock are well integrated in the land use system through the provision of draught power and particularly through the provision of crop residues for livestock feed. Crops and livestock are most integrated in areas of very high population pressure, where there is very little open grazing land left (e.g. on the Tefki plains and the Debre Zeit-Mojo plains). On the Debre Zeit-Mojo plains Acacia albida are pollarded for fodder and may contribute to soil fertility through nutrient "pumping".

Because of the shortages of fuel wood, consumption rates are low: between 300 - 550kg per capita. Dung is the main substitute fuel, with annual consumption rates between 130 - 350kg. A small proportion of energy is derived from crop residues - only 70kg per capita, because of the extreme shortages of livestock feed.

Increasing encroachment of crops at the expense of grazing land is the key element of change in this farming system. This is leading to increasing integration of livestock and crop production through the provision of crop residues. In the most densely populated areas where

- 15 - FITCA-Ethiopia: Farming Systems and Agricultural Expansion in South-Western Ethiopia there is no grazing land left crop residues are insufficient to provide all feed requirements and some cattle are seasonally removed from the area to the middle Awash Valley. Crop residues are thus becoming an increasingly valuable and traded commodity. Shortly after the change of government in 1990 many of the villagized settlements broke up and people reverted back to a more dispersed settlement pattern. Subsequently, there has been a large increase in the planting of Eucalyptus woodlots around these dispersed homesteads.

Box 2: WBISPP Land Use Systems of South Western Ethiopia

Cereal Land Use Systems Cereal Land Use Systems in the Bale-Arsi Highlands Cereal Land Use Systems on Vertisols in the Central Highlands Cereal Land Use Systems on Non-Vertisols in the Central Highlands Cereal Land Use Systems in Central Rift Valley in East Shewa Zone Cereal Land Use Systems in the Eastern and Southern Lowlands Cereal Land Use Systems in the Harerge Highlands Enset Farming Systems Enset Land Use Systems, where Cereals are Co-Dominant Enset Land Use Systems, where Cereals are Dominant and Enset and Root Crops are Minor. (NB These systems prevail in the ten wereda of the upper Dhidessa valley that constitute FITCA’s designated project area.) Woody Fallow Cultivation Systems with Few Cattle Shifting Cultivation Systems in the Abay and Western Lowlands Livestock Production Systems Extensive Pastoral System Semi-extensive Agro-pastoral Systems Intensive Mixed Cropping and Livestock Systems in Highlands Source: WBISPP (2001b). Report on natural grazing lands and livestock feed resources: Oromiya Regional State. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Agriculture, Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project.

2.1.1.3 Cereal Land Use Systems on Non-Vertisols in the Central Highlands Parts of North and West Shewa and East and West Wellega Zones.

Cropland and grazing land occur in well-defined blocks. Grazing land is found on the steepest slopes and also on flat, frost prone and poorly drained valley floors. Indigenous trees (often Podocarpus gracilior above 1,500m) are scattered throughout the landscape with exotics (mainly Eucalyptus) commonly planted around homesteads. Open shrubland is found on the grazing lands on very steep slopes. Small and scattered areas of remnant mixed forest occur on the high hills.

Below 2,300m the dominant crops are maize and teff and some sorghum. Above 2,300m, wheat and barley replace maize and teff with horsebean and field pea. Barley becomes increasingly important above 2, 600m.

Livestock include cattle, sheep and goats. Cattle are important for draught power, milk and as a store of wealth. Sheep become increasingly important above 2,600m. Livestock feed supply comprises open grazing, crop residues and grass hay.

Tree planting, mainly of Eucalyptus, is relatively common around homesteads, and more rarely on field boundaries. In areas near to Addis Ababa (e.g. around Holletta) small Eucalyptus woodlots occur. Indigenous trees are not managed.

Because open grazing is still available (although decreasing rapidly), cropping, livestock production and tree growing are not closely integrated.

Fuel wood stocks are relatively plentiful but are being harvested well above their sustainable yield. Annual per capita consumption rates are 900 to 1,100kg. Total rates of harvesting are most certainly well above this figure because of the large market for fuel wood in Addis Ababa and the surrounding towns. In the sorghum growing areas stalk residues are used as fuel, however, elsewhere little or no residues or dung are being used as fuel. Within 15 km of Addis Ababa, and along roads leading to the capital there is an active market in dung cakes.

The main land use change is the encroachment of cropping onto open grazing lands. A recent ILCA study at Ginchi, compared land use patterns between 1957 and 1990 and found that grazing land had contracted from 60% to 30%, whilst cropland had increased by the same amount.

2.1.1.4 Cereal Land Use Systems in Central Rift Valley in East Shewa Zone The agricultural landscapes vary according to population density. In the lakes and central areas where population densities are lowest there are extensive areas of open woodland and shrubland (mainly Acacia spp., Ficus spp., and Croton machrostachis), interspersed with smaller blocks of cropland. In the densely populated areas of the south, west and north, cultivated areas are extensive with grazing areas being confined to steep and rocky (and often degraded) hills, and areas of poorly drained bottom land. Field boundaries are not generally marked in any way. Low hedges may occur around homesteads and homestead gardens. Much of the area was villagized during the 1980's although many of these have broken up. Clumps of Eucalyptus may found around homesteads and more rarely on field boundaries.

Maize is the dominant crop throughout the area. In the driest part maize is the only cereal crop, but away from the lakes and with increasing rainfall teff is the second crop. Sorghum is only grown on the extreme sides of the Rift Valley away from migrating birds that pass through at the time when sorghum is heading. On the higher area between Arsi Negele and Shashamene, wheat and barley are grown in addition to maize, sorghum and teff.

Important cash crops include haricot beans in the central and northern parts, chili peppers in the western parts, and potatoes and green maize, in the south and around Shashamene.

Crop failure can be expected around the Rift Valley lakes one year in ten. Maize and sorghum are planted on the first rains whilst teff, haricot bean and other crops are planted at the onset

- 17 - FITCA-Ethiopia: Farming Systems and Agricultural Expansion in South-Western Ethiopia of the main rains. Along the upper Meki River, peppers are started in irrigated nursery beds and later transplanted out.

Livestock comprise cattle and goats. Livestock increase in importance in the farming system towards the driest parts of the area. Here average herd sizes are about 22 head, declining to 8- 10 in other areas, which is still higher than the national average for the Ethiopian highlands.

Open grazing provides the main feed source. As population densities increase crop residues increase in importance as livestock feed, reaching about 30% of total feed in the densely populated areas west of Aje.

Tree planting is only practiced in the densely populated areas of the south, west and around Shashamene, where Eucalyptus is the main species, and planting generally occurs around homesteads and more rarely along field boundaries. Exceptions to this occur around Shashamene where tree planting is common along field boundaries.

In the central and northern areas trees are moderately densely scattered in agricultural lands. These are gradually being thinned out. Trees and bushes occur as open woodland and shrubland in the grazing areas. These grazing areas are most extensive in the central and lakes areas. The only areas of dense woodland are found on the Arbonoser government ranch south of Ziway.

In the driest areas interactions between crops and livestock are weak, but these increase with increasing shortage of grazing land and increasing proportion of crop residues used as livestock feed. There is little or no interaction between trees and crops, and trees and livestock.

Fuel wood is becoming scarce in many parts of the area, and annual per capita consumption rates are between 400-600kg. About two thirds of fuel wood is collected from the communal grazing lands, with the remainder coming mainly from pollarded trees in the croplands. Both dung and crop residues are important substitute fuels: with per capita consumption rates of about 300-400kg of dung, and similar rates for crop residues (almost all maize stalks).

2.1.1.5 Cereal Land Use Systems in the Eastern and Southern Lowlands Southern part of Bale and the Borena Zones, transitional zone between the highland agricultural land use systems to the north, and the mainly pastoral systems to the south.

The agricultural landscape is one of relatively small patches of cropland around settlements, with extensive areas of woodland and shrubland that are used for extensive grazing. Grazing areas are shared with Oromo and Somali pastoralists at different times of the year. Many of these areas are showing signs of severe soil erosion and rangeland degradation.

The main cereal crops are maize, sorghum and teff, with some wheat and barley. Pulses are represented by faba bean and soybean. Where the high forest is close by, wild coffee is an important cash crop.

Livestock are still very important and herding strategies follow to a certain extent those of the pastoralists. Herds are split into wet (fora) and dry (wara) herds. The wet herds stay permanently close to the settlements, while during the wet season the dry herds are moved out

- 18 - FITCA-Ethiopia: Farming Systems and Agricultural Expansion in South-Western Ethiopia onto the lowlands in search of water and grazing. Oxen are retained in the settlements until ploughing is complete and then join the dry herds in the wet season grazing areas.

There is little or no planting of trees. Extensive areas of woodland and shrubland remain, although around larger settlements there is an expanding area devoid of trees. Many large trees (Ficus, Croton, and Tamarindus) remain in fields. These are rarely pollarded. Bee keeping is an important activity. Wild coffee harvesting is also important near the high forest.

There is very little interaction between crop and livestock except for the provision of draught power and some feeding of milking cows and calves with crop residues. There is some browsing of trees by goats.

Because of the higher ambient temperatures and the lower demand for heating, annual per capita fuel wood consumption rates are relatively low at 600kg and residues an additional 120-200kg.

This zone has seen a large expansion of sedentarized agriculture over the past two decades. This has been the result of three major and devastating droughts (1974, 1984 and 1992), compounded in the 1970's by the prolonged war with Somalia. Household livestock holding were severely reduced and consequently many families became sedentarized agriculturists. The presence of large numbers of cattle (wet herds) around settlements, and the presence in the dry season of pastoral herds in this zone are leading to extensive soil erosion and rangeland degradation.

2.1.1.6 Cereal Land Use Systems in the Harerge Highlands The main crops are sorghum, maize and sweet potato. Chat is an important cash crop, which in recent years has largely replaced coffee.

Livestock densities are high. Crop residues and sorghum thinnings make up a significant proportion of the livestock feed supply.

Indigenous trees (Olea, Croton, Juniperus, and Acacia spp.) are left in the fields and are heavily pollarded. Increasingly, Eucalyptus is planted around homesteads, most particularly around large towns and along the main roads.

The main interactions that take place are the use of crop residues and sorghum thinnings, and the provision of manure for chat and coffee cultivation.

Wood supplies between 92% (in West Harerge) and 99% (in East Harerge). Dung comprises 6% of fuel in West Harerge but is little used is East Harerge. Crop residues form a substantial proportion of livestock feed and are little used as fuel.

East and West Harerge are food deficit producing areas. Much of the cereal food shortfall is made up with purchases from cash sales of livestock, chat and coffee.

Increasing use is being made of crop residues and sorghum thinnings for livestock feed. In West Harerge food fuel is being substituted by dung.

2.1.2 Enset Farming Systems These systems are based to a greater or lesser degree on the production of enset from suckers taken from an old corm, which has been planted specially for the purpose. The suckers are separated from the corm at 1 to 3 years, depending on the altitude. After separation, the suckers are transplanted and left for 1 to 2 years. They are then transplanted a second time 2 to 3 meters apart into a permanent field, where maturation requires three to five years depending on altitude. Manure is regularly applied throughout the year.

There is considerable variation in the relative importance of enset as a staple food, compared to other tubers and root crops, and cereals. This varies from one extreme, where enset is virtually the only food crop to the almost total exclusion of cereals, to the other, where enset is only a minor source and cereals are the major food source.

Two types of enset farming systems are recognized in the ORS: those in which enset is co- dominant with cereals; and those in which cereals are the dominant staple and enset and root crops are minor.

2.1.2.1 Enset Land Use Systems, where Cereals are Co-Dominant These systems are found in parts of Jimma Zone, East and West Shewa, on the eastern escarpment in Arsi and Bale Zones and in the highlands of Borena Zone. The topography generally comprises hills and rolling plateaus, with deep reddish clay loams (Nitosols) of good fertility. In eastern Bale, Jimma and East and West Shewa Zones there is one long growing period of between 5.5 and 8.5 months, with a reliable onset in April. In the eastern highlands there are two growing seasons

The landscape is one of scattered homesteads that are normally enclosed. Each homestead has a home garden with enset. Coffee trees may be planted away from homesteads under the shade of a large Ficus tree. Outfields are small to moderate with trees on the boundaries. Many trees remain in the fields, particularly in the enset areas of the eastern escarpment and the highlands of Borena Zone. In narrow valleys small remnants of high forest may be found.

Enset (kocho) provides between 40 and 60% of the food supply. In the western and central highlands teff is dominant with maize; wheat and barley are only minor crops, except above 2,500m. Other field crops are lentils, chick pea and taro. In the eastern highlands, barley is the main crop with wheat and maize. Around the homestead are enset, sweet potato, yams and vegetables. In the Jimma and Western Wellega Zones, coffee is a very important cash crop below 2,000m.

Livestock densities are very high. Cattle are important for draught, milk and manure.

Tree planting is becoming important. Eucalyptus is being planted around homesteads and on field boundaries for building poles and for sale. Many scattered trees remain in the fields and remnant forest or woodland on hillsides. Coffee may be planted under large trees (e.g. Ficus) for shade.

Crops and livestock are well integrated. Cattle are important for manure and draught purposes, but crop residues are a relatively minor source of feed, except in areas where high population pressures have resulted in the ploughing up of former grazing land.

The main change in land use is the encroachment of cropland into the high forest, woodlands, and the communal grazing areas.

2.1.2.2 Enset Land Use Systems, where Cereals are Dominant and Enset and Root Crops are Minor These systems are found in the Illubabor, West Shewa and West Wellega Zones and prevail in the ten wereda of the upper Dhidessa valley that constitute FITCA’s designated project area. The boundary between the pure cereal system on non-Vertisols in the central highlands is not clear. Some farms in the same locality grow enset, whilst others do not. The topography comprises high hills and rolling plateaus, with deep reddish clay loams (Nitosols) of good fertility. There is one long growing period of between 5.5 and 8.5 months with a reliable onset in April.

The landscape is one of scattered homesteads that are not normally enclosed. Each homestead has a small home garden with or without enset. Coffee trees may be planted away from homesteads under the shade of a large Ficus tree. Outfields are large with no trees on the boundaries. Blocks of cropland are interspersed by large blocks of communal grazing areas under open bush and grassland. In narrow valleys small remnants of high forest may be found.

Cereals are dominant and enset and tubers only play a minor role. Teff is dominant with maize and sorghum, wheat and barley are only minor crops, except above 2,500m. Other field crops are lentils, chick pea and taro. Around the homestead are enset, sweet potato, yams and vegetables. In the Jimma and West Wellega Zones, coffee is a very important cash crop below 2,000m. Valley bottoms are used for maize cultivation after the main rains using falling water tables.

Livestock densities are very high. Cattle are important for draught, milk and manure.

Tree planting is not important. Some Eucalyptus may be planted around homesteads and only rarely on field boundaries. Many scattered trees remain in the fields and remnant forest or woodland on hillsides. Coffee may be planted under large trees (e.g. Ficus) for shade.

Integration between crops and livestock is only moderate, but is closer in areas of high population density. A system of moving night corrals around cropland is used to maintain soil fertility, particularly on the granite soils of West Wellega. Cattle are important for draught purposes, but crop residues are a relatively minor source of feed except in areas where high population pressures have resulted in the ploughing up former grazing land.

The main change in land use is the encroachment of cropland into the high forest, woodlands, and the communal grazing areas.

2.1.3 Woody Fallow Cultivation Systems with Few Cattle The major component woody fallow cultivation systems is cropping although some sedentary livestock may be a part of the system. A continuum exists between the shifting cultivation systems with long, medium, short (1 to 2 years) and the sedentary agricultural systems.

2.1.3.1 Shifting Cultivation Systems in the Abay and Western Lowlands These systems are found below 1,700m in the river valleys of the Abay, Gojeb, Ghibe and Dhidessa rivers. Temperatures are between 18-25°C, and the mean annual rainfall from 800-

1,500mm in one long season. Soils are leached Acrisols and Nitosols of low inherent fertility. Given the high ambient temperatures organic matter mineralization rates are high.

Shifting cultivation is practiced with bush fallowing of varying periods. In the Gojeb, Ghibe and Dhidessa river valleys this may be adventitious cultivation by highland farmers on a temporary basis. Sorghum, maize and finger millet are planted as a mix in the main fields, and undersown with beans, pumpkin, gourds and cabbage. Sesame, cotton and ginger are planted sole in separate fields. In the household garden, sorghum, cabbage, pumpkin, gourds, yam, maize, peas and beans are intercropped.

Woodland fallowing is required on the Basement Complex soils because of their inherent infertility, and the high mineralization rates of the organic matter, which follows their cultivation. Fields are probably finally abandoned because of excessive weed infestation, rather than infertility.

Extensive lowland areas of western Ethiopia are reputed to be infested with tsetse, although few field surveys have been carried out recently to verify this assumption. Some cattle are nevertheless kept for milk and meat, although ploughing with oxen is still uncommon and most land preparation is by hand and hoe.

2.1.4 Livestock Production Systems

2.1.4.1 Extensive Pastoral System Characterized by distinct socio-cultural identity, based on ethnic group, language and territorial grazing area, the main groups found in ORS are the Kereyu in West Harerge and East Shewa Zones, the Borena and Gabra in Borena Zone. Livestock herd composition, grazing management and herd movements are largely determined by seasonal patterns of rainfall and available water sources.

Crops are generally not grown, although grain purchased through the sale or exchange of animals is an important component of pastoral diet.

Inter-annual forage production is highly variable and livestock numbers can fluctuate considerably with cyclical population “crashes”. Although total numbers can recover over time, repeated droughts over the past three decades combined with human population increase have resulted in reduced number of livestock per family. Increasing numbers of pastoralists are turning to crop production.

2.1.4.2 Semi-extensive Agro-pastoral Systems A mix of former pastoralists who have taken up various forms of small scale crop production as well as maintaining a less extensive form of pastoral livestock production, and former agro-pastoralists who have lost their livestock and have become largely dependant on arable production. The main groups found in ORS are the Harerge Oromo and the Arsi/Bale Oromo.

2.1.4.3 Intensive Mixed Cropping and Livestock Systems in Highlands All highland mixed crop-livestock systems are characterized by varying degrees of crop- livestock integration, including use of crop residues, draught power and manure. Cattle are reared for a variety of purposes, including milk and meat products, breeding and sale of surplus animals as work oxen or for slaughter. With human population growth, agricultural expansion and the widespread conversion of former grazing areas to crop land, crop residues

- 22 - FITCA-Ethiopia: Farming Systems and Agricultural Expansion in South-Western Ethiopia have become increasingly important, both as feed for a farmers own animals and as a commodity to sell to livestock owners. Valley bottoms in particular are subject to increasing competition, with strict rules of grazing management. The gathering and storage of hay have also become increasingly widespread activities.

2.2 Agriculture in the Upper Dhidessa Valley FITCA’s designated project area in the upper Dhidessa valley impinges upon ten wereda in Oromiya Regional State: Bedelle-Dabo, Dhidessa and Gechi-Borecha in Illubabor Zone and Gomma, Kersa, Limu Kossa, Limu Seka, Manna, Setema and Tiro Afeta in Jimma Zone.

These two zones constitute one of Ethiopia’s richest and most important agricultural areas, producing much of the country’s coffee, a wide variety of arable crops and substantial quantities of livestock products1. Recent estimates indicate the presence of some 980,000 cattle in Jimma and 560,000 in Illubabor, equivalent to 51/km2 or 2ha/hd and 35/km2 or 3ha/hd, respectively, despite extensive but rapidly diminishing forest cover in the highlands and extensive potential tsetse habitat in the lowlands.

Although not recorded in official agricultural statistics, chat, the leaves and stems of an indigenous shrub or small tree (Catha edulis), is an important cash crop for smallholder farmers, which is widely grown in the highlands at altitudes of between 1,400-2,200m (Bekele-Tesemma, 1993). Chat leaves contain amphetamines and are marketed throughout the region as a popular mild stimulant.

Table 2: Human Population

Human Population July 2000 Density (people/km2) District/Wereda Area km2 Urban Rural Total Absolute Agric’l Rural HH* Bedelle-Dabo 1,722 14,750 89,387 104,137 60 119 19,864 Dhidessa 615 3,963 55,240 56,203 91 130 12,276 Gechi-Borecha 1,427 4,864 84,207 89,071 62 157 18,713 Gomma 1,349 50,506 232,536 283,042 210 277 51,675 Kersa 975 117,487 136,720 254,207 261 235 30,382 Limu Kossa 2,771 14,186 195,215 209,401 76 202 43,381 Limu Seka 2,655 4,329 135,802 140,131 53 90 30,178 Manna 400 3,895 128,463 132,358 331 361 28,547 Setema 1,531 2,952 93,986 96,938 63 227 20,886 Tiro Afeta 1,002 1,658 106,520 108,178 108 253 23,671 Total / Mean 14,447 218,590 1,258,076 1,473,666 102 185 279,572 *N Rural HH – Number of rural households, based on mean size of 4.5 people per household. Source: zonal statistical abstracts: BPED (2002) and DPSD (1998a, b & c).

1 As noted in a recent study of grazing lands and livestock feed resources, comprehensive, up-to-date and accurate data on livestock types and numbers are extremely difficult to obtain at wereda level (WBISPP, 2001b). The results of the recently completed national livestock census, the first to be conducted since 1983, are therefore awaited with considerable interest to clarify general uncertainty about the distribution and abundance of Ethiopia’s livestock populations.

2.2.1 Human Population

2.2.1.1 Size An estimated 1.47 million people live in the ten wereda of the upper Dhidessa valley, 85% of whom live in rural areas and depend on farming for their livelihood; equivalent to some 280,000 rural households, assuming a mean of 4.5 people per household. Absolute population densities vary from around 53/km2 in Limu Seka to 331/km2 in Manna. Agricultural population density, which relates to rural population and the extent of cultivated and cultivatable land, ranges from 90/km2 in Limu Seka to 361/km2 in Manna.

2.2.1.2 Ethnic Composition The great majority of the inhabitants of the upper Dhidessa valley are Oromo, although substantial number of migrants from Gojjam, Gondar, Tigray and Wollo have settled in the area over the past two or three decades and now farm extensive areas of the lower valley slopes. This resettlement process, which was actively promoted by the former government continues apace today on a voluntary basis.

2.2.1.3 Potential Rural Population Support Capacity The capacity of land use systems to support rural populations in ORS under current management practices with minimal external inputs, has been modelled by WBISPP (2001a), based on the minimum crop area required by an average farm family to:  Maintain their minimum food energy needs;  Obtain an annual cash income of approximately EB400 from the sale of crops (including cash crops such as coffee where possible); and  Meet the minimum area of fallow land required to sustain crop yields at current levels.

Human population support capacities were integrated to wereda level and compared with projected population levels for years 2000, 2010 and 2020 and classed into 5 categories:

1. Critical: current population exceeds maximum support capacity by more than 120%;

2. At Capacity Now: current population at 100-120% of maximum support capacity;

3. At Capacity Within 10 years;

4. At Capacity Within 20 years;

5. No Pressure: population will not reach maximum support capacity within 20 years.

Support capacities for the ten wereda in the Dhidessa valley are shown in Table 3. Limu Kosa, Kersa and Bedelle-Dabo are currently well below their maximum support capacity, reflecting limited settlement of the extensive valley lowlands and the potential for population growth and agricultural expansion. Gechi-Borecha, Setema, Limu Seka, Dhidesa and Tiro Afeta will reach maximum support capacity within 10-20 years. Gomma and Manna already exceed their maximum support capacity and are classified as critical.

Table 3: Rural Population Support Capacities

Total Potential Current as +10 Years +20 Years Wereda Rural Total % of as % of as % of Category Families Families Potential Potential Potential Limu Kosa 44,677 253,003 18% 22% 27% No Pressure Kersa 31,289 58,371 54% 67% 83% No Pressure Bedelle-Dabo 22,005 38,772 57% 71% 88% No Pressure Gechi-Borecha 20,730 34,830 60% 74% 93% At Capacity within 20 yrs Setema 21,510 27,257 79% 98% 123% At Capacity within 10 yrs Limu Seka 31,080 39,051 80% 99% 124% At Capacity within 10 yrs Dhidesa 10,676 12,988 82% 102% 128% At Capacity within 10 yrs Tiro Afeta 24,378 28,618 85% 106% 132% At Capacity within 10 yrs Gomma 53,218 40,775 131% 163% 203% Critical Manna 29,400 20,017 147% 183% 228% Critical Source: WBISPP (2001a)

2.2.2 Farming Zones Three broad agro-ecological zones, based on altitude and temperature are widely used in Ethiopia: Dega - cool highlands (above 2,300m); Woina Dega - intermediate midlands (1,500-2,300m); and Kola - hotter lowland valleys and plains (below 1,500m). As can be seen in Figure 9, the intermediate Woina Dega zone predominates in all weradas in the upper Dhidessa project area. It is at lower levels of this zone and in the hotter lowland Kola zone that cattle are exposed to the potential risk tsetse transmitted trypanosomosis.

Figure 9: Wereda Agro-Ecological Zonal Areas

2,000 . m k

s 1,500

a e r A 1,000

a a a a a a a a o a t k n s s s m m b h e r e s n s f e a c m e t e S a o e A D o e K d r K - i M u

G S o o e h l u r m i i B D e - m T L i i d h L e c B e G

Cool Highlands (Dega) Temperate (Weina Dega) Hotter Low lands (Kolla) Source: zonal statistical abstracts: BPED (2002) and DPSD (1998a, b & c).

The patterns of agricultural settlement and land use in the upper Dhidessa valley are closely associated with climate and the distribution of rural roads and tracks, which are in turn related to altitude and topography. Four attitudinally related, agro-ecological zones may be distinguished as indicated in Table 4, although there is considerable local variation in topography, drainage, climate and soil types within each.

Table 4: Agro-Ecological Zones Zone Altitudinal Topography Rainfall Natural Tsetse Range Vegetation Valley floor 1,400-1,600m Flat 1,300-1,600mm Grassland & Present Woodland Lower valley slopes 1,600-1,800m Rugged/Hilly Intermediate Woodland Seasonal

Upper valley slopes 1,800-2,000m Rugged/Hilly Intermediate Woodland & Occasional Forest Highland Plateau >2,000m Undulating >2,000mm Forest Absent

2.2.3 Land Use and Land Cover Excluding surrounding highland plateaux, five main land cover and land use units could be identified on aerial photography taken in 1973 (FLDP, 1989). The main valley sides consisted of a series of spurs separated by steep sided tributary streams, with cultivation down to about 1,600m in the Chello area in 1973 and scrub-woodland down to the edge of the valley floor. Between 1973 and 1979 cultivation extended down these slopes almost to the valley floor. In the Limu Shay area cultivation was much more intensive and had already reached onto the valley floor in a number of places by 1973. In both areas the steep slopes of the tributary valleys and minor scarps were covered with dense forest. There were also a number of isolated steep sided hills at the end of spurs in the Chello area covered in sparse scrub- woodland, used previously for extensive grazing and fuel wood collection. The valley floor was covered with open grassland, used previously for grazing, and underlain by heavy cracked clays (vertisols), generally too heavy for cultivation. Intact gallery forest occurred along the main river.

2.2.4 Arable Farming In the late 1980s, farming was based on rain fed cropping of maize, teff and sorghum, with smaller areas of wheat, barley and pulses, such as haricot bean. Enset, coffee, chat, vegetables and spices were grown around the homestead. The mean area cropped probably amounted to about 1.5ha per household. Almost half the farmers had separate coffee plots (FLDP, 1989).

A decade or so later the situation would appear to be much the same. The main cereals grown in the ten wereda of the upper Dhidessa valley are, in descending order of area cultivated: teff, maize, sorghum, finger millet, barley, wheat and oats, with considerable differences in their relative proportions, as indicated in Table 5 and shown by the cropping profiles in Figure 10.

Some pulses are also grown, notably: horse beans, field peas, haricot beans and chick peas.

Small areas of oil seeds are also cultivated, including: neug, linseed, sesame and rape seed.

Extensive areas of coffee are also grown in some wereda, as indicted in the following section.

Recent migrants are experimenting with groundnut and wetland rice cultivation.

Table 5: Main Arable Crops

Hectares Cultivated in 1997 Hectare’ s Cultivated in 2000 Bedelle- Gechi- District/Wereda Dhidessa Gomma Kersa Limu Kossa Limu Seka Manna Setema Tiro Afeta Total Dabo Borecha Cereals 20,055 7,937 19,611 21,524 35,113 29,225 14,815 11,415 17,813 25,360 202,867 Teff 7,613 3,612 8,403 4,997 11,981 8,337 4,937 4,143 12,664 13,695 80,381 Maize 7,055 2,311 5,493 11,629 14,993 12,153 6,112 6,678 3,455 6,661 76,538 Sorghum 3,080 1,735 2,633 4,325 1,343 4,699 1,845 475 746 2,427 23,308 Finger Millet 1,430 55 2,077 72 0 3,827 1,647 5 0 587 9,700 Barley 574 206 812 216 3,190 198 252 97 668 850 7,063 Wheat 303 19 193 277 3,606 11 22 18 281 1,138 5,866 Oats 8 0 0 0 0 0 3 11 Pulses 1,217 418 1,016 266 2,538 292 476 46 4,182 2,067 12,518 Horse Beans 585 258 453 139 1,200 243 369 16 1,824 919 6,005 Field Peas 430 107 488 45 1,023 29 97 10 2,231 1,120 5,579 Haricot Beans 202 51 76 82 315 0 0 20 128 28 901 Chick Peas 2 0 0 20 10 0 0 0 32 Oil Seeds 996 48 331 35 125 465 796 8 58 670 3,532 Neug 364 20 88 8 0 425 784 0 3 310 2,002 Linseed 226 25 189 7 125 28 12 8 28 332 981 Sesame 360 2 32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 394 Rape seed 46 23 20 0 12 0 0 27 28 155 Source: Zonal statistical abstracts: BPED (2002) and DPSD (1998a, b & c).

Figure 10: Wereda Cropping Profiles

Bedele-Dabo Dhidessa s s e e 8,000 4,000 r r a a t t c c e e 6,000 3,000 H H

d d e e

t 4,000 t 2,000 a a v v i i t t l l u 2,000 u 1,000 C C

a a e e r 0 r 0 A f A f t r r t f f y e s s e y s s t t a m e m e a e l e l e z e d z e e d e e i i l i l i e g l u u g l e T T l r s e r l s e i a l a i l h n h h n h O O a i e a i e u u g g M M M M F r r F B S B S W W

Gechi-Borecha Gomma s s e e

r 10,000 r 14,000 a a t t c c 12,000

e 8,000 e H H

10,000 - -

d 6,000 d 8,000 e e t t a 4,000 a 6,000 v v i i t t l l 4,000 u 2,000 u C C

2,000 a a e 0 e 0 r r f t r f r t f y e s A s A f t e y s s t a m e e a m e l e z e d e l e e z e d i e l i i e l u g i l e u g l T r l s e T r e l s i a l h h n a i l O h h n O a i e i e a u g u g M M r F M M B S r F W B S

Kersa Limu Kossa s s e e r r 16,000

a 14,000 a t t c c 14,000 12,000 e e H H 12,000

- 10,000 -

10,000 a a 8,000 e e r r 8,000 A

A 6,000

6,000 d d 4,000 e e

4,000 t t a a 2,000 v v 2,000 i i t t l l 0 0 u u f f t r y s C f e f C s y e s t a m e z e e e l e d i e e z e l i l i e u g l s T r e r l s a l T l a i h h n O a i e a u u g M M M r F B S B W P

Limu Seka Manna s s e e r r a a 8,000 8,000 t t c c e e H H

6,000 6,000 - -

d d e e t t 4,000 4,000 a a v v i i t t l l 2,000

2,000 u u C C

e 0 e 0 r r f t r f t s s y r f e y s s t f e A m A a t e m z a d e e e e z i e e d l e e u i e l e g l u s e e r g l l s T a l r e l h i T a l h n h i h e a n i u a e i g u M g M M r S B M W F P B r S W F

l i o i S S O O

Satema Tiro Afeta s s e e r r a a 14,000 16,000 t t c c 14,000

12,000 e e H H

12,000

- 10,000

10,000 d d

8,000 e e t

t 8,000 a a 6,000 v

v 6,000 i i t t l l 4,000 4,000 u u C C

2,000 2,000

e 0 r f r f y s f e y s e f A A z e e z e e i e l e i l s r s l T a r a T l

u a u M M B

2.2.5 Forestry and Agro-Forestry

This section is restricted to coffee production. For further information on forestry and agro- forestry, see separate report of the short-term forestry consultant: Chris Rhodes.

2.2.5.1 Coffee Eight of the ten wereda impinging on the project area accounted for some 349,000 quintels of coffee inspected and marketed in 1997, as depicted in Figure 11. No information on the quantity of coffee marketed from Setema and Tiro Afeta Weredas could be found.

Figure 11: Coffee Marketed by Wereda in 1997

160,000 140,000 s l e t

n 120,000 i u Q

100,000 -

e 80,000 t t e

k 60,000 r a M

40,000 e f f

o 20,000 C 0 - a a a a a a e a - k s s l s i n m o l h e o r s h n b e c m e e S K c a a d e o d K e r e u i u D M o G h G B m m i i B D L L

Source: Zonal statistical abstracts: BPED (2002) and DPSD (1998a, b & c).

2.2.6 Livestock Resources and Animal Husbandry Livestock are an integral part of mixed farming in the surrounding highlands and slopes of the Dhidessa valley, providing draught power, milk, milk products, skins and manure to most households. The ten weredas of the project area have an estimated 804,000 cattle, 82,000 sheep, 72,000 goats, 66,000 equines and 411,000 poultry, as indicated in Table 6.

Gomma, Kersa and Manna, which are mainly temperate highland areas, support the highest densities of cattle, with more than a 100/km2. Limu Seka, with a relatively high proportion of lowlands, has the lowest density of cattle, with only 12.6/km2.

Considerable variation exists in the cattle to rural household ratio, which may provide an indication of relative wealth. Kersa has an average of 6.1 cattle per household, six times as many as Limu Seka, with 1.1/HH.

Trypanocidal drug usage rates, as reported by veterinary clinics, vary considerably between wereda but appear to be low, ranging from 1.6/1,000 head per annum in Setema and 5.9 in Kersa, to 173 in Limu Seka and 194 in Tiro Afeta. Unfortunately, trypanosomosis treatment figures for Bedelle-Dabo Dhidessa and Gechi-Borecha could not be traced, but almost certainly exist. Whilst official records of trypanosomosis treatments through veterinary clinics may not be complete because of alternative sources of supply, such records may provide a useful indication of where tsetse and trypanosomosis are likely to be problem.

Table 6: District/Wereda Livestock Statistics for 1997

Trypanocides District/ Cattle Cattle Cattle/ Annual /1,000 Sheep Goats Equines Poultry Wereda /km2 Rural HH Total head Bedelle-Dabo 60,116 34.91 3.16 5,189 6,543 1,500 30,899 Dhidessa 21,867 35.56 1.74 4,018 1,854 1,379 6,129 Gechi-Borecha 69,328 48.58 3.70 8,369 8,860 2,360 41,300 Gomma 195,224 144.72 3.78 2,707 13.87 2,997 11,619 23,833 110,301 Kersa 184,551 189.28 6.07 1,084 5.87 12,364 7,032 8,740 79,584 Limu Kossa 102,518 37.00 2.36 6,797 66.30 11,000 12,000 16,000 65,000 Limu Seka 33,328 12.55 1.10 5,777 173.34 3,356 5,184 863 38,771 Manna 44,317 110.79 1.55 293 6.61 14,528 8,443 3,813 20,409 Setema 49,874 32.58 2.39 79 1.58 15,669 5,969 5,607 12,252 Tiro Afeta 42,563 42.48 1.80 8,273 194.37 4,377 4,120 2,157 5,904 Total/Mean 803,686 55.63 2.88 25,010 38.34 81,867 71,624 66,252 410,549 Source: zonal statistical abstracts: BPED (2002) and DPSD (1998a, b & c).

Work oxen are an integral part of farming in the highlands and intermediate valley slopes and are extensively used for ploughing, carting and treshing. According to wereda socio-economic reports (DPSD, 1998a, b & c), however, more than 40% of farmers in Bedelle-Dabo, Dhidessa and Gechi-Borecha Weredas did not own any oxen and either shared or hired from others that did, as shown in Figure 12. It is argued that this limited ownership of oxen restricts the extent of land that can be farmed.

Figure 12: Oxen Ownership

45 40 35 e

g 30 a t 25 n e

c 20 r

e 15 P 10 5 0 0 1 1 2 3 4 + shared Oxen Ownership (N =29,442)

Source: DPSD (1998a, b & c).

Donkeys, mules and horses are also commonly used for carriage and personal transport, and are often the only means of moving farm produce to market in hilly or mountainous terrain, where roads are few and far between.

Many farmers own a few cattle and a few farmers own many cattle. Well-informed local sources indicate that little or no seasonal transhumance occurs in the region of the upper Dhidessa valley. The usual practice in rural areas is for cattle to be herded in the general

- 31 - FITCA-Ethiopia: Farming Systems and Agricultural Expansion in South-Western Ethiopia vicinity of the home farm for most of the year. Village cattle are often herded communally, going out to graze during the day and returning each night, whilst calves are kept near to the homestead. Milking cows are also usually kept close to home. During the relatively short dry season, when fodder resources are limited, cattle have to be taken further afield to graze – usually not further than 10-15km..

The other main constraint during the dry season is the availability of water, which influences where and how far cattle may be herded away from home. Occasionally during the dry season, cattle herds may be taken away to temporary campsites near water in the lowlands for a few days, before returning home.

As elsewhere in Ethiopia and more widely in Africa, it is not uncommon for urban elites to invest in livestock and own cattle, some of which may be kept near home for milking, whilst oxen may be loaned out to local farmers for a share of the harvest.

2.2.7 Wild Honey Collection Honey collection is ubiquitous throughout the region, mainly using traditional cylindrical hives made of grass-covered wickerwork suspended from tree branches, but more modern hives have been introduced in some areas. Most honey is either used in diluted form known as burse or as one of the basic ingredients for brewing tedj. Farmers from various localities in the upper Dhidessa valley complained that honey production had decreased in recent years (possibly because of reduced tree cover and fewer flowers).

2.2.8 Fishing A few people catch and eat fish from the Dhidessa river, but fishing is not widely practiced and fish is not a common or regular dietary item.

2.2.9 Farmers Problems The main problems mentioned during various interviews with farmers in Chello-Dambocha, Dhidessa Dako, Galle and Limu Shay were:  Low price of most crops; loss of soil fertility; increasing price of fertiliser; widespread disease of enset and banana plants, locally known as “cholera” because of spotty leaves; also a problem with rust on teff in some areas; shortage of fuel wood in a few areas;  Tsetse and trypanosomosis no longer much of a problem, except in remoter parts; other animal diseases mentioned: anthrax, black quarter, foot and mouth disease and lumpy skin disease. Reduced yield of honey from bee hives was also mentioned;  Main human health problems: malaria, typhoid, diarrhoea; HIV/AIDS known about, but no way of being tested locally;  General inaccessibility - many hours by donkey to nearest market; long way to nearest primary school in some areas; not many secondary schools; very few veterinary clinics.

2.3 Indicators of Change in Tsetse Controlled Areas Tsetse control activities in the upper Dhidessa valley began in the mid 1980s and have continued to the present day, focusing on three main areas Chello-Damocha, Galle and Limu Shay, covering a total area of some 1,200-1,500 square kilometres (FLDP, 1989; Slingenbergh, 1992; Bedani, 1998; and NTTICC Annual Reports). Agricultural and demographic statistics are obtained annually from werada Development Agents for each Peasant Association in the three control areas. Information collected includes

- 32 - FITCA-Ethiopia: Farming Systems and Agricultural Expansion in South-Western Ethiopia details of the number of household heads, men, women, oxen, bulls, cows, heifers, calves, sheep, goats, horses, donkeys and mules, and planted areas for the main crops.

A word of caution is required, however, in the interpretation of this “socio-economic data” in that it is not based on formal surveys or standard data collection techniques, but on figures reported by Peasant Associations that may be adjusted according to the judgment of local officials. These subjective estimates of population size and cropped areas are the basis upon which communal tax liability is assessed and are, therefore, prone to biases that are likely to underestimate reality.

Whilst the absolute accuracy of these data may be doubted, they can nevertheless be regarded as indices of relative abundance that reflect trends over time, and, in the absence of any other more reliable information, are presented as such in Figure 13 and Figure 14.

Figure 13: Population Trends in Tsetse Controlled Areas

Chello

6,000 People

5,000 Oxen Cattle 4,000 Sheep Goats 3,000 Equines Cult* (ha) 2,000

0 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

14,000

12,000

People 10,000 Oxen

8,000 Cattle Sheep 6,000 Goats Equines 4,000 Cultivation

0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Limu Shay

16,000

14,000

12,000 People Oxen 10,000 Cattle 8,000 Sheep Goats 6,000 Equines

4,000 Cultivation

0 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Source: NTTICC files and Bedani (1998).

Figure 14: Household Trends in Tsetse Controlled Areas

Chello

3.0 d l o

h 2.5 e s

u Oxen/HH o

H 2.0 Cattle/HH r e p

Cult*/HH . 1.5 a

H Coffee/HH

1.0 . o N 0.5

0.0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

3.5 d l 3.0 o

h Oxen/HH e s

o Cattle/HH H

e Cult*/HH

H Coffee/HH

r 1.5 o . o N 1.0

0.0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Limu Shay

5.0 d l o h 4.0 e s Oxen/HH u o H

Cattle/HH r

e 3.0 p

Cult/HH . a H

Coffe/HH r o

2.0 . o N

0.0 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Source: NTTICC files and Bedani (1998).

3 Conclusions

3.1 Agricultural Expansion and Environmental Change As Ethiopia’s human population has doubled in size over the past two or three decades, successive governments have promoted the progressive movement of people and expansion of agricultural settlement into the south and west, where rainfall is higher and more reliable, and productive capacity is greater.

Agricultural expansion in south-western Ethiopia has taken place preferentially in the temperate highlands (1,500-2,300m) - the Woina Dega zone - where extensive regions of former rain forest have been converted into a mosaic of farmland, coffee plantations and residual forest patches. In the Oromiya region, forest cover is variously estimated to have declined at 2.6-3.1% per annum in recent years (WBISPP, 2001a; Tefera et al., 2002), similar to human population growth rate of 2.9% (CSA, 1994). But as this temperate highland zone becomes increasingly settled, farmers are obliged to move to lower elevations to find new unoccupied land to cultivate in the hotter Kola zone below 1,500m, where risk of trypanosomosis is greater.

National livestock populations, especially cattle, have increased substantially over the past decade (Figure 8) and this trend is reflected in the three tsetse controlled areas of the upper Dhidessa valley examined in this study (Figure 13), where cattle numbers have increased more rapidly than human population and cultivation.

The rapid expansion of cultivation and agricultural settlement has resulted in the extensive fragmentation of biologically rich natural habitats and widespread environmental degradation (Box 3). Although biodiversity may increase initially with the creation of “new” boundary zone niches (Box 4), that diversity will ultimately decline with the extensive transformation of natural habitats to farmland, unless steps are taken to ensure their conservation. As farmland expands into high rainfall areas, vegetation cover is reduced and soils are exposed to increased risk of erosion, especially in hilly or mountainous terrain, where there is little flat land, and hillside farming on steep slopes is common.

3.1.1 Land Use and Land Cover Change in the Dhidessa Valley For an assessment of land use and land cover changes in the Dhidessa valley over past thirty years, as revealed by comparison of 1973 aerial photography and 2000/1 Landsat 7 TM imagery, see the separate report of the short-term remote sensing and land use planning consultant: Dr. Bruce King.

Informed sources suggest that the reported advance of Glossina morsitans, increased incidence of trypanosomosis and loss of work oxen in the Dhidessa valley during the early 1980s (FLDP, 1989; and Slingenburgh, 1992) are probably related to the major changes in agricultural settlement and land use that followed the radical land tenure reforms of May 1975 and subsequent collectivisation and villagisation. Their cumulative impact would have been to reduce the extent of cultivation on land formerly farmed under tenancy, and concentrate rural settlements in specified locations and Peasant Associations designated by government. After only a few years, this would have resulted in a partial recovery of natural habitats and hosts of tsetse, and their apparent advance into areas from which they had previously retreated in the face of earlier agricultural settlement.

Box 3: Nature and Causes of Land Degradation in the Oromiya Region

Soil erosion is the most widespread form of land degradation in Oromiya Regional State, estimated to be in the order some 40 tonnes per hectare per annum, but the rate varies widely depending on geographical location and production system.

Contributory factors include: rugged topography, with steep slopes and thin soils; rainfall intensity - high rainfall over short periods; susceptibility of some soils; extensive loss of forest and other vegetation cover over time due to population pressure and expansion of farmland; detrimental farming practices, including: excessive tillage of some crops (e.g. teff, the main crop); farming on steep slopes; reduction of fallow and crop rotation; overgrazing of pasture and cropland.

Recent estimates indicate that forest cover is decreasing at 3.1% per annum due to the expansion of farmland, shifting cultivation, commercial logging, urbanization and poor management of natural forests.

Biological degradation of soil, though declining humus content and mineralisation, has been increasing rapidly, due mainly to increased continuous cultivation and reduced nutrient recycling, particularly the inadequate or non use of manure and ploughing in of crop residues. With reduced availability of woody biomass, dung is also being increasingly widely used as fuel.

The physical degradation of soil due to compaction, sealing, reduced aeration and permeability is also a problem. Such degradation follows prolonged cultivation, overstocking and overgrazing of both pasture and cropland, and results in reduced crop yields and productivity. Annual productivity losses in Ethiopian highlands, including Oromiya Region, are estimated at 0.12-2.0%.

The current status of land resources and land use is the result of many closely interlinked factors, including: natural resources and socio-economic policy and agricultural practices. In the past, general agricultural development polices and programmes have been implemented in limited areas focusing on improving productivity, with little direct attention to natural resource management and conservation.

Where conservation efforts have been made, the focus has been on building physical structures though food-for-work programmes implemented by Peasant Associations. Such schemes provide incentives for people to participate initially, but often the structures have not been maintained and many have been abandoned or destroyed, especially as arable land becomes increasingly scarce.

Farmers appear to be reasonably aware of the land degradation problem, its principle causes and consequences. However, both household and higher level factors, including labour constraints, cash constraints, lack of appropriate conservation technologies, high costs and inaccessibility of inputs, such as fertilisers and better seeds, and land tenure appear to be responsible for continued land degradation practices and poor or non-adoption of conservation measures.

Abstracted from: Tefera, B., G. Ayele, Y. Atnafe, M. A. Jabbar and P. Dubale (2002). “Nature and causes of land degradation in the Oromiya Region:- a review”. Addis Ababa and Nairobi: Socio- economics and Policy Research Working Paper 36, International Livestock Research Institute, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation and Oromiya Natural Resources Development and Environmental Protection Authority, pp82.

There are very close parallels between observed changes in land use and land cover in the Dhidessa valley and those studied and documented in considerable detail by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in the Ghibe valley (Reid et al., 2000), outlined in the following section, extracted from Bourn et al. (2001).

3.1.2 Land Use and Land Cover Change in the Ghibe Valley Over the past forty years, the landscapes of the upper Ghibe valley have remained open, dominated principally by wooded grasslands, with land cultivation almost exclusively by smallholder farmers. Farms tend to cluster together, forming larger blocks of cropped fields. Riparian woodlands have been restricted to the edges of primary and secondary watercourses.

There has been a dynamic ebb and flow in land use and land cover during that period. For the 16 years between 1957 and 1973, cultivation either expanded, or hardly changed. However, between 1973 and 1987, changes in agricultural land use were striking: cultivation contracted 27% in Gullele, 50% in Gerangera and 67% in Kumbi. In particular, the Kumbi landscape was transformed from densely cultivated farmland to small clusters of fields in a broad grassland landscape. In the six-year period between 1987 and 1993, smallholder farms increased in coverage slightly after tsetse control at the Gullele site and at one of the tsetse- infested sites, Kumbi, but decreased slightly at the other tsetse-infested site, Gerangera.

3.1.2.1 General, broad-scale causes Many of the observed changes were easily explained by long-term resident farmers/informants during interviews. Between 1957 and 1973, none of the informants remembered any exceptional events, except a slow influx of migrants into the study area. However, farmers described several events between 1973 and 1987 that could explain the large contraction of cultivation during this period. First, all informants described the change in government in 1974 that precipitated a change in land tenure from control by feudal landlords to peasant associations. In the first few years after this land tenure change, a third of Kumbi residents claimed that they were afraid to cultivate the lands that formerly belonged to the landlords, and thus some of the farmland was abandoned. Farmers claimed that this tenure change was responsible for about a third of the decrease in cultivation at Kumbi between 1973 and 1987.

Farmers were unanimous that the most important cause of farmland abandonment was the invasion of a new livestock disease, trypanosomosis, sometime between 1979 and 1983. All respondents said that they had never seen or heard of trypanosomosis until this time 2. They all also claimed that neither their parents nor grandparents had ever encountered this particular disease. The result of this disease invasion was devastating: farmers lost over 75% of their ploughing oxen within the first 12-24 months and were only able to plough 30% as much land as they had before the disease outbreak. In Kumbi, farmers claimed that this livestock disease caused about two-thirds of the contraction in cropland between 1973 and 1987.

Toward the end of this period in 1985/86, most farmers described the results of a new settlement policy, villagisation, enacted by the Ethiopian government. Farmers were relocated in a selected number of compact villages. 59% of respondents moved because of villagisation; while the remainder lived in villages selected as destination villages during villagisation and did not have to move. Three-quarters of farmers claimed that this had little effect on the amount of land they cultivated, whist the remainder claimed that they cultivated less land right after villagisation. All agreed that villagisation affected where farmers cultivated the land to a certain extent. Of the farmers that moved during villagisation, nearly two-thirds said that they cultivated the same fields in their old villages for the first year or two after the beginning of villagisation, until about 1987-1988.

2 The disease may have appeared “new” to local farmers, but was probably a more severe and acute form of trypanosomosis that entered the area with the partial recovery of wildlife and spread of G. m. submorsitans, following the abandonment of farmland in the late seventies and subsequent villagisation (Leak, pers. comm.).

Also during this period, long-term residents described how many new farmers emigrated from other parts of Ethiopia in response to a series of severe droughts in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Half the farmers thought that the droughts were not severe in the Ghibe area, but were very severe in other areas. More than half of the interviewees had neighbours who migrated from areas of northern Ethiopia (Wollo) to the Ghibe valley because they could no longer survive due to drought and over-population. Farmers in the Gullele site described this migration most vividly.

All farmers in the tsetse control area, especially in north-eastern Gullele, claim that the effects of the increase in disease severity began to be reversed in 1991. Farmers gradually were able to hold larger herds of healthy cattle and cultivate more land. However, at the same time, farmers recognized that the change in government in July 1991 signified an important change in land tenure. A small number of leases were granted for extensive land holdings, and large tracts of land were ploughed in the Gullele area.

3.1.2.2 Local-scale causes All farmers recognized that these broad-scale changes in drought, settlement and land tenure policy and trypanosomosis disease severity were important at each of the sites, but sometimes to different degrees. At the same time, farmers described local-scale causes of land use/cover change that affected parts of individual sites. For example, affected farmers explained how the establishment of a new large-scale farming project in Gullele in 1985 forced them to move out of the area and to the north of the Gullele road, which is reflected in land cover changes between 1973 and 1987. In southern Gullele farmers described a major influx of military personnel, merchants and labourers when the Toley military camp was established in the early 1980s.

In Kumbi, between 1973 and 1987, all farmers explained that cultivation contracted into restricted areas. Farmers say they chose these particular areas to cultivate because they were hilly and thus had lighter soils. They wanted to cultivate lighter soils during this period because they had lost more than 75% of their oxen to disease and thus were rarely able to plough the soil. They also said that people progressively moved from north to south in Kumbi to avoid the lower-lying areas in the north. Also, farmers in the northern villages said that they had lost more cattle to trypanosomosis (average loss = 83% of the herd) than farmers in the south (average loss = 63%), presumably because the northern villages were closer to tsetse-infested areas found at the lower elevation.

3.1.2.3 Farmers’ perceptions of the ecological consequences of change Similar to their descriptions of land use change, farmers described ecological changes most vividly for the period between 1973 and 1987. First, the change in disease severity affected both the extent of their cultivated fields and the size of the area grazed by their depleted livestock herds. They described how the loss of many of their cattle and the consequent decrease in grazing pressure allowed grass biomass and cover to increase. Farmers recognized that as grass biomass increased, fires were more frequent and widespread. With a contraction in cultivated area, farmers said wildlife populations grew and they had to spend more time protecting their fields from crop predators: baboons, warthog and bushpig. Farmers claimed that woody plant density increased because of decreased wood-cutting. Farmers perceived no change in soil fertility over this period.

Box 4: Effects of Land Use and Tsetse Control on Bird Species Richness in SW Ethiopia

Successful control of tsetse (Glossina spp.) transmitted trypanosomosis in the Ghibe Valley, Ethiopia, appears to have accelerated conversion of wooded grassland into cropland. Land conversion, in turn, may have fragmented wildlife habitat. The objective of this study, conducted by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), was to assess the influence of the expansion of agricultural land use, brought about by tsetse control, on ecological properties by using bird species richness and composition as indicators of environmental impacts. Bird species richness and composition (using timed- species counts) and habitat structure (using field sampling and remote sensing) were sampled in four land cover/land use types in areas subjected to tsetse fly control and adjacent areas without control.

At the height of the growing season bird species numbers and vegetative complexity were greater in the smallholder, oxen-ploughed fields and riparian woodlands than in wooded grasslands or in large-holder, tractor-ploughed fields. Species composition was highly dissimilar (40-70% dissimilarity) comparing among land use types, with many species found only in a single type. This implies that trypanosomosis control that results in land conversion from wooded grasslands to small-holder farming in this region may have no adverse impacts on bird species numbers but will alter composition. These results also suggest that moderate land use by humans (e.g. small-holder field mosaics) increases habitat heterogeneity and bird species richness relative to high levels of use (e.g. tractor- ploughed fields).

Tsetse control may be indirectly maintaining species richness in the valley by encouraging the differential spread of these small-scale, heterogeneous farms in place of large-scale, homogeneous farms. Nevertheless, if the extent of small-holder farms significantly exceeds that of present levels, negative impacts on bird species richness and large shifts in species composition may occur.

Source: Wilson, C.J., R.S. Reid, N.L. Stanton, and B.D. Perry (1997). "Effects of land use and tsetse fly control on bird species richness in south-western Ethiopia." Conservation Biology, 11(2): 435-447.

After villagisation began, farmers described a continuation of similar ecological effects. As farmers moved into more compact villages, outlying fields were abandoned. This abandonment further intensified bush fires and increased wildlife populations.

In the last period, only the farmers in the tsetse control area, Gullele, described further ecological changes. Here, half the farmers recognized that the disease intervention attracted migrants to settle in the area, causing further agricultural expansion. Three years after tsetse control (1994), three-quarters of farmers clearly recognized that land clearing and excessive wood harvesting resulted in the loss of tree cover (and fuelwood availability). During this time, many also described a near complete loss of large mammal populations, once abundant in the early 1980s. However, half the farmers said that this decline was caused by Ethiopia's recent military conflict; the other half recognized that expansion of cropland was the cause.

Figure 15: Probable Causes and Ecological Consequences of Land Use/Cover Change in the Ghibe (and Dhidessa) Valleys

1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Land Tenure Policy ------Feudal Landlords------Peasant Associations------Private----

New Settlement Policy Policy Repealed

Settlement Policy ------No Settlement Restrictions (NSR)------Villagisation------NSR------

Drought Drought

Drought/Migration ------Lower Migration------Higher Migration------

Disease Increase / Tsetse Disease Expansion ? Control

Livestock Disease ------Lower Trypanosomosis (None ?)------Higher Trypanosomosis------Lower---

Expansion Cumulative Land Contraction caused by land Contraction caused by disease Change in location of Gradual expansion of cultivation caused by human population pressure only in Use Changes tenure change invasion cultivation control area

Grazing pressure: - Reversal Grass biomass and cover: ++ of 300% increase in land Tree/Shrub cover: + previous clearing and abandonment, Ecological Changes No discernible changes on aerial photographs: farmers do not recall significant changes Wildlife diversity and abundance: + changes little change in cultivated (only in Plant diversity: + area Bush frequency, intensity and extent: ++ control Soil fertility: no change area) Drivers of Change: Land Tenure Policy ------Feudal Landlords------Peasant Associations------Private---- Settlement Policy ------No Settlement Restrictions (NSR)------Villagisation------NSR---- Drought/Migration ------Lower Migration------Higher Migration------Livestock Disease ------Lower Trypanosomosis (None ?)------Higher Trypanosomosis------Lower--- 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Source: Derived from: Reid et al. (2000a)

3.2 Need to Mitigate the Risks of Increased Land Degradation The control of tsetse and trypanosomosis has both direct and indirect impacts on the environment (see Box 5). Direct impacts relate to the effects of insecticides on non-target organisms, water chemistry, nutrient cycle and people. Indirect impacts include decreased morbidity and mortality of cattle, increased numbers of cattle, increased grazing and the multiple potential impacts of agricultural expansion, including loss of biodiversity, reduced ground cover and increased risk of soil erosion.

These impacts may be incremental to those that would have occurred autonomously in due course without intervention, but disease control measures are like to advance the pace of and exacerbate the environmental impacts of agricultural expansion. Environmentally responsible or “friendly” development therefore requires that appropriate mitigation measures be instigated to offset potential adverse consequences and promote more sustainable forms of agriculture.

Potential mitigation measures include: land use planning and the provision or support of extension services to promote soil and water conservation, agro-forestry and sustainable farming.

Box 5: Environmental Impacts of Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Control

In trying to understand the environmental impacts of controlling trypanosomosis, there are two principle questions to answer: 1) How does controlling trypanosomosis affect the pattern and rate of land use/land cover change? and 2) If these changes occur, how do they affect ecosystem structure and function? For more than half a century, natural history observations have led scientists and resource managers to speculate about the answers to these questions, but only recently have quantitative studies been conducted that rigorously assess impacts. Most of the impact studies have focused on the first rather than the second question because of its immediate nature. Even concerning land use/land cover impacts, very few of these quantitative studies have been designed so that the impacts of trypanosomosis control can be distinguished from other factors that cause land use/land cover change. Even when good comparative sites are available for study, establishing cause and effect is difficult. Nevertheless, accumulating evidence shows that tsetse/trypanosomosis control and land use/and cover change are strongly linked in some locations in Africa, but are weakly linked in others. Direct impacts on the environment relate to the effects of insecticides on non-target organisms, water chemistry, nutrient cycle and people. Indirect impacts include decreased morbidity and mortality of cattle, increased numbers or cattle, increased grazing and the multiple potential impacts of agricultural expansion, including loss of biodiversity, reduced ground cover and increased risk of soil erosion. Derived from: Reid, R.S., (1997). "Impacts of controlling trypanosomosis on land use and the environment: state of knowledge and future directions" in Twenty-fourth meeting of the International Scientific Council for Trypanosomosis Research and Control. Maputo, Mozambique, 29 September - 3 October 1997. Organisation of African Unity and International Scientific Council for Trypanosomosis Research and Control. pp 500-514.

4 Recommendations

4.1 Guidelines for Strategy Formulation and Targeting The recently published three volume synthesis of findings and recommendations of the Regional Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Control Programme for Southern Africa (Doran and Van den Bosche, 2000; Van den Bosche and Vale, 2000; and Doran, 2000) provide useful guidelines to strategy formulation for the control of tsetse and trypanosomosis, which are of direct and immediate relevance to FITCA-Ethiopia.

Particular attention is given to emphasising the importance of Socio-economic, Institutional, Technical and Environmental (SITE) considerations, which may ultimately determine the success and sustainability of trypanosomosis control measures. An extract from the analysis of SITE criteria, summarising the process of strategy formulation, is presented in Appendix IV for ease of reference.

Another key document to be considered in strategy formulation and assessing potential interventions is Alexandra Shaw’s “Guiding economic principles for strategic planning in tsetse and trypanosomosis control/eradication in West Africa” (Shaw, 2001), soon to be published as an official position paper of the multi-agency Programme Against African Trypanosomosis. Some of her main conclusions on when and where trypanosomosis control are likely to be economically worthwhile and self-sustaining, based on experiences from east, west and southern Africa, are outlined in Box 6.

Two aspects of targeting future disease control interventions in Ethiopia are considered in the following sub-sections; firstly, the identification of areas geographically similar to those found in the Dhidessa valley, where similar tsetse control measures might be adopted; and secondly, a brief examination of some of the other information required for strategy formulation, targeting, monitoring and evaluation.

4.1.1 Other Areas Similar to the Dhidessa Valley The upper Dhidessa valley is one of a number of relatively narrow tsetse infested valleys that penetrate the Ethiopian highlands, as indicated in Figure 2 in the introduction to this report. Figure 2 was generated by computer from a digital elevation model (DEM) of western Ethiopia and colour coded to show altitudinal ranges related to potential presence of tsetse:  Red = below 1,600m, potential permanent presence of tsetse;  Pink = 1,600-1,800m, seasonally presence of tsetse;  Yellow = 1,800-2,000m, occasionally presence of tsetse;  Dark and light green, tsetse free areas.

Other similar valleys, partially isolated by highlands from potentially extensive areas of lowland tsetse infestation, include: the Abay (Blue Nile), Anger and Fincha valleys to the north; the little and main Ghibe valleys to the east; the Omo and Gojeb and southern Rift valleys to the south; and the upper Baro valley to the west. It should be emphasised, however, that the actual extent of lowland tsetse infestation is very poorly documented and that the universal potential presence below 1,600m indicted in Figure 2 is far in excess of reality.

Box 6: When and Where is Trypanosomosis Control Likely to be Profitable?

Key Questions in Assessing the Likely Profitability of Tsetse-Trypanosomosis Control Strategies:

 What are current human and cattle population densities, and population growth rates?  Is there likely to be in-migration of people, or has their recently been such in-migration?  Is there likely to be in-migration of cattle, or has there recently been such in-migration?  What are farmers currently doing to control the disease (trypanocides, breed choices, transhumance, husbandry practices, use of pour-ons)?  How much can tsetse control add over and above this?  Is (when is) the tsetse problem likely to diminish due to human population pressure?  Is human sleeping sickness a problem, or has it been in the past?

Situations Where Introducing Tsetse Control is Likely to be Profitable:

 In newly settled areas with in-migrating farmers and cattle herders.  Where tsetse have spread to a new area.  Where mixed farming already exists and is expanding.  Where a few isolated populations of riverine flies can be dealt with using bait technology, or their population substantially reduced by the use of pour-on’s.  Around protected areas where tsetse persist and feed off people or animals entering that area or living on its fringes.

Situations Where Introducing Tsetse Control is Likely to be Unprofitable:

 Where the savanna tsetse have virtually disappeared;  and/or people are managing the disease successfully using drugs targeting breeding females and draught animals;  and/or there is a high proportion of trypanotolerant blood in their cattle population;  and/or pour-ons are already being effectively used to control tsetse, in addition to controlling ticks;  where cattle and human populations are very low, so that controlling the disease via the vector is premature. Source: Shaw, A. P. M. (2001). Guiding economic principles for strategic planning in tsetse and trypanosomosis control/eradication in West Africa. FAO/IAEA Workshop on the Strategic Planning of Area- wide Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Control in West Africa, Ouagadougou.

The Federal MoA’s Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project (WBISPP), a leading practitioner of GIS applications in Ethiopia, has prepared more detailed maps of potential tsetse distribution, based on the distribution of all areas of forest, woodland, bushland and shrubland below 1,700m, based on interpretation of satellite imagery from the early 1990s. These maps are a great improvement on those produced previously, but are acknowledged to be tentative representations of “potential” tsetse distribution and require verification, and are, therefore, an excellent starting point for the initial targeting of regional field surveys.

It is understood that WBISPP’s mandate has been extended recently for a further year, specifically to strengthen the planning capacity and GIS capability of regional state governments (Peter Sutcliffe, pers. com.). A unique window of opportunity therefore exists for FITCA-Ethiopia and the NTTICC to collaborate with WBISPP and regional authorities to conduct field surveys to validate and refine maps of potential tsetse distribution to indicate areas of high and low risk of disease transmission, and at the same time familiarise staff with the use of computers.

4.1.2 Information Requirements Strategic planning and the sensible targeting of disease control interventions require reasonably reliable and up to date information about a broad range of parameters relating to prevalence, treatments, tsetse, cattle and farmers, as well as environmental conditions, infrastructure and administrative boundaries. The analysis, interpretation and presentation of such information is assisted greatly by the use of a computer based Geographical Information System (GIS).

The establishment of such a system by FITCA-Ethiopia is envisaged, but has not yet been implemented because of delays in the procurement of computer equipment and software. Priority should be given to developing a GIS as a management and decisions support tool, as soon as computers arrive and staff have been trained in their use. An indicative checklist of information requirements is presented in Box 7.

Box 7: Checklist of FITCA-Ethiopia GIS Information Requirements

Socio-Economic  Human population (CSA/MoA/WBISPP)  Family/household size, farm size, livestock/oxen ownership (CSA/MoA/WBISPP)  Urban/rural ratios (CSA/MoA/WBISPP)  Main towns (EMA/MoA/WBISPP)  Administrative boundaries (EMA/MoA/WBISPP)  Development indicators (MFED)

Tsetse and Trypanosomosis  Potential Tsetse Distribution (MoA/WBISPP)  Tsetse species survey records (NTTICC/FITCA-Ethiopia)  Trypanosomosis survey records (NTTICC/FITCA-Ethiopia)  Prevalence rates (MoA/NTTICC/FITCA-Ethiopia)  Trypanosomosis treatment figures (MoA/NTTICC/FITCA-Ethiopia)  Human sleeping sickness records (MoH)  Veterinary clinics (MoA)

Natural Resources and Environmental Conditions  Livestock populations - all species (CSA/MoA/WBISPP)  Land cover: vegetation and land use (MoA/WBISPP)  Livestock carrying capacity (MoA/WBISPP)  Erosion risk (MoA/WBISPP)  Agricultural expansion/forestation (MoA/WBISPP)  Infrastructure/Accessibility: road networks (EMA/MoA/WBISPP)  Topography, rivers, drainage lines, lakes and wetlands (EMA/MoA/WBISPP)  Protected areas and biodiversity “hot-spots” (Wildlife and Forestry Departments/Environmental Protection/Biodiversity Institute)  Climate: rainfall, temperatures, seasonality (Meteorology Department/MoA/WBISPP)

4.2 Appropriate Parameters for Comparison of With and Without Project Scenarios The choice of appropriate parameters for comparison of “with project” and “without project” scenarios depends on specific project objectives and activities, which have yet to be finalised. In this assessment, the baseline, without project scenario assumes that human population growth will proceed and that agricultural settlement will continue to encroach on remaining tsetse infested habitats and transform them progressively to farmland. This process of agricultural expansion is likely to occur preferentially on valley slopes in the midlands, but ultimately also in the lowlands. The with project scenario anticipates more rapid control of trypanosomosis, increased rate of settlement, greater use of oxen, more cultivation and greater agricultural production. If the project were also successful in promoting the uptake of soil and water conservation measures and agro-forestry practices, there would be additional benefits of reduced soil erosion and more sustainable production.

Potential with and without project scenarios for high, mid and lowland areas are summarised in Table 7 and appropriate parameters for monitoring and evaluating impacts are identified in the following sub-sections.

4.2.1 Agricultural and Socio-Economic Parameters  Human population size/density;  Livestock population size/density, especially: cattle and oxen, but also donkeys, mules and horses, used for transport;  Livestock ownership patterns, especially: cattle and oxen, but also donkeys, mules and horses used for transport;  Prevalence of trypanosomosis and/or measures of blood packed cell volume;  Oxen per household, and/or cattle per household;  Area cultivated and cropped area per household;  Cattle/herd productivity: milk yield, calving interval.

4.2.2 Environmental Parameters  Rates of agricultural expansion and conversion of natural vegetation cover (grassland, woodland, forest) to farmland;  Extent of bare ground and measures of soil erosion rate;  Extent of farming on steep slopes;  Use of soil and water conservation measures;  Non-target impacts of insecticide use;  Measures of biodiversity and relative abundance of wildlife.

4.2.3 Comparative Costs of Disease Control Measures In addition to the above indicators of project impact, it is of the utmost importance to strategy formulation and sensible decision-making that realistic costs and benefits of different forms of disease control be established. As a benchmark, key informants indicate that trypanocidal drugs cost Birr6-8 (= US$1) per treatment. (See Appendix V for drug and insecticide prices.)

Table 7: With and Without Project Scenarios for FITCA-Ethiopia

Factor Considered Without Project With Project Scenario Highland agriculture above 2,000m Progressive adaptation and expansion of traditional highland farming systems Indirect benefit to cattle owners making seasonal use of Tsetse free into remaining under-utilised highland areas midlands where trypanosomosis has been controlled Midland agriculture, 1,600-2,000m Progressive increase in transhumant use and permanent settlement; adaptation More rapid rate of increase channelled into selected areas. Occasional/ seasonal presence of tsetse and expansion of novel farming systems Reduced mortality and morbidity; increased productivity. Progressive expansion and adaptations of traditional lowland farming systems Lowland agriculture below 1,600m into under-utilised areas; reduction/conversion of potential tsetse habitat to More rapid rate of increase channelled into selected areas; Potential permanent presence of tsetse farmland; reduction and eventual elimination of wildlife reservoir of Reduced mortality and morbidity; increased productivity. trypanosomosis; adaptation and expansion of novel farming systems Progressive decline, except where there is an economic incentive to maintain Natural habitats: Reduced rate of decline through promotion of CBNRM and cover or substitute cover e.g. shade for coffee in highlands; fuel wood lots; Grassland, woodland and forest agro-forestry orchards; and protected areas are respected May increase initially with increasing fragmentation of habitats, but ultimately Reduced rate of decline through promotion of CBNRM and Biodiversity most likely to decline with widespread loss of habitats agro-forestry Erosion and land degradation Increases with reduction of vegetation cover and soil exhaustion Controlled through implementation of conservation measures Indicators of Change Human population Progressive moderate increase - natural growth, plus migration Ditto, but channelled into selected areas Livestock population Progressive increase More rapid increase - reduced morbidity and mortality High prevalence initially, followed by gradual reduction though autonomous Rapid reduction in prevalence, maintained whilst control Trypanosomosis prevalence control of tsetse: settlement, expansion of farmland and elimination of wildlife measures remain effective and consolidated by settlement Oxen per household Few More Cropped area per household Small Larger Productivity: calving interval Long Shorter Mitigation Measures Land use plans prepared No Yes Soil and water conservation promoted No Yes CBNRM and agro-forestry promoted No Yes Other constraints on mid and lowland No Yes livelihoods assessed and addressed

4.3 Towards More Sustainable Farming "Tsetse control must be integrated with the overall development of a region...... Other constraints to rural development should also be considered, [including] the existence of malaria, the inadequacy of water supply and lack of communication networks" (Haile- Mariam, 1980).

4.3.1 Understanding Farmers’ Needs and Priorities In promoting sustainable rural livelihoods and agricultural development, the importance of taking an holistic approach to understanding farmers’ needs and priorities cannot be overstressed, especially if farmers are expected to participate willingly in any proposed intervention. A large body of literature has been published advocating “farmer-centred” development and how this may be achieved through various forms of participatory appraisal, planning and implementation, including Chambers et al. (1989); Scoones (1994); Scoones and Thompson (1994); Pretty (1995); Scoones (1998); and Carney (1998), to mention but a few.

A common theme of this literature is that farmers are the de facto managers of natural resources within their domain and that there is a wealth of indigenous knowledge and experience underpinning their management decisions, farming practices and livelihoods. Farming systems evolve over time as result of both ingenuity and trial and error, and finding out what works and what does not. There is no guarantee that innovations or external interventions will succeed, and experience has shown that frequently they have failed because of a lack of understanding of farmers’ needs and priorities, and a failure to appreciate the realities and complexities of rural life.

4.3.2 Working with Farmers to Control Trypanosomosis Although local communities have been and still are involved in tsetse control in Chello- Dambocha, Gale and Limu Shay, there is evidence to suggest that farmers’ interest and willingness to collaborate has waned in recent years. This is hardly surprising if the risk of trypanosomosis and the benefits of collaboration have declined. Similar problems have arisen elsewhere in Africa, where community-based tsetse control has been promoted (Box 8).

Realistically, what can the project try to achieve in the way of facilitating more sustainable, community-based tsetse and trypanosomosis control? The following initiatives are proposed:  Commission a review of non-governmental activities and experiences in community- based tsetse and trypanosomosis control in Ethiopia, and assess what lessons there are to be learnt. Many organisations, including: Acord, Concern, FARM Africa, Food for the Hungry International, ILRI, SIM and SOS-Sahel, have been involved in various initiatives, and a synthesis of their collective experience would be well worthwhile. A PowerPoint display of the Kindo Koisha community-based tsetse control project is presented in Appendix V, as an example of the kind of work that has been undertaken.  Adopt a more participatory, livelihoods-oriented approach to project implementation.  Appoint designated local community liaison officers, with experience of community development and participatory rural appraisal techniques.  Work closely with local communities to assess their specific needs and priorities, and provide assistance as and when appropriate. If trypanosomosis is not perceived to be a serious problem, farmers are unlikely to be very enthusiastic partners.

 Establish close collaborate links and co-ordinate activities with wereda Development Agents and Peasant Associations in operational areas and liase with recently formed Environmental Protection and Conservation Committees.  Ensure that community based organisations and/or non-governmental organisations are represented on national and regional co-ordinating committees.

Box 8: Partnerships for Tsetse Control

In recent years the participation of local communities in tsetse control has been widely promoted and is even a pre-requisite for funding by many donors. This emphasis on community management of tsetse control reflects policy changes in other areas of natural resource management where communal resources are involved.

In the case of tsetse control, however, little attention has been paid to the context within which community participation is expected to operate and to the appropriateness of participation as a strategy in different contexts. Discussion has focused on technical issues and not only have community aspects been overlooked, but the role and capacity of other partners which are necessarily involved in any control exercise have also been ignored and/or taken for granted.

Various levels and types of participation may be involved in tsetse control activities, including: cash, labour, time and decision-making: and a range of possible partners, including: local communities, private sector businesses, non-governmental organisations and government.

The challenge for disease control strategists and planners is to match the overall policy objective, whether eradication or suppression, with the social, institutional and economic parameters to arrive at a sustainable programme.

Given the more generally applicable objective of suppression rather than eradication, greater levels of direct non-government participation will be possible and decisions about acceptable levels of suppression will shift from government to its partners as their involvement increases.

Experience indicates that reliance on community participation alone, as an all-purpose strategy for tsetse control is not justified, although it may be feasible in some contexts. A more sustainable strategy is likely to involve partnerships of different stakeholders according to circumstances, including local communities, private sector businesses, non- governmental organisations and government.

Summarised from: Barrett, K. and C. Okali (1999). Also published as Position Paper 3 of the Programme Against African Trypanosomosis: http://www.fao.org./paat/html/home.htm and on the PAAT Information System CD.

4.3.3 Working with Farmers to Conserve Soil and Water As explained and justified in the conclusions, the likely consequences of successful implementation of this project are that farming will expand and cattle populations will increase at intermediate levels between the highlands and the lowlands (the so called “midlands”) in preference to the hotter, often poorly drained valley floors and lowlands. There is likely, therefore, to be further expansion of cultivation on valley sides with relatively steep slopes and increased risk of erosion.

To mitigate this likely consequence of project implementation, the project should take steps to actively promote community-based soil and water conservation measures within its operational catchments, through regional, zonal and wereda authorities. See Box 9 for an assessment of indigenous soil and water conservation in Ethiopia and Appendix III for a report on the Upper Unta Sub-Watershed Soil and Water Conservation Project in Jimma Zone.

Box 9: Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation in Ethiopia

Ethiopia suffers from extensive land degradation resulting from chronic soil erosion. Many soil and water conservation programmes have been initiated over the past twenty years by government agencies and non-governmental organizations, but there has been only limited uptake of advocated soil and water conservation measures by farmers. Nevertheless, indigenous soil and water conservation (ISWC) techniques are widely practiced.

Field surveys conducted in various parts of Ethiopia have identified more than twenty ISWC techniques prevailing, including various forms of stone and soil bunds, diversion ditches, micro- basin, trash-lines, mulching, mixed cropping, contour ploughing and agro-forestry.

Farmers' seasons for using ISWC techniques were to: cultivate steeper slopes; drain off excess water and/or the desire to harvest run-off water. Techniques are site specific and often complex in nature, using a variety of techniques on the same plot. Secure land-use rights appear to favour their application.

ISWC techniques are subject to ecological, socio-economic and cultural variations and are not applied equally within or across communities.

Characteristics of ISWC: site-specific; complexity; gradually developed components of farming system; multifunctional; short and long term benefits; integration of several techniques; reduced labour inputs and risks; involvement of indigenous institutions; and heritage of ancestral traditions.

For the maintenance and enhancement of smallholder, soil and water conservation measures in Ethiopia, it is essential that the contrasting objectives and strategies of indigenous and modern approaches be reconciled and harmonised; in particular: site specific as opposed to standardised methods; concentrated versus gradual progressive change; protection versus production; and mass versus farm/small group labour inputs. Institutional mechanisms to address and resolve soil and water conservation disputes also need to be strengthened.

Extracted from: Michael, Y. G. (1998). “Indigenous soil and water conservation practices in Ethiopia: new avenues for sustainable land use.” Advances in GeoEcology 31: 1359-66. Soil Conservation Research Programme, P. O. Box 10787, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

The Austrian foundation, Menschen für Menschen, is the main NGO operating in Illubabor Zone, where it has been involved in implementing an integrated rural development programme since 1985. The programme encompassed a wide range of agricultural extension and community-based natural resource management activities, including: agro-forestry, soil conservation, runoff management and small-scale irrigation, as well as construction of rural schools, human health clinics and veterinary clinics. Evidence of terracing, contour ploughing, Vetivar planting, grassed strips and other soil conservation and runoff management measures abounds in the Zone, and is clearly visible on the hillsides approaching Metu on the road from Bedelle.

Having supported more sustainable, agro-ecologically oriented farming for the past 15 years, however, Menschen für Menschen has decided that it’s future operations in Illubabor should focus on human health, education and gender related activities, and the Foundation’s former agricultural responsibilities have been transferred to zonal authorities. Unfortunately, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Agency, which includes both Forestry and the Soil and Water Conservation Departments, has very limited financial and manpower resources to execute its mandate. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has in principle agreed to support a limited soil and water conservation programme in Bedelle Wereda, but field activities have been curtailed because of funding difficulties.

Potential synergy exists between soil and water conservation measures and organised tsetse control. Both consider the catchment as their main geographical unit, and are very much dependent on local community participation and support for their success, and in particular how much time and effort people are prepared to contribute. FITCA-Ethiopia should consider how this approach might be adopted with Peasant Associations in its operational catchments.

4.4 National Co-ordination (and Technical Advisory) Committee Urgent consideration should be given to the establishment of a National Co-ordination Committee, as envisaged in the project document, to provide oversight and strategic guidance. The committee should include representatives of all major stakeholders, including: Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Science and Technology Commission, regional state governments, agricultural and livestock/veterinary research institutes, non-governmental organisations, faith-based organisations and FITCA East Africa.

4.5 Computerisation of Records

4.5.1 Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Survey Data Over the years, the NTTICC has conducted numerous field surveys of tsetse across Ethiopia. Much of the information lies buried in old files and annual reports. A strenuous effort needs to be made to extract and consolidate this information in a geo-referenced database for geographical analysis and mapping. It is understood Dr. Berhanu Bedani has already undertaken some of this work, but his focus of attention was on the Dhidessa valley up until 1996/7. His original data files need to be located and brought up to date.

4.5.2 Trypanosomosis Treatment Figures As a means of targeting and prioritising disease control interventions and monitoring their impacts, it is recommend that trypanosomosis treatment figures for the past decade be obtained from all available sources and recorded in a geo-referenced database for analysis and mapping. Someone may have already undertaken this investigation, in which its findings and conclusions need to be disseminated, or it may need updating.

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Shaw, A. P. M. (2001). Guiding economic principles for strategic planning in tsetse and trypanosomosis control/eradication in West Africa. FAO/IAEA Workshop on the Strategic Planning of Area-wide Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Control in West Africa, Ouagadougou, . Slingenbergh, J. (1987). Assistance in tsetse and trypanosomosis control in Ethiopia: project findings and recommendations (TCP/ETH/4523). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations: pp22. Slingenbergh, J. (1992). “Tsetse control and agricultural development in Ethiopia.” World Animal Review 70/71(1/2): 30-36. SOS_Sahel (2001). Pilot community based integrated tsetse and trypanosomiasis control programme. Addis Ababa: SOS Sahel International: pp17. Sutcliffe, J. P. (1995). “Soil conservation and land tenure in highland Ethiopia.” Ethiopian Journal of Development Research 17(1): 63-88. Swallow, B. (2000). Impacts of trypanosomiasis on African agriculture. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. TAMS (1975). Feasibility report: phase 2 of the Upper Didessa Project. Addis Ababa: Report by TAMS Agricultural Group on behalf of USAID to the Ministry of Agriculture. Tefera, B., G. Ayele, Y. Atnafe, M. A. Jabbar and P. Dubale (2002). Nature and causes of land degradation in the Oromiya Region: A review. Nairobi: Socio-economics and Policy Research Working Paper 36, International Livestock Research Institute, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation and Oromiya Natural Resources Development and Environmental Protection Authority: pp82. Van den Bossche, P. and G. A. Vale (2000). Bovine trypanosomosis in southern Africa, Volume 2: Tsetse and trypanosomosis in southern Africa. Harare: Regional Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Control Programme for Southern Africa. WBISPP (2001a). Oromiya Regional State - a strategic plan for the sustainable development, conservation and management of the woody biomass resources. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Agriculture, Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project. WBISPP (2001b). Report on natural grazing lands and livestock feed resources: Oromiya Regional State. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Agriculture, Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project. Westphal, E. (1975). Agricultural systems in Ethiopia. Wageningen: Centre for Agricultural Publications and Documentation. Wilson, C. J., R. S. Reid, N. L. Stanton and B. D. Perry (1997). “Effects of land use and tsetse fly control on bird species richness in south-western Ethiopia.” Conservation Biology 11(2): 435-447. Zewde, B. (2001). A history of modern Ethiopia: 1855-1991. Oxford: James Currey.

Appendix I: Terms of Reference As originally specified:

Under the accountability of LTTA thee Natural Resources Management Expert will have the following responsibilities:

 Be responsible for designing effective method of using natural resources.  Conduct environmental studies and recommend appropriate natural resources management system.  Undertake grazing land surveys, livestock carrying capacity analysis and using stocking rates determine annual and seasonal livestock balances.  Prepare manual in natural resources management.  Participate in staff training.  Undertake additional duties as required.

As subsequently amended:

Under the accountability of LTTA the International Farming Systems Expert will have the following responsibilities:

i) Assist the remote sensing expert in mapping the broad land use of the Bedelle project area. ii) Interpret the major trends in farmland dynamics, as reconstructed by diachronic land use imaging. iii) Review the complementarity of high, mid, and low land farming systems, including grazing patterns and transhumances. iv) Describe the cropping patterns, livestock resources and farm and livestock holding typologies of the Bedelle project area, and advise on productivity and economic parameters to compare the with project and the without project cases. v) Assist the forestry expert to develop guidelines for the sustainable cultivation of the areas liberated from tsetse flies, based on agro-forestry and other long-term management systems. vi) Identify similar farming systems elsewhere in Zones A&B of the tsetse belt country wide. vii) Prepare guidelines for the assessing and targeting regional extension programmes.

Appendix II: Itinerary and Contacts

Itinerary Date Travel 18 March 2002 Depart London/Oxford for Addis 19-26 March Addis Ababa 27 March Addis to Bedelle, via Ghibe valley and Jimma 27 March to 28 April Bedelle, with visits to Dhidessa valley, Chello, Galle, Gomma, Jimma, Limu, Khosa, Limu Seka, Metu and Tinishu Ghibe valley 29 April Bedelle to Addis via Nekempte 29 April to 15 May Addis Ababa 15 May Depart Addis for London/Oxford

Contacts

Feyera Abdi Stanley Fint SOS Sahel International NTTICC P.O. Box 3262 Bedelle, Oromiya State Addis Ababa Ethiopia Ethiopia +251 (07) 450231 /2 +251 (1) 189585 / 615582

Hadera Gebru Getachew Abebe Department of Livestock Resources Faculty of Veterinary Medicine P.O. Box 7066 P.O.Box 34 Addis Ababa Debra Zeit Ethiopia Ethiopia [email protected]

Tibebu Habtewold Joseph Aboul-Faki FARM Africa UNESCO International Institute for Capacity Building P.O. Box 5746 in Africa Addis Ababa, Ethiopia P.O. Box 2305 +00 251 (1) 55 12 08 / 55 34 15 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia +00 251 (1) 55 21 43 jaboulfaki@unesco-iicba [email protected]

Belachew Ametse Bultuma Jaleta NTTICC NTTICC Bedelle, Oromiya State Bedelle, Oromiya State Ethiopia Ethiopia +251 (07) 450231 /2 +251 (07) 450231 /2

Assefa Mebrata Debebe Argogo P.O. Box 19917 NTTICC Addis Ababa Bedelle, Oromiya State Ethiopia Ethiopia [email protected] +251 (07) 450231 /2

Berhanu Bedane Menschen fur Menschen Foundation OAU-IBAR P.B. Box 2568 P.O. Box 30786 Addis Ababa Nairobi, Kenya Ethiopia +254 (2) 318084 Bus: +251 (1) 42 16 66 /67 +254 (2) 226565 /332046 Bus Fax: +251 (1) 40 49 99 [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Seme Debela Taffese Mesfin FARM Africa Ethiopian Pastoralist Research and Development P.O. Box 5746 Association Addis Ababa, Ethiopia P.O. Box 30807 +00 251 (1) 55 12 08 / 55 34 15 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia +00 251 (1) 55 21 43 +00 251 (1) 56 05 27 [email protected] [email protected]

Ezio Moriondo Melebeb Eshetu Techniplan S.p.A Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation Via Guido d'Arezzo, 14 P.O. Box 386 00198 Rome, Italy Addis Ababa +00 39 (0685) 350880 Ethiopia +39 (0685) 354044 +00 251 (1) 50 52 31 [email protected]

Miressa Keno FITCA-Ethiopia Ato Negera Ministry of Agriculture Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Mettuu, Illuabbabora +251 (1) 507002 Ethiopia +251 (1) 512984 +251 (07) 41 15 32 [email protected]

Don Peden Musie Kiflom International Livestock Research institute SRVTEP P.O. Box 5689 P.O. Box 224 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Dilla-Gedio +00 251 (1) 46 02 75 Ethiopia +00 251 (1) 46 12 52 / 46 46 45 +251 (06) 31 14 25 [email protected]

Tom Lunsford Tariku Sintaro SIM Ethiopia Ministry of Agriculture P.O. Box 127 PACE Project Addis Ababa, Ethiopia P.O.Box 1084 +00 1 (704) 588-4300 Addis Ababa +00 1 (704) 587-1518 Ethiopia [email protected]

Emiru Seyoum Getachew Tekubet Faculty of Science, Department of Biology International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology University of Addis Ababa P.O. Box 3893 P.O. Box 332411 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Addis Ababa,Ethiopia +00 251 (1) 46 32 15 Ext 215 +251 1 11 42 50 [email protected] [email protected]

Ato Wakuma SOS International Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental P.O. Box 3262 Protection Addis Ababa Mettuu, Illuabbabora Ethiopia Ethiopia +251 (1) 189585 / 615582 +251 (07) 41 15 32

Fasil Zegeye Peter Sutcliffe Alta Computec PLC Woody Biomass Inventory & Strategic Planning Project P.O.Box 12301 Ministry of Agriculture Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Addis Ababa, Ethiopia +00 251 (1) 51 95 46 / 53 20 40 [email protected] +00 251 (1) 51 47 53 [email protected]

Bernard Toutain CIRAD CEDEX 5 34398 Mountpellier France +00 33 (0) 4 67 59 37 15 +00 33 (0) 4 67 59 37 99 [email protected]

Nurhussen Taha Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Watershed Development and Land Use Planning P.O. Box 1034 Addisa Ababa, Ethiopia +00 251 (1) 510209

Appendix III: Upper Unta Sub-Watershed Soil and Water Conservation Project

This appendix is a summarised translation of the project completion report prepared by the Soil and Water Conservation Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection, Jimma Zone, and is presented as an indication of the work undertaken within Zone. The assistance of Lishaan Damisee and Samuel Gabrie Madihin in translating the document is most gratefully acknowledged.

Introduction Dedo District (wereda) in the Jimma Zone has an altitudinal range of between 2,100- 2,900masl, with agro-climatic conditions varying from Woina Dega (temperate midlands) to Dega (cool highlands) and an annual rainfall of more 1,450mm. More than 12,000 people live within the district. Soils are mostly nitrosols. The project covered some 4,000ha and ran for five years: 1996-2000 (1988-82 EC), funded by the Oromiya Regional State Government.

Objectives The objectives of the project were to: conserve soil and water resources; increase agricultural productivity; increase carrying capacity; and familiarise farmers with locally applicable soil and water conservation techniques.

Methods First, highly problematic areas were identified and local traditional community leaders were chosen to participate at all stages of the project. Frequent discussions were held with community leaders and District and Zonal staff. The Zonal Agricultural Development Department assigned support staff and soil conservation technicians. The District administration mobilised community support for construction of infrastructure and local community leaders mobilised community support for conservation works. Peasant Association leaders mediated in disputes and conflict resolution. Cash incentives were provided to labourers at the following indicative rates:

Type EBirr/km Soil Bund and/or Fanya Juu 300-600 Cut Off Drain 470-600 Stone Bund 200-400 Water Way 1,200-2,000 Check Dam 4,000 Hedge Row 200

Tools, tree seedlings, grass seeds and technical assistance in bridge and road construction were also provided as incentives. Failure to provide adequate incentives would have greatly reduced project impact.

Both biological and physical soil conservation measures were employed. In addition to the physical measures indicated above, hedgerows and trees were planted, field strips and bund were seeded, and fodder seed and seedlings were distributed.

Community contributions included: participation of local leaders, allocation of land for nurseries and infrastructure; provisions of stores and handles for implements; and supply of locally available construction materials.

Results The extent of soil and water conservation works completed is indicated in the table below:

Type Quantity Soil Bund 614km Stone Bund 11km Fanya Juu 236km Cut Off Drain 123km Water Way 109km Check Dam 1km Grass Strip 166km Hedgerow 189km Office 1 Store 1

Materials distributed: 424 forks; 99 hoes; 1,723 spades; and 1,339 tinned hoes.

Total disbursements amounted to Birr793,215.

Average soil loss was reduced by more than half, from 60.5/tons/ha/yr to 27.5tons /ha/yr.

Conclusions Despite initial resistance from farmers because of the loss of land occupied by conservation structures, the community oriented, catchment based approach worked well. Nevertheless, careful mediation was required of disputes arising from impacts on adjacent farmland. The combined application of both biological and physical soil and water conservation methods was successful in both greatly reducing soil erosion and increasing productivity.

Recommendations Instead of providing cash incentives to workers, it is recommended that in future projects payments should be in kind, e.g. ox, cow or useful farm implement, to avoid squandering of money. Labourers should not necessarily only work on their own land. Farmers with limited household income should be allowed to work on other peoples’ land. It is also recommended that biological methods should predominate in the mix of soil and water conservation used.

Appendix IV: SITE Criteria This appendix summarises the socio-economic, institutional, technical and environmental (SITE) criteria for screening disease control options recommended by the Regional Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Control Programme (RTTCP) for southern Africa, including Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe (1986-2000) (Doran and Van der Bossche, 2000).

Formulation of realistic disease control strategies must be founded on a basic understanding of the national policy and macro-economic framework. When a cohesive policy for agriculture and rural development exists and expected outcomes have been clearly specified, meaningful development activities can usually be identified without too much difficulty. Depending on specific national priorities, these activities may or may not include the control of tsetse and trypanosomosis.

If tsetse and trypanosomosis is a national priority, areas considered unsuitable for intervention can often be identified and excluded from further consideration for obvious political, cultural, environmental, economic or institutional reasons. National parks and game management areas may, for example, be excluded because of environmental concerns. Initial selections can then be made, based on available secondary information about agricultural potential, human and livestock densities, tsetse distributions and the land use characteristics. Geographic Information System (GIS) modelling procedures can be used to assist this process by identifying areas likely to be suitable for control operations and those that are not, e.g. areas of low agricultural potential, low human and cattle densities and/or high environmental risk (Wint et al., 1997; Erkelens, 2000).

Information about the socio-economic impacts of the disease, institutional structures and constraints, the techniques relevant to an area and/or the environmental implications of intervention is, however, often insufficient for more detailed planning purposes. A data collection phase may, therefore, be necessary before meaningful and sustainable strategies can be defined.

Over-generalisation, with respect to the impact of the disease on herd performance and investment strategies may lead to the design and implementation of totally inappropriate strategies. Furthermore, preconceived notions about farmer behaviour (and for that matter, about institutions, environmental impacts and/or technical efficiency) must be avoided, if strategies appropriate to the circumstances are to be designed.

Strategy formulation should take account of the socio-economic, institutional, technical and environmental aspects of any proposed intervention, as outlined in the following paragraphs.

Socio-economics: Diagnostic farming system surveys may be required to identify constraints and pathways for improvement at the farmer level; and secondary data sources, diagnostic surveys and participatory rural appraisal techniques to answer the following questions:

 Is the disease (trypanosomosis) an especially important constraint on rural livelihoods, compared with the range of others that exist?  Can disease management practices be improved?  Are the technologies available suitable, transferable and sustainable?

Institutions: Institutional changes in recent years radically altered the approach adopted by the RTTCP, and played a major role in the shift in strategy from eradication to the identification of sustainable, locally based control operations. Donor emphasis on cost recovery and the privatisation of animal health services has been instrumental in engendering this new approach. Government staff and budget constraints have also placed severe limitations on national capacities to sustain the various activities initiated.

The move towards locally managed community-based operations is, however, fraught with problems in southern Africa and effective and sustainable vector control (at this level) appears to be unrealistic, at least for the foreseeable future. The co-ordination of traditional, local and national government institutions is also problematic, and links between these three levels of management tend to be weak and poorly defined. Individual farmers are likely, therefore, to maintain their control of the disease through use of trypanocidal drugs, which may be bought at unsubsidised prices throughout most of the RTTCP region.

Technologies: In evaluating technical aspects of trypanosomosis control strategy, three important issues must be addressed: the suitability, transferability and sustainability of the various options being considered.

Suitability is essentially a technical question involving an assessment of the technical efficiency and cost effectiveness of the different methods available, and their appropriateness to different field conditions, epidemiological situations, vector species or the objectives of a programme (i.e. eradication, preventing re-invasion or suppression).

Transferability is concerned with the ability and/or willingness of the farmer to adopt a particular technique or combination of techniques. Farmer perceptions of the impact of the disease and the costs and benefits of different control alternatives at the farm or community levels will affect the transferability of a technology.

Sustainability involves an assessment of the ability of farmers and/or local communities to sustain the use of a particular technique or combination of techniques on a long-term basis. It is concerned with issues such as environmental impact, the availability of inputs (e.g. insecticides), the manner in which a method or technique is applied and/or the risks associated with unwanted side effects (e.g. the development of resistance in trypanosomes to trypanocidal drugs or in ticks to pyrethroids). Sustainability may, thus, be a function of technical, institutional, environmental and/or socio-economic factors. It is important to recognise, however, that a technology that is suitable to a given set of circumstances may be neither transferable, nor sustainable - a fact that is often overlooked by technicians involved in the planning and implementation of animal health and livestock development programmes.

Environment: Concerns about the environmental impact of tsetse and trypanosomosis control operations are widespread and sometimes justified, but the issue requires an objective and balanced approach if practical strategies are to be formulated. Where possible, potential impacts on the environment should be quantified at the outset. Mitigating measures (e.g. land use planning) to counter any potentially damaging effects should be 'designed into' programme plans.

Monitoring and evaluation requirements should also be incorporated at the project design phase, using simple but practical indicators to assess changing environmental conditions.

However, since the selection of appropriate indicators is generally an evolving process, it may take some time to identify the most useful parameters.

Furthermore, since the environmental impacts of a programme or project are often felt long after implementation has been completed, it can be very difficult to sustain on-going commitment to the principles of monitoring and evaluation.

Environmental impact assessment studies should focus on:  The direct impacts of control, which are principally concerned with the impacts of different techniques or methods on the environment.  The indirect impacts of control, which are mainly concerned with the impact of humans on the environment, after control operations have taken place. The measurement of these impacts is complex and has received least attention in the monitoring and evaluation of control interventions.

The gathering of data on these “SITE filters” can be costly and time consuming. Only those most cost efficient and appropriate measures of data collection should be used. Despite this, data irrelevant to strategy formulation are often collected. Alternatively, relevant data are not collected, processed or analysed. Potential conflicts between the four different “filters” should also be understood and quantified, e.g. between environmental management and the local institutional objectives. A sound basis for prioritisation of the different control options identified initially can only be established by using an adequate database. Implementation of the control options must be supported by adequate feedback mechanisms, which provide management staff and policy makers with a basis for adapting priorities as circumstances change.

Appendix V: Cost of Trypanocides and Insecticides

Indicative prices in Addis Ababa, as of May 2002:

Trypanocides

Isometamidium Samorin: EBirr48 per 1 gram sachet (treats 10 animals at treatment dose). EBirr32 per sachet in bulk.

Isometamidium Trypamidium: was similar to Samorin but probably higher now.

Dimenaphen (generic Berenil)- EBirr3.15 per single dose sachet. Cheaper in bulk.

Berenil - was over EBirr5 per dose, but may be a little less now.

Insecticides

Deltamethrin Spot On - General Chemical Trading - EBirr380 per litre (EBirr7.60 per dose).

Deltamethrin aqueous - GCT - EBirr5.15 per 10cc sachet (treats 5 head at EBirr1.03 per dose) or EBirr543 per litre.

Cypermethrin pour on - Ultravetis from Kenya - EBirr117 per 500ml (EBirr4.68 per dose).

Sincere thanks to Tom Lunsford, veterinarian with SIM, P.O. Box 127, Addis Ababa for providing this information.

Appendix VI: Koisha Community Based Tsetse Control Project

"Koisha Tsetse Control Project.ppt" Click on PowerPoint Icon to View Presentation ......

With sincere thanks to Martin Roberts, SOS Sahel Project Manager, for providing the Koisha Tsetse Control Project PowerPoint presentation for inclusion in this report.

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