Chapter 7: The Skeletal System

Bone Classification: Bones are classified by shape, as long, short (including sesamoid or round), flat or irregular. Bones that are elongated, and have expanded ends, such as the femur, are called __long__ bones. Bones that are almost cube-like, such as the wrist bones, are called __short__ bones. Bones that develop in tendons, such as the patella, are called _sesamoid (round)_ bones. Bones that are plate-like with broad surfaces, such as the scapula, are called _flat_ bones. Bones that have a variety of shapes, such as the vertebrae, are called _irregular_ bones.

Long Bone Structure: Expanded ends of bones that form joints with adjacent bones are called _epiphyses___. __Articular cartilage______(hyaline cartilage) covers the ends at the joints. The shaft of the bone is called the _diaphysis_. What type of bone makes up the outside of this part? Compact The epiphyseal plate (disc) is the site of bone __growth (in length)____. A tough layer of vascular connective tissue, called the __periosteum____, covers the bone and is continuous with ligaments and tendons. The diaphysis contains a hollow _medullary_cavity that is lined with __endosteum__ and filled with _bone marrow_.

A bone's shape makes possible its function; bony processes or grooves indicate places of attachment for __muscles and tendons__.

Microscopic Structure:

Bone cells, called ____osteocytes__, are located within spaces called _lacunae____ that lie in concentric circles around __central/Haversian___ canals that contain blood vessels and nerves. Osteocytes pass nutrients and wastes back and forth in passageways in the matrix called _canaliculi__. The extracellular material consists of __collagen_ and inorganic _salts_. There are 2 types of bone in the body, compact bone and spongy bone. Compact bone: In compact bone, osteocytes and intercellular material are organized into columns called __osteons/Haversian systems__ that are cemented together. Central canals contain blood vessels and nerve fibers, and extend in what direction through bone? Longitudinally

Central canals are interconnected by transverse __perforating_ canals. Where is compact bone found? The diaphysis of a long bone, and covering the epiphyses Spongy Bone: Unlike compact bone, the osteocytes and intercellular material in spongy bone are not arranged around central canals. Rather, they are irregularly arranged and form thin bony plates called trabeculae.

Where is spongy bone found? Epiphyses of long bones, in the medullary cavity and in flat bones of the skull 1 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Bone Development: Bones form by replacing connective tissue in the fetus, through either intramembranous or endochondral ossification.

Intramembranous bone formation: The flat bones of the skull form as intramembranous bones that develop from layers of ___connective___ tissue. Cells called ___osteoblasts___ deposit bony tissue around themselves. Once these cells deposit bone completely around themselves, they are enclosed within little compartments called _lacunae____. These cells are then called __osteocytes___. Cells of the membranous connective tissue that lie outside the developing bone give rise to the outer covering for the bone, the __periosteum____.

Endochondral bone formation: Most of the bones of the skeleton fall into this category. They first develop as ___hyaline___ _cartilage_ models and are then replaced with bone. Cartilage tissue is invaded by blood vessels and _osteoblasts_ that first form spongy bone at the primary ossification center in the diaphysis. Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum lay down compact bone outside the spongy bone. __Secondary___ ossification centers appear later in the epiphyses. A band of hyaline cartilage, the __epiphyseal__ plate, forms between the two ossification centers.

Layers of cartilage cells undergoing mitosis make up the epiphyseal plate. ___Osteoclasts____ break down the calcified matrix and are replaced with bone-building ___osteoblasts____ that deposit bone in place of calcified cartilage. Epiphyseal plates are responsible for increasing the _length of bones, while increases in __thickness__ are due to intramembranous ossification underneath the periosteum. A medullary cavity forms in the region of the diaphysis due to the activity of the cells called _osteoclasts___. Epiphyseal plate: What happens to the epiphyseal plate at adulthood? The ossification centers meet, and the epiphyseal plate ossifies.

Skeletal System: Bone Functions: Describe the role the skeletal system plays in each of the following functions. Support: Bones support the weight of the body and structures such as the head and face

Protection: Bones protect delicate organs such as the brain, spinal cord, heart and lungs

Muscle attachment– movement: Bones act as levers to which muscles are attached

Blood cell production: Blood cells are produced within red bone marrow

Storage of minerals: Minerals such as calcium and phosphorus, etc. are stored in bone matrix

What are some of the various tissues that are contained within bone? Bones also contain nerves and blood vessels 2 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Divisions of the Skeletal System: The __axial_____ skeleton consists of the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column (vertebrae and intervertebral disks), and thorax (ribs and sternum). The __appendicular ______skeleton consists of the pectoral girdle (scapulae and clavicles), upper limbs (humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges), pelvic girdle (coxal bones articulating with the sacrum), and lower limbs (femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges).

The Bones and Markings of the Skeleton: The skull is made up of 22 bones, including 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones. Name and locate the 8 cranial bones. Be familiar with their markings and processes, such as the foramina, sinuses, condyles, sutures, processes and fossae.

What is the opening for the ear called? External acoustic meatus Name and locate the 14 facial bones. Which two make up the checks? Zygomatic bones Which two form the nasal septum? Vomer and ethmoid Which two form the hard palate? Palatine bones and the maxillae Which two form the zygomatic arch? Zygomatic bone and the temporal bone Which two contain the teeth? Maxillae and mandible What are nasal conchae? Fragile, scroll-like bones attached to lateral wall of nasal cavity What are fontanels? Soft spots in the skull of a newborn baby, in which the intramembranous ossification of the skull bones is not yet complete. Vertebral Column: The vertebral column, from skull to pelvis, forms the vertical axis of the skeleton. It is composed of vertebrae separated by intervertebral disks. What is the drum shaped part of the vertebrae called that supports the weight of the head and trunk? The body of the vertebra What is the name of the two lateral processes? Transverse processes What is their function? They are attachment sites for tendons and ligaments. What is the name of the dorsal process? Spinous process

Name the top two vertebrae: Atlas and axis How can you tell the cervical vertebrae from the rest of them? Cervical vertebra are smaller and have transverse foramina. What distinguishes the thoracic vertebrae from the rest? They have lateral facets on the side of the body that articulate with the ribs. How many lumbar vertebrae are there? Five What is unique about the sacral vertebrae? They fuse together to form a triangular-shaped bone What is the anatomical name for the tail bone? Coccyx Thoracic Cage: What bones make up the thoracic cage? Ribs and sternum 3 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. How many pairs of true ribs are there? 7 pairs How many pairs of false ribs are there? 5 pairs The sternum is made up of the _manubrium_, _body_ and _xiphoid process_.

Pectoral Girdle: The pectoral girdle makes an incomplete ring that supports the upper limbs The clavicle can be recognized because it forms a/an _S_- shape. The scapula is divided by a ___spine__. What is the function of the acromion process? To articulate with the clavicle Of the coracoid process? Attachment site for muscle tendons and ligaments What is the name of the fossa that articulates with the humerus? Glenoid cavity Upper Limb: Bones of the upper limb form the framework for the arm, forearm, and hand. Humerus: Where is the head of the humerus? At the proximal end What is its function? Articulates with scapula The humerus articulates with the radius at the _capitulum__, and with the ulna at the _trochlea_. Name the two fossae of the humerus: Coronoid and olecranon fossae Name the processes near the head of the humerus: Greater tubercle and lesser tubercle

Radius: The ___radius_____ is located on the lateral (thumb) side of the forearm. What is the purpose of the flattened head of the radius? To articulate with the humerus The radius contains the radial _tuberosity_ and the __styloid__ process.

Ulna: The ulna is the longer of the two bones making up the forearm and has a __trochlear_ notch that articulates with the humerus. What are the 2 processes of the ulna that participate in the elbow joint? Olecranon and coronoid processes What is the name of the notch on the ulna? Radial notch What is unusual about the location of the head of the ulna? It is at the bottom (distal end) of the bone

Hand: The wrist consists of 8 carpal_ bones. The hand has 5 _metacarpals_ and the bones of fingers are called _phalanges. How many bones does each finger have? 3 The thumb? 2

Pelvic Girdle: The pelvic girdle consists of the two coxal bones and the sacrum; it supports the trunk of the body on the lower limbs. The largest and most superior portion of the coxal bone is the _ilium__. It joins the sacrum at the __sacroiliac____ joint. Describe this bone: It is large and fan-shaped, and flares outward.

The _ischium_ forms the L-shaped portion that supports weight during sitting.

The ___pubis______comprises the anterior portion of the coxal bones and articulates at the __symphysis_ pubis____ with fibrocartilage between the bones. What is the name of the large foramen of each coxal bone? Obtuator foramen Be familiar with the differences in the male and female pelves.

4 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Lower Limb: The bones of the lower limb provide the framework for the thigh, lower leg, and foot. The __femur___, or thighbone, extends from the hip to the knee and is the longest bone in the body. Its head articulates with the _acetabulum__; it articulates with the tibia at the _medial__and _lateral condyles. Other features of the femur include the fovea __capitis_, neck, and greater and lesser _trochanters_.

The knee cap is known as the _patella___.

The __tibia__ (shinbone) supports the weight of the body and articulates with the femur and with the __tarsal______bones of the foot. Its anterior ___tibial tuberosity_ is the point of attachment for the patellar ligament. Other features include the _medial malleolus_ (inner ankle).

The _fibula_ is a slender bone lying lateral on the lower leg; it does not bear body weight. The ___lateral malleolus______forms the outer ankle.

Foot: The ankle is composed of seven __tarsal__ bones. The __talus__ articulates with the tibia and fibula. The __calcaneus__ supports the body weight and attaches to a large tendon. The instep of the foot consists of five __metatarsal____ bones and provides an arch. Each toe is made up of three __phalanges__, with the exception of the great toe, which lacks a __middle phalanx__.

Joints and Articulations: Joints (articulations) are the functional junctions between bones. Joints can be classified according to the degree of movement possible and can be immovable, slightly movable, or freely movable. Joints can also classified according to the type of tissue that binds them together.

Fibrous joints: Held close together by dense connective tissue and are immovable (sutures of skull) or slightly movable (joint between the distal tibia and fibula). A fibrous joint between two flat bones of the skull is called a _suture_.

Cartilaginous joints: Hyaline cartilage or disks of fibrocartilage unite the bones in ___cartilaginous______joints. Give two examples of this kind of joint: Symphysis pubis; first rib with sternum

Synovial Joints: Most joints of the skeleton are _synovial_ joints, which are more complex than fibrous or cartilaginous joints. What is the articular end of this kind of joint covered with? Hyaline cartilage These joints are enclosed in a joint capsule containing __synovial__ fluid. Some of these joints contain shock-absorbing pads of fibrocartilage called __menisci___ and may have fluid-filled sacs called ___bursae_. What is an inflammation of these sacs called? Bursitis

There are several types of synovial joints, named for the shape and type of movement of the joint. 5 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

A __ball-and-socket__ joint consists of a bone with a rounded head articulating with the cup-shaped cavity of another bone; a very wide range of motion is possible. Give two examples of this type of joint: Hip and shoulder joints

A __condylar_ joint consists of an ovoid condyle fitting into an elliptical cavity, also permitting a variety of motions. Give an example of this type of joint: Metacarpal bone articulating with phalanx of finger

Gliding_ joints occur where articulating surfaces are nearly flat or slightly curved, allowing a back-and-forth motion. Give an example of this type: Joints of wrists and ankle

In a __hinge joint, a convex surface fits into a concave surface; movement is in one plane only. Give an example of this type of joint: Elbow; joints between phalanges of hand

In a __pivot__ joint , a cylindrical surface rotates within a ring of bone and fibrous tissue. Give an example of this type of joint: Joint between proximal ends of radius and ulna, dens of axis rotating within atlas

A __saddle___ joint forms where articulating surfaces have both concave and convex areas, permitting a wide range of movements. Name one example of this type: Joint between trapezium and metacarpal of the thumb

Types of Joint Movements When a muscle contracts, its fibers pull its movable end, called the __insertion_, toward its stationary end, called the _origin_, causing movement at a joint.

These terms describe movements that occur at joints: Bending of parts at a joint, or _flexion_, is the opposite of straightening of parts at a joint, or _extension_.

Extension of a part beyond normal anatomical position is called _hyperextension_.

Movement at the ankle, bringing the foot closer to the shin, or pointing the toes upward, is called _dorsiflexion_, while movement at the ankle, bringing the foot farther from the shin, or pointing the toes downward, is called _plantar flexion_.

_Abduction_ is the movement of a part away from the midline, while _adduction_ is the movement of a part toward the midline.

Movement of a part around an axis is called _rotation_, while movement of a part in a circular path is called _circumduction_.

6 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces backward or downward, or _pronation_, is the opposite of rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces forward or upward, or _supination_.

Turning the foot so the plantar surface faces medially, or _inversion_, is the opposite of turning of the foot so the plantar surface faces laterally, or _eversion_.

_Protraction_ is the movement of a part forward, while _retraction_ is the movement of a part backward.

_Elevation_ is the raising of a part of the body, while _depression_ is the lowering of a part.

7 Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.