Review Materials AP EURO
Art and Music Review
Renaissance Art · post-impressionism- return to · naturalism & individualism form & structure · Classical influences (emulate) (Seurat, Cezanne) · Linear accuracy Chiaroscuro · music: Debussy & dissonance · to Vatican (Michelangelo) · north (Durer, Grune) woodcuts The Twentieth Century · architecture brings domes & · Cubism- Picasso columns · Dada- irrationality (WWI) · music: the mass (more harmony) · realism- absolutely as it is · Pop art Baroque · Surrealism- Dali · chiaroscuro in abundance · Existentialism (Sarte, Bouvier) · grand, breathtaking, designed for · Orwell response · Popular music · emotion for RCs, control for Jazz, Blues, Rock and Roll Prots · archit: grand scale, ornamentation · music: Bach (Concerto, Sonata) & Vivaldi
Rococo · Baroque on smaller scale · Music: Classical Style (reason+structure) · Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven · Arch: neoclassical · painting keeps colors focuses on delights · Humanitarianism & Hogarth
Romanticism · resist patronage, geist-spirit · question all from before, free to experiment · visual arts: break classical form, fragment images to dramatize · Romantic poets Byron Shelly · Archtecture: borrow, Federal, Gothic · Music: extend classical, more complex harmony & rhythm. Brahms, Chopin, Strauss
Modernism · diffusion of styles · realism- capture real essence · impressionism- effect of light & atmosphere (Monet, Renoir, Cassat, etc.) Authors
CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, Miguel de Born: September 29, 1547Died: April 23, 1616
It was while in prison, however that Cervantes first conceived of the allegorical story of the adventures of Don Quixote, an idealistic gentleman obsessed with chivalrous deeds, and his realistic companion Sancho Panza. In 1605, the year when the first part of the story, The History of the Valorous and Wittie Knight-Errant Quixote of the Mancha, was published, Cervantes was living in poverty with his sisters, his niece and his illegitimate daughter Isabel Saavedra in Valladolid. Unfortunately while the story and its subsequent second part were immensely popular at the times of their publication and ever since, Cervantes did not ever profit significantly from the text, partly from poor management.
Don Quixote is deemed by many to be the first modern novel, holding a position of significant influence on ensuing prose fiction. Its enduring themes have since inspired, and have been represented in, operas, poems, films, a ballet and a modern day American musical (Man of La Mancha), as well as in the artwork of Honore Daumier and Gustave Dore. In print it has appeared in all modern languages, in over 700 editions.
In 1613 Cervantes published Novelas Ejemplares, a collection of short stories, followed by the second part of Don Quixote in 1615. His last work, Persiles y Sigismunda, another allegorical novel in whose prologue he foreshadows his own death, was finished just four days before he died in Madrid.
DICKENS, CharlesBorn: February 7, 1812Died: June 9 1870, in Gadshill, London, England
Charles Dickens, who often used the pseudonym Boz, was the most popular English novelist and short- story writer of all time. His novels reflect his own experiences as a poor child in London and Kent. Because his father was imprisoned for debts, Dickens was forced into work at the age of nine. Although he attended school for two years, he was mostly self-educated. His work is heavily influenced by the works of his favourite authors, Henry Fielding and Tobias Smollett. He also loved to read Gothic novels.
With the success of Sketches by Boz, published in 1836, he married Catherine Hogarth. The couple stayed together for twenty-two years and had ten children. However, they eventually separated over Dickens' relationship with actress Ellen Ternan.
Like Sketches by Boz, Dickens continued to write a monthly series of comic vignettes with the Pickwick Papers. Critics feel that, because the works were published as a series, Dickens' work is less coherent than it might have been if he had been allowed to write his texts as more unifed entities.
With Dombey and Son and Oliver Twist, Dickens' style began to move away from comedy toward darker themes. He was one of the first to experiment with the use of symbolism to heighten narrative (for example, foggy streets were used to foreshadow an ominous event).
The most emphasis, however, has been placed on the works that Dickens wrote in the late period, such as Hard Times in 1854, Tale of Two Cities in 1859, and Great Expectations in 1861. At this time, Dickens' had developed his own unique style and was a master at depicting the human condition.
During his life, Dickens remained involved in humanitarian causes. He was involved in many charities and advocated the abolition of slavery. A stroke caused his death in 1870 and he was buried at Westminster Abbey. DOSTOEVSKY, Fyodor Mikhailovich)Born: November 11, 1821 Died: February 9, 1881
Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevesky was born in Moscow to impoverished parents. While his father was descended from the Russian nobility and his mother was from a wealthy merchant family, the political upheaval in Russia had reduced them to the economic status of the working class.
Dostoevesky's father worked at a hospital for the poor, and consequently the family, including Dostoevesky's four brothers and two sisters, lived on the hospital grounds. With sickness and death around him, Dostoevesky developed a familiarity with human suffering that may have prepared him for the tragedies he would experience throughout his life.
Dostoevesky's first novel, Poor Folk, was published in 1846 and at this time, he began to associate with a secret revolutionary group called the Petrashevski Circle. As a result, he was arrested and imprisoned for conspiracy. He was imprisoned for four years and spent another four years in the Siberian Army before being released. The physical hardships and poor living conditions contributed to his problems with epilepsy which would continue to plague him for the rest of his life.
The novel Crime and Punishment was published in 1866. It was immediately popular and Dostoevesky's fame spread quickly throughout Russia. However, it wasn't until the book's translation into English, after his death, that he achieved much of a reputation outside of Russia. Crime and Punishment, a story of sin, suffering and redemption, was Dostoevesky's first successful novel since his imprisonment and it reflected his changed attitudes. The liberal attitudes of youth had been replaced by the more conservative attitudes of the middle-aged.
Dostoevesky's last work, and also one of his greatest, was The Brothers Karamazov. Within the context of a tragedy, the story includes tales of prophecy, abstract philosophical discussions, and psychological analysis of human nature. Following the style of Crime and Punishment, The Brothers Karamazov is occasionally wordy and rarely offers solutions but perpetually raises disturbing questions.
Much of Dostoevesky's writing focuses on the topic of morality, and frequently, within the context of crime, explores acts of transgression or an investigation of the religious experience. While he never completely resolved the questions his writing raised, he professed the belief that a person, guilty of an evil act, could be cleansed through suffering.
GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang vonBorn: August 28, 1749, Died: March 22, 1832
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a poet, dramatist, philosopher, scientist and a leader of the German intellectual renaissance of the late eighteenth century. He is noted for his ability to understand human individuality and expresses a modern view of humanity's relationships.
Goethe's most noted work is Faust, which he published only a year before his death. Based on the legends of a wandering magician, Faust is an enduring work that attempts to understand the existence of man. The work has been translated numerous times, but the most influential were the translations completed by the English poet Carlyle. Through Carlyle, Goethe influenced a generation of Victorian writers.
HUGO, VictorBorn: February 26, 1802, Died: May 22, 1885, in Paris
Victor Hugo was a prolific French poet, novelist, and playwright. He is noted for his contributions to romantic movement. In France, he is best remembered for his poetry while in North America, he is remembered for his novels.
With the success in 1831 of The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Hugo became a prominent social figure in France, was elected to the French Academy in 1841, and was raised to the Chamber of Peers in 1845. Over time, he gradually shifted his political views away from Napoleon's side. He produced little during this time, due to his active political life and the shock over the drowning deaths of his daughter and son-in-law.
Because of his opposition to Napolean, Hugo was exiled for nineteen years when Napolean obtained power in 1851. He spent most of his time in the Channel Islands, taking both his family and his mistress, Juliette, with him. During the exile, he was extremely productive, publishing both poetry and three novels. The best known of these novels is Les Misérables, which sold over seven million copies by the end of the century. His wife died in 1868. Hugo returned to Paris in 1870 and continued an active life until his death in 1885.
JOYCE, James Augustine AloysiusBorn: February 2, 1882 Died: January 13, 1941,
It was the 1922 publication of his next work, Ulysses, however, which brought Joyce international fame. In this text based on the themes of Homer's Odyssey, Joyce further developed his characteristic use of symbols and 'stream of consciousness' writing which he had used in his earlier book Portrait. This technique, which involved 'recording' all the thoughts and feelings of a character, was a significant development for realist fiction and character portrayal. The book follows a day in the life of two characters who eventually meet. Ulysses received a widely varied and at times violent reception; while some felt the book depicted a rather squalid existence in Dublin, others felt the book explored fundamental human feelings and experiences.
Joyce continued writing and published two more collections of verse (Pomes Penyeach and Collected Poems) before his last and most complex work, Finnegan's Wake, was published in 1939. He furthered his experimentation with language in this book, attempting to represent in fiction a cyclical theory of history. Joyce died in 1941 in Zurich, where after living in Paris for twenty years, he had moved when Germans invaded France during World War II.
KEATS, JohnBorn: October 29 (or 31), 1795 Died: February 23, 1821
Keats is widely regarded as the most talented of the immortal English romantic poets. Of all the words he wrote, the most ironic exist in his epitaph: "Here lies one whose name was writ in water."
Once again his schoolmate, Clarke, helped Keats in the capital. Clarke showed Keats' verses to Leigh Hunt, the influential publisher and editor. Hunt was known for championing young authors and introduced Keats and his contemporary, Shelley, to the public. Keats' first important poem, On First Looking into Chapman's Homer was published in Leigh Hunt's newspaper, The Examiner, in 1815.
However, the association with Hunt proved detrimental. The reviews of Keats' first anthology, Poems published in 1817, labeled his poetry as Cockney. In fact the entire circle of young poets Hunt was promoting was unfavorably portrayed as members of the Cockney School, indicating the lower class from which they came. Keats' poetry eventually won over many of these critics but his humble background was an impediment he would constantly struggle with for the rest of his career.
After the publication of his first book, which was considered to be promising, but immature, he settled on the Isle of Wight and began work on Endymion, published in 1818. It is considered the most classical of Keats' work. It displays many of the traits of Greek art in a time of its a renaissance in England.
Following Endymion, Keats explored the Scottish highlands on foot, accompanied by his friend Charles Armitage Brown. That summer Keats developed tuberculosis. He may have come in contact with the disease from his brother Tom who died late in 1818.
After Tom's death, and his other brother George and his wife had moved to America, Keats went to live with Brown at Hampstead and began work on Hyperion. During his stay at Hampstead Keats succumbed to advanced stages of tuberculosis and love. As Dante was inspired by Beatrice Portinari, Keats was inspired by Fanny Brawne. The seventeen year old beauty lived nearby, and continues to live in his love poems such as The Eve of St. Agnes, La Belle Dame sans Merci, and the ode To a Nightingale. His passion spawned other poems such as On a Grecian Urn, To Psyche, and On Melancholy.
In February 1820 he realized he was dying and published his final work, Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems. In September, he sailed for Rome with his friend and artist, Joseph Severn. He died there and was buried in the Roman Protestant cemetery. KIPLING, RudyardBorn: December 30, 1865 Died: January 18, 1936
Kipling was a British journalist and author who is best known for his tales of adventure. He was the first Englishman awarded the Nobel Prize for literature.
His first publication, Departmental Ditties in 1886, was consumed chiefly in England by an audience eager for impressions of the savage Indian subcontinent as viewed from a distance. With the release of Plain Tales From the Hills in 1888 he seemed destined for greatness. The Light that Failed, published in 1890, was also successful, and Kim, published in 1901, is generally considered his masterpiece.
Kipling's India has often been called England's India. Through his writings he expressed optimistic notions of colonialism. He believed the responsibility of England was to oversee under- developed countries. He justified for many what has been called the "white man's burden," and showed how it could be efficiently implemented with dignity.
He was a prolific and consistent writer pouring out works for young audiences such as The Jungle Books in 1894 and 1895, Captains Courageous in 1897, and The Just-So Stories in 1902. Rather than categorizing his work it is more useful to regard Kipling's talent as lying in his ability to master a number of genres.
He received many honors such as the doctor of law degree from McGill University in 1899, the doctorate of letters from Oxford in 1907, and from Cambridge a year later. Further, in 1907 he became the first Englishman to win the Nobel Prize for literature. It confirmed his greatness was recognized beyond the confines of the English- speaking world.
MILTON, JohnBorn: December 9, 1608 Died: November 8, 1674
John Milton is considered by some the greatest English writer after Shakespeare. He worked during the transition between the Elizabethan and Jacobite periods.
Following his graduation with a master of arts in 1632, Milton spent several years living with his parents. During this time, he attacked the clergy in Lycidas and met Galileo while traveling through Italy. In 1643, he married Mary Powell. They separated within a few weeks, but reconciled years later. Together, they had three children before Powell's death in 1652. Several essays resulted from his marital problems, including The Doctrine And Discipline Of Divorce.
Milton was actively involved in the government. He wrote propaganda pieces against King Charles I and became a translator of diplomatic correspondence for Oliver Cromwell. He married Katherine Woodcock in 1656 and, after Katherine's death, Elizabeth Minshull in 1663.
He became blind later in his career, but this did not stop him from writing the epic poem, Paradise Lost, which was published in 1667. This is considered the greatest epic poem in modern literature. The work was influenced by the writings of Homer and Virgil and borrowed mythical figures such as Prometheus.
For two hundred years, Paradise Lost was considered a comprehensive theological interpretation of the bible. Today, it is used as the best poetic synthesis of Christianity. Milton followed this work with two similar poems: Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes.
Milton died of gout and was buried beside his father in St. Giles, Cripplegate.
SHELLEY, Mary WollstonecraftBorn: August 30, 1797 Died: February 1, 1851
Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley is best noted for the popular and time-honored novel, Frankenstein. Although she wrote other novels, travel journals, and verse, none of her works achieved the same success as this terrifying novel.
Wollstonecraft's novel, Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus, was published about this time in 1818. Even though Wollstonecraft was only twenty at the time she wrote the novel, it was both a popular and critical success, and continues to be represented in film and theater productions. Many interpretations of the novel exist, but when viewed in terms of Wollstonecraft's life, the story depicts the cruelty of a society that persecutes outcasts. In 1822, days before Shelley's thirtieth birthday, he drowned while sailing his boat the Don Juan. Mary edited his Posthumous Poems and Poetical Works for publication in 1824 and 1839, respectively. Although her finances were secure after she received the inheritance of her father-in-law, Timothy Shelley, she did not have the strength to complete a planned project of her husband's biography.
TENNYSON, Alfred, LordBorn: August 6, 1809 Died: October 6, 1892
Lord Alfred Tennyson is recognized as a great Victorian and Romantic era poet. His style of poetry is extremely diversified. His work was influenced by the writings of Lord Byron.
His first major work, Poems, Chiefly Lyrical, was published in 1830, the same year that he joined the Spanish revolutionary army. Two years later, he published his second work, Poems, which included well-known pieces such as The Lady of Shallot. Disturbed by the death of his close friend, Arthur Hallman, Tennyson published virtually no work for the next ten years. He did, however, start working on a tribute to Hallman. In Memoriam was published in 1850 and is one of his greatest poems.
A two-volume work, Poems was published in 1842, ending his literary silence. With this publication came popularity among the public. About this time, Tennyson published The Princess, a work that advocates women's rights.
TOLSTOY, LeoBorn: August 28, 1828 Died: November 7, 1910
Tolstoy, a Russian author and moral philosopher, is considered one of the world's greatest novelists. He is known as the master of the realistic psychological novel. His doctrines of non-violence profoundly influenced Mahatma Gandhi, among others, and eventually a new sect of Christianity known as Tolstoyism evolved.
With a structure regarded by many as perfect, War and Peace combines complex characters in a turbulent historical setting. It is regarded as one of the most influential books on the Western novel because of its great technical achievements.
Tolstoy followed this with another major novel, Anna Karenina during 1873-1876. It is the story of the tragic love of Anna Karenina, and, concurrently, a philosophy of life dramatized through the happy marriage of Konstantin Levin. Anna Karenina continues on moral themes Tolstoy raised in War and Peace. In this book he breached the topic of the ultimate meaning and purpose of human existence.
His views on religion and social reform are articulated in A Confession, written from 1878-1879 and published in 1882, and What is Art? published in 1897. Tolstoy said he endured spiritual crisis in his search for an answer to the meaning of life. Eventually he turned to a form of Christian anarchism and devoted himself to social reform. He believed the role of art was to foster the moral good among humanity. In the later text he developed an aesthetic system, later known as Tolstoyism, that gave art a religious and moral function.
He continued his ethical search for truth in a number of masterpieces such as The Death of Ivan Ilyich, The Kreutzer Sonata, Master and Man, and his last great novel, The Resurrection. Never didactic, his works stand on could stand on their creative merits alone. Among his massive collection of writings he also mastered the genre of drama with the play The Power of Darkness in 1888.
The last twenty years of Tolstoy's life were acted out under the spotlight of his own ethics. After trying to live up to his own teachings and often quarreling with his wife because of them, he eventually left home after a argument and died of pneumonia two days later. A literary giant and a moral pillar he died alone in the remote railway station in Astapovo.
VERNE, JulesBorn: February 8, 1828 Died: March 24, 1905
The popularity of his first real success, Five Weeks in a Balloon, published in 1863, inspired Verne to begin writing the works that would make him the father of science fiction. His novels complemented the rising late nineteenth century fascination with science and invention. They make extraordinary predictions about future scientific or technological developments. Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, published in 1870, for example, familiarized the reader with the submarine long before such watercraft were invented. Motion pictures, helicopters, and even air conditioning are other achievements that he forecast in his books. Although often neglected by literary scholars, Jules Verne attained a tremendous following. Novels such as Journey to the Center of the Earth, published in 1864, and Around the World in Eighty Days, published in 1873, gained him worldwide popularity and, in 1892, the French government made him a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor.
WOLLSTONECRAFT, MaryBorn: April 27, 1759 Died: September 10, 1797
Upon returning to London to once again work for Johnson, Wollstonecraft became involved with the intellectual group which included Thomas Paine, William Blake, William Woodsworth and Henry Fuseli. The group also included William Godwin, whom she married in 1797. The union was a brief one however, as shortly after the birth of their daughter Mary (later to become the author of Frankenstein), Wollstonecraft died of septicemia. Her text Vindication of the Rights of Woman, however, lives on as a classic and as one of the earliest examples of feminist theory. Thinkers
Science
Copernican system, first modern European theory of planetary motion that was heliocentric, i.e., that placed the sun motionless at the center of the solar system with all the planets, including the earth, revolved around it. Copernicus developed his theory in the early 16th cent. from a study of ancient astronomical records. He retained the ancient belief that the planets move in perfect circles and therefore, like Ptolemy, he was forced to utilize epicycles to explain deviations from uniform motion (see Ptolemaic system). Thus, the Copernican system was technically only a slight improvement over the Ptolemaic system. However, making the solar system heliocentric removed the largest epicycle and explained retrograde motion in a natural way. By liberating astronomy from a geocentric viewpoint, Copernicus paved the way for Kepler's laws of planetary motion and Newton's embracing theory of universal gravitation, which describes the force that holds the planets in their orbits.
Ptolemaic system Pronounced As: tolmaik , historically the most influential of the geocentric cosmological theories, i.e., theories that placed the earth motionless at the center of the universe with all celestial bodies revolving around it (see cosmology). The system is named for the Greco-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy (fl. 2d cent. A.D.); it dominated astronomy until the advent of the heliocentric Copernican system in the 16th cent.
Kepler's laws, three mathematical statements formulated by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler that accurately describe the revolutions of the planets around the sun. Kepler's laws opened the way for the development of celestial mechanics, i.e., the application of the laws of physics to the motions of heavenly bodies. His work shows the hallmarks of great scientific theories: simplicity and universality. Summary of Kepler's Laws The first law states that the shape of each planet's orbit is an ellipse with the sun at one focus. The sun is thus off-center in the ellipse and the planet's distance from the sun varies as the planet moves through one orbit. The second law specifies quantitatively how the speed of a planet increases as its distance from the sun decreases. If an imaginary line is drawn from the sun to the planet, the line will sweep out areas in space that are shaped like pie slices. The second law states that the area swept out in equal periods of time is the same at all points in the orbit. When the planet is far from the sun and moving slowly, the pie slice will be long and narrow; when the planet is near the sun and moving fast, the pie slice will be short and fat. The third law establishes a relation between the average distance of the planet from the sun (the semimajor axis of the ellipse) and the time to complete one revolution around the sun (the period): the ratio of the cube of the semimajor axis to the square of the period is the same for all the planets including the earth.
Galileo
Galileo Galilei) Pronounced As: galilo; gälleo gälle , 1564-1642, great Italian astronomer, mathematician, and physicist. By his persistent investigation of natural laws he laid foundations for modern experimental science, and by the construction of astronomical telescopes he greatly enlarged humanity's vision and conception of the universe. He gave a mathematical formulation to many physical laws.
Contributions to Physics His early studies, at the Univ. of Pisa, were in medicine, but he was soon drawn to mathematics and physics. It is said that at the age of 19, in the cathedral of Pisa, he timed the oscillations of a swinging lamp by means of his pulse beats and found the time for each swing to be the same, no matter what the amplitude of the oscillation, thus discovering the isochronal nature of the pendulum, which he verified by experiment. Galileo soon became known through his invention of a hydrostatic balance and his treatise on the center of gravity of solid bodies. While professor (1589-92) at the Univ. of Pisa, he initiated his experiments concerning the laws of bodies in motion, which brought results so contradictory to the accepted teachings of Aristotle that strong antagonism was aroused. He found that bodies do not fall with velocities proportional to their weights, but he did not arrive at the correct conclusion (that the velocity is proportional to time and independent of both weight and density) until perhaps 20 years later. The famous story in which Galileo is said to have dropped weights from the Leaning Tower of Pisa is apocryphal. The actual experiment was performed by Simon Stevin several years before Galileo's work. However, Galileo did find that the path of a projectile is a parabola, and he is credited with conclusions foreshadowing Newton's laws of motion.
Contributions to Astronomy In 1592 he began lecturing on mathematics at the Univ. of Padua, where he remained for 18 years. There, in 1609, having heard reports of a simple magnifying instrument put together by a lens-grinder in Holland, he constructed the first complete astronomical telescope. Exploring the heavens with his new aid, Galileo discovered that the moon, shining with reflected light, had an uneven, mountainous surface and that the Milky Way was made up of numerous separate stars. In 1610 he discovered the four largest satellites of Jupiter, the first satellites of a planet other than Earth to be detected. He observed and studied the oval shape of Saturn (the limitations of his telescope prevented the resolving of Saturn's rings), the phases of Venus, and the spots on the sun. His investigations confirmed his acceptance of the Copernican theory of the solar system; but he did not openly declare a doctrine so opposed to accepted beliefs until 1613, when he issued a work on sunspots. Meanwhile, in 1610, he had gone to Florence as philosopher and mathematician to Cosimo II de' Medici, grand duke of Tuscany, and as mathematician at the Univ. of Pisa.
Conflict with the Church In 1611 he visited Rome to display the telescope to the papal court. In 1616 the system of Copernicus was denounced as dangerous to faith, and Galileo, summoned to Rome, was warned not to uphold it or teach it. But in 1632 he published a work written for the nonspecialist, Dialogo … sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo [dialogue on the two chief systems of the world] (tr. 1661; rev. and ed. by Giorgio de Santillana, 1953; new tr. by Stillman Drake, 1953, rev. 1967); that work, which supported the Copernican system as opposed to the Ptolemaic, marked a turning point in scientific and philosophical thought. Again summoned to Rome, he was tried (1633) by the Inquisition and brought to the point of making an abjuration of all beliefs and writings that held the sun to be the central body and the earth a moving body revolving with the other planets about it. Since 1761, accounts of the trial have concluded with the statement that Galileo, as he arose from his knees, exclaimed sotto voce, E pur si muove [nevertheless it does move]. That statement was long considered legendary, but it was discovered written on a portrait of Galileo completed c.1640. After the Inquisition trial Galileo was sentenced to an enforced residence in Siena. He was later allowed to live in seclusion at Arcetri near Florence, and it is likely that Galileo's statement of defiance was made as he left Siena for Arcetri. In spite of infirmities and, at the last, blindness, Galileo continued the pursuit of scientific truth until his death. His last book, Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences (tr., 3d ed. 1939, repr. 1952), which contains most of his contributions to physics, appeared in 1638. In 1979 Pope John Paul II asked that the 1633 conviction be annulled. However, since teaching the Copernican theory had been banned in 1616, it was technically possible that a new trial could find Galileo guilty; thus it was suggested that the 1616 prohibition be reversed, and this happened in 1992. The pope concluded that while 17th-century theologians based their decision on the knowledge available to them at the time, they had wronged Galileo by not recognizing the difference between a question relating to scientific investigation and one falling into the realm of doctrine of the faith.
Newton, Sir Isaac
Newton studied at Cambridge and was professor there from 1669 to 1701, succeeding his teacher Isaac Barrow as Lucasian professor of mathematics. His most important discoveries were made during the two-year period from 1664 to 1666, when the university was closed and he retired to his hometown of Woolsthorpe. At that time he discovered the law of universal gravitation, began to develop the calculus, and discovered that white light is composed of all the colors of the spectrum. These findings enabled him to make fundamental contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and theoretical and experimental physics.
The Principia Newton summarized his discoveries in terrestrial and celestial mechanics in his Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica [mathematical principles of natural philosophy] (1687), one of the greatest milestones in the history of science. In it he showed how his principle of universal gravitation provided an explanation both of falling bodies on the earth and of the motions of planets, comets, and other bodies in the heavens. The first part of the Principia is devoted to dynamics and includes Newton's three famous laws of motion; the second part to fluid motion and other topics; and the third part to the system of the world, i.e., the unification of terrestrial and celestial mechanics under the principle of gravitation and the explanation of Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Although Newton used the calculus to discover his results, he explained them in the Principia by use of older geometric methods.
Einstein, Albert
Einstein lived as a boy in Munich and Milan, continued his studies at the cantonal school at Aarau, Switzerland, and was graduated (1900) from the Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich. Later he became a Swiss citizen. He was examiner (1902-9) at the patent office, Bern. During this period he obtained his doctorate (1905) at the Univ. of Zürich, evolved the special theory of relativity, explained the photoelectric effect, and studied the motion of atoms, on which he based his explanation of Brownian movement. In 1909 his work had already attracted attention among scientists, and he was offered an adjunct professorship at the Univ. of Zürich. He resigned that position in 1910 to become full professor at the German Univ., Prague, and in 1912 he accepted the chair of theoretical physics at the Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich.
By 1913 Einstein had won international fame and was invited by the Prussian Academy of Sciences to come to Berlin as titular professor of physics and as director of theoretical physics at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute. He assumed these posts in 1914 and subsequently resumed his German citizenship. For his work in theoretical physics, notably on the photoelectric effect, he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics. His property was confiscated (1934) by the Nazi government because he was Jewish, and he was deprived of his German citizenship. He had previously accepted (1933) a post at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, which he held until his death in 1955. An ardent pacifist, Einstein was long active in the cause of world peace; however, in 1939, at the request of a group of scientists, he wrote to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt to stress the urgency of investigating the possible use of atomic energy in bombs. In 1940 he became an American citizen.
Special and General Theories of Relativity Einstein's early work on the theory of relativity (1905) dealt only with systems or observers in uniform (unaccelerated) motion with respect to one another and is referred to as the special theory of relativity; among other results, it demonstrated that two observers moving at great speed with respect to each other will disagree about measurements of length and time intervals made in each other's systems, that the speed of light is the limiting speed of all bodies having mass, and that mass and energy are equivalent. In 1911 he asserted the equivalence of gravitation and inertia, and in 1916 he completed his mathematical formulation of a general theory of relativity that included gravitation as a determiner of the curvature of a space-time continuum. He then began work on his unified field theory, which attempts to explain gravitation, electromagnetism, and subatomic phenomena in one set of laws; the successful development of such a unified theory, however, eluded Einstein.
Photons and the Quantum Theory In addition to the theory of relativity, Einstein is also known for his contributions to the development of the quantum theory. He postulated (1905) light quanta (photons), upon which he based his explanation of the photoelectric effect, and he developed the quantum theory of specific heat. Although he was one of the leading figures in the development of quantum theory, Einstein regarded it as only a temporarily useful structure. He reserved his main efforts for his unified field theory, feeling that when it was completed the quantization of energy and charge would be found to be a consequence of it. Einstein wished his theories to have that simplicity and beauty which he thought fitting for an interpretation of the universe and which he did not find in quantum theory.
Darwin, Charles Robert 1809-82, English naturalist, b. Shrewsbury; grandson of Erasmus Darwin. He firmly established the theory of organic evolution known as Darwinism. He studied medicine at Edinburgh and for the ministry at Cambridge but lost interest in both professions during the training. His interest in natural history led to his friendship with the botanist J. S. Henslow; through him came the opportunity to make a five-year cruise (1831-36) as official naturalist aboard the Beagle. This started Darwin on a career of accumulating and assimilating data that resulted in the formulation of his concept of evolution. He spent the remainder of his life carefully and methodically working over the information from his copious notes and from every other available source. Independently, A. R. Wallace had worked out a theory similar to Darwin's. Both men were exceptionally modest; they first published summaries of their ideas simultaneously in 1858. In 1859, Darwin set forth the structure of his theory and massive support for it in the superbly organized Origin of Species, supplemented and elaborated in his many later books, notably The Descent of Man (1871). Darwin also formulated a theory of the origin of coral reefs.
Darwinism,concept of evolution developed in the mid-19th cent. by Charles Robert Darwin. Darwin's meticulously documented observations led him to question the then current belief in special creation of each species. After years of studying and correlating the voluminous notes he had made as naturalist on H.M.S. Beagle, he was prompted by the submission (1858) of an almost identical theory by A. R. Wallace to present his evidence for the descent of all life from a common ancestral origin; his monumental Origin of Species was published in 1859. Darwin observed (as had Malthus) that although all organisms tend to reproduce in a geometrically increasing ratio, the numbers of a given species remain more or less constant. From this he deduced that there is a continuing struggle for existence, for survival. He pointed out the existence of variations-differences among members of the same species-and suggested that the variations that prove helpful to a plant or an animal in its struggle for existence better enable it to survive and reproduce. These favorable variations are thus transmitted to the offspring of the survivors and spread to the entire species over successive generations. This process he called the principle of natural selection (the expression "survival of the fittest was later coined by Herbert Spencer). In the same way, sexual selection (factors influencing the choice of mates among animals) also plays a part. In developing his theory that the origin and diversification of species results from gradual accumulation of individual modifications, Darwin was greatly influenced by Sir Charles Lyell's treatment of the doctrine of uniformitarianism. Darwin's evidence for evolution rested on the data of comparative anatomy, especially the study of homologous structures in different species and of rudimentary (vestigial) organs; of the recapitulation of past racial history in individual embryonic development; of geographical distribution, extensively documented by Wallace; of the immense variety in forms of plants and animals (to the degree that often one species is not distinct from another); and, to a lesser degree, of paleontology. As originally formulated, Darwinism did not distinguish between acquired characteristics, which are not transmissible by heredity, and genetic variations, which are inheritable. Modern knowledge of heredity-especially the concept of mutation, which provides an explanation of how variations may arise-has supplemented and modified the theory, but in its basic outline Darwinism is now universally accepted by scientists.
Bacon, Francis,
1561-1626, English philosopher, essayist, and statesman, b. London, educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and at Gray's Inn. He was the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord keeper to Queen Elizabeth I. Francis Bacon was a member of Parliament in 1584 and his opposition to Elizabeth's tax program retarded his political advancement; only the efforts of the earl of Essex led Elizabeth to accept him as an unofficial member of her Learned Council. At Essex's trial in 1601, Bacon, putting duty to the state above friendship, assumed an active part in the prosecution-a course for which many have condemned him. With the succession of James I, Bacon's fortunes improved. He was knighted in 1603, became attorney general in 1613, lord keeper in 1617, and lord chancellor in 1618; he was created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St. Albans in 1621. In 1621, accused of accepting bribes as lord chancellor, he pleaded guilty and was fined £40,000, banished from the court, disqualified from holding office, and sentenced to the Tower of London. The banishment, fine, and imprisonment were remitted. Nevertheless, his career as a public servant was ended. He spent the rest of his life writing in retirement. Bacon belongs to both philosophy and literature. He projected a large philosophical work, the Instauratio Magna, but completed only two parts, The Advancement of Learning (1605), later expanded in Latin as De Augmentis Scientiarum (1623), and the Novum Organum (1620). Bacon's contribution to philosophy was his application of the inductive method of modern science. He urged full investigation in all cases, avoiding theories based on insufficient data. He has been widely censured for being too mechanical, failing to carry his investigations to their logical ends, and not staying abreast of the scientific knowledge of his own day. In the 19th cent., Macaulay initiated a movement to restore Bacon's prestige as a scientist. Today his contributions are regarded with considerable respect. In The New Atlantis (1627) he describes a scientific utopia that found partial realization with the organization of the Royal Society in 1660. His Essays (1597-1625), largely aphoristic, are his best-known writings. They are noted for their style and for their striking observations about life.
Descartes, René
Descartes was educated in the Jesuit College at La Flèche and the Univ. of Poitiers, then entered the army of Prince Maurice of Nassau. In 1628 he retired to Holland, where he spent his time in scientific research and philosophic reflection. Even before going to Holland, Descartes had begun his great work, for the essay on algebra and the Compendium musicae probably antedate 1628. But it was with the appearance in 1637 of a group of essays that he first made a name for himself. These writings included the famous Discourse on Method and other essays on optics, meteors, and analytical geometry. In 1649 he was invited by Queen Christina to Sweden, but he was unable to endure the rigors of the northern climate and died not long after arriving in Sweden.
Elements of Cartesian Philosophy It was with the intention of extending mathematical method to all fields of human knowledge that Descartes developed his methodology, the cardinal aspect of his philosophy. He discards the authoritarian system of the scholastics and begins with universal doubt. But there is one thing that cannot be doubted: doubt itself. This is the kernel expressed in his famous phrase, Cogito, ergo sum [I think, therefore I am].
From the certainty of the existence of a thinking being, Descartes passed to the existence of God, for which he offered one proof based on St. Anselm's ontological proof and another based on the first cause that must have produced the idea of God in the thinker. Having thus arrived at the existence of God, he reaches the reality of the physical world through God, who would not deceive the thinking mind by perceptions that are illusions. Therefore, the external world, which we perceive, must exist. He thus falls back on the acceptance of what we perceive clearly and distinctly as being true, and he studies the material world to perceive connections. He views the physical world as mechanistic and entirely divorced from the mind, the only connection between the two being by intervention of God. This is almost complete dualism. The development of Descartes' philosophy is in Meditationes de prima philosophia (1641); his Principia philosophiae (1644) is also very important. His influence on philosophy was immense, and was widely felt in law and theology also. Frequently he has been called the father of modern philosophy, but his importance has been challenged in recent years with the demonstration of his great debt to the scholastics. He influenced the rationalists, and Baruch Spinoza also reflects Descartes's doctrines in some degree. The more direct followers of Descartes, the Cartesian philosophers, devoted themselves chiefly to the problem of the relation of body and soul, of matter and mind. From this came the doctrine of occasionalism, developed by Nicolas Malebranche and Arnold Geulincx.
Major Contributions to Science In science, Descartes discarded tradition and to an extent supported the same method as Francis Bacon, but with emphasis on rationalization and logic rather than upon experiences. In physical theory his doctrines were formulated as a compromise between his devotion to Roman Catholicism and his commitment to the scientific method, which met opposition in the church officials of the day. Mathematics was his greatest interest; building upon the work of others, he originated the Cartesian coordinates and Cartesian curves; he is often said to be the founder of analytical geometry. To algebra he contributed the treatment of negative roots and the convention of exponent notation. He made numerous advances in optics, such as his study of the reflection and refraction of light. He wrote a text on physiology, and he also worked in psychology; he contended that emotion was finally physiological at base and argued that the control of the physical expression of emotion would control the emotions themselves. His chief work on psychology is in his Traité des passions de l'âme (1649).
Philosophers
Machiavelli, Niccolò
A member of the impoverished branch of a distinguished family, he entered (1498) the political service of the Florentine republic and rose rapidly in importance. As defense secretary he substituted (1506) a citizens' militia for the mercenary system then prevailing in Italy. This reform sprang from his conviction, set forth in his major works, that the employment of mercenaries had largely contributed to the political weakness of Italy. Machiavelli became acquainted with power politics through his important diplomatic missions. He met Cesare Borgia twice and was sent by way of Florence to Louis XII of France (1504, 1510), to Pope Julius II (1506), and to Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (1507).
The Medicis' return (1512) to Florence caused his dismissal; in 1513 he was briefly imprisoned and was tortured for his alleged complicity in a plot against the Medici. Machiavelli retired to his country estate, where he wrote his chief works. He humiliated himself before the Medici in a vain attempt to recover office. When, in 1527, the republic was briefly reestablished, Machiavelli was distrusted by many of the republicans, and he died thoroughly disappointed and embittered.
Principal Writings Machiavelli's best-known work, Il Principe [the prince] (1532), describes the means by which a prince may gain and maintain his power. His ideal prince (seemingly modeled on Cesare Borgia) is an amoral and calculating tyrant who would be able to establish a unified Italian state. The last chapter of the work pleads for the eventual liberation of Italy from foreign rule. Interpretations of The Prince vary: it has been viewed as sincere advice, as a plea for political office, as a detached analysis of Italian politics, as evidence of early Italian nationalism, and as political satire on Medici rule. However, the adjective Machiavellian has come to be a synonym for amoral cunning and for justification by power.
Less widely read but more indicative of Machiavelli's politics is his Discorsi sulla prima deca di Tito Livio [discourses on the first 10 books of Livy] (1531). In it Machiavelli expounded a general theory of politics and government that stressed the importance of an uncorrupted political culture and a vigorous political morality. Vaster in conception than The Prince, the Discourses shows clearly Machiavelli's republican principles, which are also reflected in his Istorie Fiorentine [history of Florence] (1532), a historical and literary masterpiece, entirely modern in concept.
Other works include Dell' arte della guerra [on the art of war] (1521), which viewed military problems in relation to politics, and numerous reports and brief works. He also wrote many poems and plays, notably the lively and ribald comedy Mandragola (1524). His correspondence has been preserved and is of great interest.
Spinoza, Baruch or Benedict Political Philosophy Politically, Spinoza and Hobbes again share assumptions about the social contract: Right derives from power, and the contract binds only as long as it is to one's advantage. The important difference between the two men is their understanding of the ends of the system: for Hobbes advantage lies in satisfying as many desires as possible, for Spinoza advantage lies in an escape from those desires through understanding. Put another way, Hobbes does not imagine a community of individuals whose desires can be consistently satisfied, so repression is always necessary; Spinoza can imagine such a community and such consistent satisfaction, so in his political and religious thought the notion of freedom, especially freedom of inquiry, is basic.
Hobbes, Thomas
Pronounced As: hobz , 1588-1679, English philosopher, grad. Magdalen College, Oxford, 1608. For many years a tutor in the Cavendish family, Hobbes took great interest in mathematics, physics, and the contemporary rationalism. On journeys to the Continent he established friendly relations with many learned men, including Galileo and Gassendi. In 1640, after his political writings had brought him into disfavor with the parliamentarians, he went to France (where he was tutor to the exiled Prince Charles). His work, however, aroused the antagonism of the English group in France, and his thorough materialism offended the churchmen, so that in 1651 he felt impelled to return to England, where he was able to live peacefully. Among his important works, which appeared in several revisions under different titles (see Sir W. Molesworth's edition of the complete works, 11 vol., 1839-45), are De Cive (1642), Leviathan (1651), De Corpore Politico (1650), De Homine (1658), and Behemoth (1680). In the Leviathan, Hobbes developed his political philosophy. He argued from a mechanistic view that life is simply the motions of the organism and that man is by nature a selfishly individualistic animal at constant war with all other men. In a state of nature, men are equal in their self-seeking and live out lives which are "nasty, brutish, and short. Fear of violent death is the principal motive which causes men to create a state by contracting to surrender their natural rights and to submit to the absolute authority of a sovereign. Although the power of the sovereign derived originally from the people-a challenge to the doctrine of the divine right of kings-the sovereign's power is absolute and not subject to the law. Temporal power is also always superior to ecclesiastical power. Though Hobbes favored a monarchy as the most efficient form of sovereignty, his theory could apply equally well to king or parliament. His political philosophy led to investigations by other political theorists, e.g., Locke, Spinoza, and Rousseau, who formulated their own radically different theories of the social contract.
Locke, John
Educated at Christ Church College, Oxford, he became (1660) a lecturer there in Greek, rhetoric, and philosophy. He studied medicine, and his acquaintance with scientific practice had a strong influence upon his philosophical thought and method. In 1666, Locke met Anthony Ashley Cooper, the future 1st earl of Shaftesbury, and soon became his friend, physician, and adviser. After 1667, Locke had minor diplomatic and civil posts, most of them through Shaftesbury. In 1675, after Shaftesbury had lost his offices, Locke left England for France, where he met French leaders in science and philosophy.
Returning to England in 1679, he soon retired to Oxford, where he stayed quietly until, suspected of radicalism by the government, he went to Holland and remained there several years (1683-89). In Holland he completed the famous Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), which was published in complete form after his return to England at the accession of William and Mary to the English throne. In the same year he published his Two Treatises on Civil Government; part of this work justifies the Glorious Revolution of 1688, but much of it was written earlier. His fame increased, and he became known in England and on the Continent as the leading philosopher of freedom.
Philosophy In the Essay Concerning Human Understanding Locke examines the nature of the human mind and the process by which it knows the world. Repudiating the traditional doctrine of innate ideas, Locke believed that the mind is born blank, a tabula rasa upon which the world describes itself through the experience of the five senses. Knowledge arising from sensation is perfected by reflection, thus enabling humans to arrive at such ideas as space, time, and infinity.
Locke distinguished the primary qualities of things (e.g., solidity, extension, number) from their secondary qualities (e.g., color, sound). These latter qualities he held to be produced by the impact of the world on the sense organs. Behind this curtain of sensation the world itself is colorless and silent. Science is possible, Locke maintained, because the primary world affects the sense organs mechanically, thus producing ideas that faithfully represent reality. The clear, common-sense style of the Essay concealed many unexplored assumptions that the later empiricists George Berkeley and David Hume would contest, but the problems that Locke set forth have occupied philosophy in one way or another ever since.
Political Theory Locke is most renowned for his political theory. Contradicting Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that the original state of nature was happy and characterized by reason and tolerance. In that state all people were equal and independent, and none had a right to harm another's life, health, liberty, or possessions. The state was formed by social contract because in the state of nature each was his own judge, and there was no protection against those who lived outside the law of nature. The state should be guided by natural law.
Rights of property are very important, because each person has a right to the product of his or her labor. Locke forecast the labor theory of value. The policy of governmental checks and balances, as delineated in the Constitution of the United States, was set down by Locke, as was the doctrine that revolution in some circumstances is not only a right but an obligation. At Shaftesbury's behest, he contributed to the Fundamental Constitutions for the Carolinas; the colony's proprietors, however, never implemented the document.
Ethical Theory Locke based his ethical theories upon belief in the natural goodness of humanity. The inevitable pursuit of happiness and pleasure, when conducted rationally, leads to cooperation, and in the long run private happiness and the general welfare coincide. Immediate pleasures must give way to a prudent regard for ultimate good, including reward in the afterlife. He argued for broad religious freedom in three separate essays on toleration but excepted atheism and Roman Catholicism, which he felt should be legislated against as inimical to religion and the state. In his essay The Reasonableness of Christianity (1695), he emphasized the ethical aspect of Christianity against dogma.
Rousseau, Jean Jacques
Rousseau was born at Geneva, the son of a watchmaker. His mother died shortly after his birth, and his upbringing was haphazard. At 16 he set out on a wandering, irregular life that brought him into contact (c.1628) with Louise de Warens, who became his patron and later his lover. She arranged for his trip to Turin, where he became an unenthusiastic Roman Catholic convert. After serving as a footman in a powerful family, he left Turin and spent most of the next dozen years at Chambéry, Savoy, with his patron. In 1742 he went to Paris to make his fortune with a new system of musical notation, but the venture failed. Once in Paris, however, he became an intimate of the circle of Denis Diderot (to whose Encyclopédie Rousseau contributed music articles), Melchior Grimm, and Mme d'Épinay. At this time also began his liaison with Thérèse Le Vasseur, a semiliterate servant who became his common-law wife.
In 1749, Rousseau won first prize in a contest, held by the Academy of Dijon, on the question: Has the progress of the sciences and arts contributed to the corruption or to the improvement of human conduct? Rousseau took the negative stand, contending that humanity was good by nature and had been fully corrupted by civilization. His essay made him both famous and controversial. Although it is still widely believed that all of Rousseau's philosophy was based on his call for a return to nature, this view is an oversimplification, caused by the excessive importance attached to this first essay. A second philosophical essay, Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalité des hommes (1754), is one of Rousseau's most mature and daring productions. After its publication, Rousseau returned to Geneva, reverted to Protestantism in order to regain his citizenship, and returned to Paris with the title citizen of Geneva.
Mme d'Épinay lent him a cottage, the Hermitage, on her estate at Montmorency. But Rousseau began to quarrel with Mme d'Épinay, Diderot, and Grimm, all of whom he accused of complicity in a sordid plot against him, and left the Hermitage to become the guest of the tolerant duc de Luxembourg, whose château was also at Montmorency. There he finished his novel, Julie, ou La Nouvelle Héloïse (1761), written in part under the influence of his love for Mme d'Houdetot, the sister-in-law of Mme d'Épinay; his Lettre à d'Alembert sur les spectacles (1758), a diatribe against the suggestion that Geneva would be better off for having a theater; his Du contrat social (1762); and his Émile (1762), which offended both the French and Genevan ecclesiastic authorities and was burned at Paris and at Geneva.
Rousseau, with the connivance of highly placed friends, escaped, however, to the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel, then a Prussian possession. His house was stoned, and Rousseau fled once more, this time to the canton of Bern, settling on the small island of Saint-Pierre, in the Lake of Biel. In 1765 he was expelled from Bern and accepted the invitation of David Hume to live at his house in England; there he began to write the first part of his Confessions, but after a year he quarreled violently with Hume, whom he believed to be in league with Diderot and Grimm, and returned to France (1767). His suspicion of people deepened and became a persecution mania.
After wandering through the provinces, he finally settled (1770) at Paris, where he lived in a garret and copied music. The French authorities left him undisturbed, while curious foreigners flocked to see the famous man and be insulted by him. At the same time he went from salon to salon, reading his Confessions aloud. In his last years he began Rêveries du promeneur solitaire, descriptions of nature and his feeling about it, which was unfinished at the time of his death. Shortly before his death Rousseau moved to the house of a protector at Ermenonville, near Paris, where he died. In 1794 his remains were transferred to the Panthéon in Paris.
Rousseau's Thought Few people have equaled Rousseau's influence in politics, literature, and education. His political thought is contained in Du contrat social, but it must be supplemented by other works, notably the Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalité and his drafts of constitutions for Corsica and for Poland. Rousseau is fundamentally a moralist rather than a metaphysician. As a moralist, he is also, unavoidably, a political theorist. His thought begins with the assumption that we are by nature good, and with the observation that in society we are not good. The fall of humanity was, for Rousseau, a social occurrence. But human nature does not go backward, and we never return to the times of innocence and equality, when we have once departed from them.
Although he locates the cause of our deformity in society, Rousseau is not a primitivist. In Émile and Du contrat social, he proposed, on an individual and a social level, what might be done. What was new and important about his educational philosophy, as outlined in Émile, was its rejection of the traditional ideal: education was not seen to be the imparting of all things to be known to the uncouth child; rather it was seen as the drawing out of what is already there, the fostering of what is native. Rousseau's educational proposal is highly artificial, the process is carefully timed and controlled, but with the end of allowing the free development of human potential.
Similarly, with regard to the social order, Rousseau's aim is freedom, which again does not involve a retreat to primitivism but perfect submission of the individual to what he termed the general will. The general will is what rational people would choose for the common good. Freedom, then, is obedience to a self-imposed law of reason, self-imposed because imposed by the natural laws of humanity's being. The purpose of civil law and government, of whatever form, is to bring about a coincidence of the general will and the wishes of the people. Society gives government its sovereignty when it forms the social contract to achieve liberty and well- being as a group. While this sovereignty may be delegated in various ways (as in a monarchy, a republic, or a democracy) it cannot be transferred and resides ultimately with society as a whole, with the people, who can withdraw it when necessary.
Rousseau's political philosophy assumes that there really is a common good, and that the general will is not merely an ideal, but can, under the right conditions, be actual. And it is under such conditions, with the rule of the general will, that Rousseau sees our full development taking place, when the advantages of a state of nature would be combined with the advantages of social life. Because he had such faith in the existence of the common good and the rightness of the general will, Rousseau was extreme in the sanctions he was willing to allow for its achievement: If anyone, after publicly recognizing these dogmas, behaves as if he does not believe them, let him be punished by death: He has committed the worst of all crimes, that of lying before the law. Finally, Rousseau advocates a civil religion. Rousseau's thought sometimes rings of Calvinist Geneva, even though he reacted against its vision of humanity and had his books burned by its ecclesiastic authorities.
In its time his epistolary novel Héloïse was immensely popular, but it is scarcely read today, while the Confessions remains widely read. Proposing to describe not only his life, but also his innermost thought and feelings, hiding nothing be it ever so shameful, Rousseau followed the model of St. Augustine's Confession, but he created a new, intensely personal style of autobiography. The Héloïse, Émile, the Confessions, and the Rêveries all transfer to the domain of literature Rousseau's longing for a closeness with nature.
His sensitive awareness apprehended the subtle influences of landscape, trees, water, birds, and other aspects of nature on the shifting state of the human soul. Rousseau was the father of Romantic sensibility; the trend existed before him, but he was the first to give it full expression. Rousseau's style, in all his writings, is always personal, sometimes bizarre, sometimes rhetorical, sometimes bitterly sarcastic, sometimes deliberately plebeian, and often animated by a tender and musical quality unequaled in French prose. Although self-taught, he possessed a thorough knowledge of musical theory, but his compositions exerted no direct influence on music.
Influence Rousseau's influence on posterity has been equaled by only a few, and it is by no means spent. His influence on German and English romanticism-and thus, indirectly, on romanticism in general-is difficult to overestimate. In addition, men as diverse as Immanuel Kant, Johann Goethe, Maximilien de Robespierre, Johann Pestalozzi, and Leo Tolstoy have been his disciples. His doctrine of popular sovereignty had a profound impact on French revolutionary thought. Although he did not advocate collective ownership, his ideas also had their effect on socialist thought. It is probably more correct to say that he anticipated rather than influenced many insights of modern social psychology.
Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm
Pronounced As: frdrikh vilhelm nch , 1844-1900, German philosopher, b. Röcken, Prussia. The son of a clergyman, Nietzsche studied Greek and Latin at Bonn and Leipzig and was appointed to the chair of classical philology at Basel in 1869. In his early years he was friendly with the composer Richard Wagner, although later he was to turn against him. Nervous disturbances and eye trouble forced Nietzsche to leave Basel in 1879; he moved from place to place in a vain effort to improve his health until 1889, when he became hopelessly insane. Nietzsche was not a systematic philosopher but rather a moralist who passionately rejected Western bourgeois civilization. He regarded Christian civilization as decadent, and in place of its "slave morality he looked to the superman, the creator of a new heroic morality that would consciously affirm life and the life values. That superman would represent the highest passion and creativity and would live at a level of experience beyond the conventional standards of good and evil. His creative "will to power would set him off from "the herd of inferior humanity. Nietzsche's thought had widespread influence but was of particular importance in Germany. Apologists for Nazism seized on much of his writing as a philosophical justification for their doctrines, but most scholars regard this as a perversion of Nietzsche's thought. Among his most famous works are The Birth of Tragedy (1872, tr. 1910); Thus Spake Zarathustra (1883-91, tr. 1909, 1930), and Beyond Good and Evil (1886, tr. 1907).
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
Educated in theology at Tübingen, Hegel was a private tutor at Bern and Frankfurt. In 1801 he became privatdocent [tutor] and in 1805 professor at the Univ. of Jena. While considered a follower of Schelling, he was developing his own system, which he first presented in Phenomenology of Mind (1807). During the Napoleonic occupation Hegel edited (1807-8) a newspaper, which he left to become rector (1808-16) of a Gymnasium at Nuremberg. He then returned to professorships at Heidelberg (1816-18) and Berlin (1818-31), where he became famous.
In his lectures at Berlin he set forth the system elaborated in his books. Chief among these were Science of Logic (1812-16); Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1817), an outline of his whole philosophy; and Philosophy of Right (1821). He also wrote books on ethics, aesthetics, history, and religion. His interests were wide, and all were incorporated into his unified philosophy.
The Hegelian Dialectic Hegel's absolute idealism envisaged a world-soul that develops out of, and is known through, the dialectical logic. In this development, known as the Hegelian dialectic, one concept (thesis) inevitably generates its opposite (antithesis), and the interaction of these leads to a new concept (synthesis). This in turn becomes the thesis of a new triad. Hegel regarded Kant's study of categories as incomplete. The idea of being is fundamental, but it evokes its antithesis, not being. However, these two are not mutually exclusive, for they necessarily produce the synthesis, becoming. Hence activity is basic, progress is rational, and logic is the basis of the world process.
Nature and the State The study of nature and mind reveal reason as it realizes itself in cosmology and history. The world process is the absolute, the active principle that does not transcend reality but exists through and in it. The universe develops by a self- creating plan, proceeding from astral bodies to the world, from the mineral kingdom to the vegetable, from the vegetable kingdom to the animal. In society the same progress can be discovered; human activities lead to property, which leads to law.
Out of the relationship between the individual and law develops the synthesis of ethics, where both the interdependence and the freedom of individuals interact to produce the state. The state thus is a totality above all individuals, and since it is a unit, its highest development is rule by monarchy. Such a state is an embodiment of the absolute idea. In his study of history, Hegel reviewed the history of states that held sway over lesser peoples until a higher representative of the absolute evolved. Though much of his development was questionable, the concept of the conflict of cultures stimulated historical analysis. Aesthetics and Religion Hegel considered art a closer approach to the absolute than government. In the history of art he distinguished three periods-the Oriental, the Greek, and the romantic. He believed that the modern romantic form of art cannot encompass the magnitude of the Christian ideal. Hegel taught that religion moved from worship of nature through a series of stages to Christianity, where Christ represents the union of God and humanity, of spirit and matter. Philosophy goes beyond religion as it enables humankind to comprehend the entire historical unfolding of the absolute.
Influence Hegel has influenced many subsequent philosophies-post-Hegelian idealism, the existentialism of Kierkegaard and Sartre, the socialism of Marx and Lasalle, and the instrumentalism of Dewey. His theory of the state was the guiding force of the group known as the Young Hegelians, who sought the unification of Germany. His lectures on philosophy, religion, aesthetics, and history were collected in eight volumes after his death.
Kant, Immanuel
Kant was educated in his native city, tutored in several families, and after 1755 lectured at the Univ. of Königsberg in philosophy and various sciences. He became professor of logic and metaphysics in 1770 and achieved wide renown through his writings and teachings. His early work, reflecting his studies of Christian Wolff and G. W. Leibniz, was followed by a period of great development culminating in the Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1781, tr. Critique of Pure Reason). This work inaugurated his so-called critical period- the period of his major writings. The more important among these writings were Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik (1783, tr. Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics), Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten (1785, tr. Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals), Kritik der praktischen Vernunft (1788, tr. Critique of Practical Reason), and Kritik der Urteilskraft (1790, tr. Critique of Judgment). His Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft (1793, tr. Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone) provoked a government order to desist from further publications on religion.
Philosophy According to Kant, his reading of David Hume awakened him from his dogmatic slumber and set him on the road to becoming the critical philosopher, whose position can be seen as a synthesis of the Leibniz-Wolffian rationalism and the Humean skepticism. Kant termed his basic insight into the nature of knowledge the Copernican revolution in philosophy.
Instead of assuming that our ideas, to be true, must conform to an external reality independent of our knowing, Kant proposed that objective reality is known only insofar as it conforms to the essential structure of the knowing mind. He maintained that objects of experience-phenomena-may be known, but that things lying beyond the realm of possible experience-noumena, or things-in- themselves-are unknowable, although their existence is a necessary presupposition. Phenomena that can be perceived in the pure forms of sensibility, space, and time must, if they are to be understood, possess the characteristics that constitute our categories of understanding. Those categories, which include causality and substance, are the source of the structure of phenomenal experience.
The scientist, therefore, may be sure only that the natural events observed are knowable in terms of the categories. Our field of knowledge, thus emancipated from Humean skepticism, is nevertheless limited to the world of phenomena. All theoretical attempts to know things-in-themselves are bound to fail. This inevitable failure is the theme of the portion of the Critique of Pure Reason entitled the Transcendental Dialectic. Here Kant shows that the three great problems of metaphysics-God, freedom, and immortality- are insoluble by speculative thought. Their existence can be neither affirmed nor denied on theoretical grounds, nor can they be scientifically demonstrated, but Kant shows the necessity of a belief in their existence in his moral philosophy.
Kant's ethics centers in his categorical imperative (or moral law)-Act as if the maxim from which you act were to become through your will a universal law. This law has its source in the autonomy of a rational being, and it is the formula for an absolutely good will. However, since we are all members of two worlds, the sensible and the intelligible, we do not infallibly act in accordance with this law but, on the contrary, almost always act according to inclination. Thus what is objectively necessary, i.e., to will in conformity to the law, is subjectively contingent; and for this reason the moral law confronts us as an ought.
In the Critique of Practical Reason Kant went on to state that morality requires the belief in the existence of God, freedom, and immortality, because without their existence there can be no morality. In the Critique of Judgment Kant applied his critical method to aesthetic and teleological judgments. The chief purpose of this work was to find a bridge between the sensible and the intelligible worlds, which are sharply distinguished in his theoretical and practical philosophy. This bridge is found in the concepts of beauty and purposiveness that suggest at least the possibility of an ultimate union of the two realms.
Freud, Sigmund froid, 1856-1939, Austrian psychiatrist, founder of psychoanalysis. Born in Moravia, he lived most of his life in Vienna, receiving his medical degree from the Univ. of Vienna in 1881.
His medical career began with an apprenticeship (1885-86) under J. M. Charcot in Paris, and soon after his return to Vienna he began his famous collaboration with Josef Breuer on the use of hypnosis in the treatment of hysteria. Their paper, On the Psychical Mechanism of Hysterical Phenomena (1893, tr. 1909), more fully developed in Studien über Hysterie (1895), marked the beginnings of psychoanalysis in the discovery that the symptoms of hysterical patients-directly traceable to psychic trauma in earlier life- represent undischarged emotional energy (conversion; see hysteria). The therapy, called the cathartic method, consisted of having the patient recall and reproduce the forgotten scenes while under hypnosis. The work was poorly received by the medical profession, and the two men soon separated over Freud's growing conviction that the undefined energy causing conversion was sexual in nature.
Freud then rejected hypnosis and devised a technique called free association (see association), which would allow emotionally charged material that the individual had repressed in the unconscious to emerge to conscious recognition. Further works, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900, tr.1913), The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1904, tr.1914), and Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905, tr. 1910), increased the bitter antagonism toward Freud, and he worked alone until 1906, when he was joined by the Swiss psychiatrists Eugen Bleuler and C. G. Jung, the Austrian Alfred Adler, and others.
In 1908, Bleuler, Freud, and Jung founded the journal Jahrbuch für psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen, and in 1909 the movement first received public recognition when Freud and Jung were invited to give a series of lectures at Clark Univ. in Worcester, Mass. In 1910 the International Psychoanalytical Association was formed with Jung as president, but the harmony of the movement was short-lived: between 1911 and 1913 both Jung and Adler resigned, forming their own schools in protest against Freud's emphasis on infantile sexuality and the Oedipus complex. Although these men, and others who broke away later, objected to Freudian theories, the basic structure of psychoanalysis as the study of unconscious mental processes is still Freudian. Disagreement lies largely in the degree of emphasis placed on concepts largely originated by Freud.
He considered his last contribution to psychoanalytic theory to be The Ego and the Id (1923, tr. 1927), after which he reverted to earlier cultural preoccupations. Totem and Taboo (1913, tr. 1918), an investigation of the origins of religion and morality, and Moses and Monotheism (1939, tr. 1939) are the result of his application of psychoanalytic theory to cultural problems. With the National Socialist occupation of Austria, Freud fled (1938) to England, where he died the following year.
Freudian theory has had wide impact, influencing fields as diverse as anthropology, education, art, and literary criticism. His daughter, Anna Freud, was a major proponent of psychoanalysis, developing in particular the Freudian concept of the defense mechanism. Other works include A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis (1910, tr. 1920) and New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-analysis (1933).
Religious Leaders
Luther, Martin
Luther was educated at the cathedral school at Eisenach and at the Univ. of Erfurt (1501-5). In 1505 he completed his master's examination and began the study of law. Several months later, after what seems to have been a sudden religious experience, he entered a monastery of the Augustinian friars at Erfurt. There, devoutly attentive to the rigid discipline of the order, he began an intensive study of Scripture and was ordained a priest in 1507. In 1508 he was sent to the Univ. of Wittenberg to study and to lecture on Aristotle. In 1510, Luther was sent to Rome on business for his order, and there he was shocked by the spiritual laxity apparent in high ecclesiastical places.
Upon his return he completed the work for his theological doctorate and became a professor at Wittenberg. This period was the beginning of the intimacy between Luther and John von Staupitz, whose influence led Luther to say in 1531, I have received everything from Staupitz. For Luther these years were times of profound spiritual and physical torment. Obsessed with anxieties about his own salvation, he sought relief in frequent confession and extreme asceticism. His search for peace of mind led him, under the guidance of Staupitz, to further study of the Scriptures.
In preparation for his university lectures in 1513, especially on the letters of Paul, Luther resolved his turmoil. In the Scriptures Luther found a loving God who bestowed upon sinful humans the free gift of salvation, to be received through faith, against which all good works were as nothing. Luther devoted himself with increasing vigor to the work of the church, and in 1515 he became district vicar.
The 95 Theses From 1516 on, as a consequence of his new convictions, Luther felt compelled to protest the dispensation of indulgences (see indulgence). The arrival of Johann Tetzel in Saxony in 1517 to proclaim the indulgence granted by Leo X prompted Luther to post his historic 95 theses on the door of the castle church. The abuse of indulgences had been condemned by many Catholic theologians, but it had had great financial success, and ecclesiastical authorities had not halted it. Luther's theses were widely distributed and read, finding sympathy among the exploited peasantry and among the civil authorities, who deplored the drainage of funds to Rome. The propositions were brought to the attention of the pope, who ordered the head of the Augustinians to keep peace in his order. Meanwhile Tetzel was committed to the struggle against Luther, and he found an able colleague in Johann Eck. Although Luther still considered his activities as directed toward reforms within the church, his opponents found his ideas heretical. In the following years several attempts were made to reconcile Luther to the church, but the basis of compromise was lacking on both sides. At a meeting with the papal legate at Augsburg in 1518, Luther refused to recant, and in 1519 in a public disputation with Eck in Leipzig he was forced to declare his stand as one at variance with some of the doctrines of the church.
Break with the Church As the break with Rome became inevitable, Luther broadened his position to include widespread reforms. In his Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation (1520) he supported the new nationalism by advocating German control of German ecclesiastical matters and appealed to the German princes to help effect the reformation in Germany. He attacked the claim of the papacy of authority over secular rulers and denied that the pope was the final interpreter of Scripture, enunciating the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. He assailed the corruption of the church and attacked usury and commercialism, recommending a return to a primitive agrarian society.
Catholic theologians were further aroused with the publication of The Babylonian Captivity of the Church, in which Luther, in an uncompromising attack on the papacy, denied the authority of the priesthood to mediate between the individual and God and rejected the sacraments except as aids to faith. He followed this work with a tract entitled The Freedom of a Christian Man. in which he reiterated his doctrine of justification by faith alone and presented a new ideal of piety-that of the Christian man, free in conscience by virtue of faith and charged with the duty of conducting himself properly in a Christian brotherhood.
By the time the papal bull Exsurge Domine, condemning his views and threatening excommunication, reached Germany, Luther's position was well understood and widely supported. In a dramatic renunciation of papal authority, Luther held a public burning of the bull and of the canon law. In 1521 formal excommunication was pronounced. In the same year Luther was given a safe-conduct and was summoned before the Diet of Worms (see Worms, Diet of). The opinions at the diet were divided, but when an edict of the diet called for Luther's seizure, his friends placed him for safekeeping in the Wartburg, the castle of Elector Frederick III of Saxony. There Luther translated the New Testament into German and began the translation of the entire Bible, a work not completed until 10 years later.
Growth of Lutheranism and His Last Years At Wittenberg the iconoclasts under Carlstadt had instituted radical changes that Luther greatly deplored. Fearing that his movement was endangered, Luther disregarded his personal safety and returned to Wittenberg, where he spent most of the remainder of his life organizing and spreading the new gospel. Luther suffered a loss of popular appeal when he stoutly opposed (1524-25) the Peasants' War, a revolt that his own spirit of independence had helped to foster. His position was further weakened by a break with the humanists brought about by Erasmus's work, Freedom of the Will (1524), in which Erasmus attacked Luther's doctrine of the enslaved will. Nevertheless, through his forceful writings and preaching his doctrines spread to many towns and free cities, strengthened by the support of many German nobles.
He married (1525) a former nun, Katharina von Bora, and raised six children. His closest friends and associates, Philip Melanchthon and Justus Jonas, helped carry forward his endeavors, and after the death of Frederick III he enjoyed the active support of John Frederick I, who succeeded to the electorate. Luther worked actively to build a competent educational system; his extensive writing on church matters included the composition of hymns, a liturgy, and two catechisms that are basic statements of the Lutheran faith.
His attitude hardened toward various sects, especially the Anabaptists, whose growth presented a serious challenge to his conception of the church. His uncompromising attitude in doctrinal matters helped break up the unity of the Reformation that he was anxious to preserve; the controversy with Huldreich Zwingli and later with Calvin over the Lord's Supper divided Protestants into the Lutheran Church and the Reformed Churches. After attempts at union, the Lutherans drew up their own articles of faith in the Augsburg Confession (see creed 4), which was written by Melanchthon at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530 with the sanction of Luther, who was not permitted to attend. About this time the control of the Lutheran Church had passed further into the hands of the Protestant princes.
During the last years of Luther's life he was troubled with ill health of increasing severity and the plagues of political and religious disunion within the nation. He died in Eisleben and was buried at Wittenberg, leaving behind an evangelical doctrine that spread throughout the Western world and marked the first break in the unity of the Catholic Church. In Germany his socio-religious concepts laid a new basis for German society. His writings, in forceful idiomatic language, helped fix the standards of modern German.
Zwingli, Huldreich or Ulrich
Zwingli received a thorough classical education in Basel, Bern, and Vienna, and was considerably influenced by the humanist precepts of Erasmus. His devotion to learning and his passion for individual freedom, developed through contact with the self- governing Swiss cantons, were important influences in his life. In 1506 he was ordained and appointed pastor of Glarus; he also served (1513, 1515) as chaplain to Swiss mercenaries in Italy. In 1516 he became people's vicar at Einsiedeln. While there Zwingli began to formulate the ideas that were to lead him to renounce the church of Rome.
Unlike Martin Luther, Zwingli experienced no acute religious crisis-he became a reformer through his studies. Later he was to adopt Luther's doctrine of justification by faith alone, but Zwingli's independent study of Scriptures had already led him to question the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church. When he became vicar at the Grossmünster of Zürich in 1518 he found the democratic institutions of the community amenable to his beliefs. In 1519 he successfully opposed the dispensing of indulgences in the city and soon was preaching against clerical celibacy, monasticism, and many other church practices. Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation The real beginning of the Reformation in Switzerland was Zwingli's lectures on the New Testament in 1519. Armed with Erasmus' 1516 edition of the Greek text he discarded scholastic commentaries and proclaimed the sole authority of the word of God as revealed in Scriptures. With his expression of opposition to Lenten observances in 1522 the Reformation in Zürich was well under way. In the same year, with the publication of Architeles, he made clear his belief in freedom from the control of the Roman hierarchy. A public disputation with a papal representative was held before the general council at Zürich in 1523; Zwingli presented his doctrines in 67 theses. The council approved the Zwinglian position and instructed all priests in the canton to comply.
The new practices were rapidly put into effect-organs were destroyed, images were removed from churches, priests were allowed to marry, monasticism was abolished, the liturgy was simplified, and the sacrament of communion reduced to a commemorative feast. In 1524, Zwingli publicly celebrated his marriage, which he had illegally contracted two years previously. In 1525 the Catholic Mass was replaced by a reformed service at Zwingli's church in Zürich.
Zwingli became embroiled with the Lutherans in a doctrinal dispute concerning the nature of the Eucharist (see Lord's Supper). Philip of Hesse endeavored to reconcile these differences within the Protestant ranks by calling the disputants together at the Marburg Colloquy (1529). Zwingli and Johannes Oecolampadius and Luther and Philip Melanchthon were present, but no agreement was reached.
Although Bern adopted Zwingli's reforms in 1528, and Basel and St. Gall soon after, he faced agitation by the Anabaptists, who wanted even more radical reform, and the armed resistance of the Forest Cantons that had remained loyal to Rome. When Zürich imposed a trade embargo on these cantons they retaliated with war (1531), and at the battle of Kappel, Zwingli was killed. Zwingli's work in Zürich was carried on by his colleague and son-in-law, Heinrich Bullinger, but the Reformation in Switzerland passed into the hands of John Calvin. Calvin built his comprehensive theological system partly on the groundwork laid by Zwingli, but he resisted Zwingli's more radical teaching on baptism and the Lord's Supper. The Consensus Tigurinus (1549) marks the departure of the Swiss Reformation from Zwinglian to Calvinist doctrine.
Calvin, John
Calvin early prepared for an ecclesiastical career; from 1523 to 1528 he studied in Paris. His opinions gradually turned to disagreement with the Roman position, and a demonstrated ability at disputation led him in 1528, at his father's instance, to study law at Orléans and Bourges. After his father's death in 1531 he returned to Paris, where he pursued his own predilection, the study of the classics and Hebrew. He came under the humanist influence and became interested in the growing rebellion against conservative theology. He experienced c.1533 what he later described as a sudden conversion, and he turned all his attention to the cause of the Reformation.
Protestant Reformer Institutes of the Christian Religion As a persecuted Protestant, Calvin found it necessary to travel from place to place, and at Angoulême in 1534 he began the work of systematizing Protestant thought in his Institutes of the Christian Religion, considered one of the most influential theological works of all time. Completed at Basel in 1536 and later frequently revised and supplemented, the original work contained the basic Calvinist theology. In the Institutes Calvin diverged from Catholic doctrine in the rejection of papal authority and in acceptance of justification by faith alone, but many of his other positions, including the fundamental doctrine of predestination, had been foreshadowed by Catholic reformers and by the Protestant thought of Martin Luther and Martin Bucer.
Work in Geneva In 1536, Calvin was persuaded by Guillaume Farel to devote himself to the work of the Reformation at Geneva, and there Calvin instituted the most thoroughgoing development of his doctrine. At first the Genevans were unable to accept the austere reforms and departures from established church customs, and in 1538 the opposition succeeded in banishing Farel and Calvin from the city. Calvin went to Basel and then to Strasbourg, where he spent three fruitful years preaching and writing.
By 1541 the Genevans welcomed Calvin, and he immediately set himself to the task of constructing a government based on the subordination of the state to the church. Once the Bible is accepted as the sole source of God's law, the duty of humans is to interpret it and preserve the orderly world that God has ordained. This goal Calvin set out to achieve through the establishment of ecclesiastical discipline, in which the magistrates had the task of enforcing the religious teachings of the church as set forth by the synod. The Genevan laws and constitution were recodified; regulation of conduct was extended to all areas of life. Ecclesiastical discipline was supplemented by a systematized theology, with the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper given to unite believers in the fellowship of Christ.
Involvement in Controversies Calvin wrote extensively on all theological and practical matters. He was involved in many controversies. Among them were his violent opposition to the Anabaptists; his disagreement with the Lutherans over the Lord's Supper, which resulted in the separation of the Evangelical Church into Lutheran and Reformed; and his condemnation of the anti- Trinitarian views of Michael Servetus, which ended in the notorious trial and burning of Servetus in 1553.
Importance of Calvinism The extension of Calvinism to all spheres of human activity was extremely important to a world emerging from an agrarian, medieval economy into a commercial, industrial era. Unlike Luther, who desired a return to primitive simplicity, Calvin accepted the newborn capitalism and encouraged trade and production, at the same time opposing the abuses of exploitation and self-indulgence. Industrialization was stimulated by the concepts of thrift, industry, sobriety, and responsibility that Calvin preached as essential to the achievement of the reign of God on earth. The influence of Calvinism spread throughout the entire Western world, realizing its purest forms through the work of John Knox in Scotland and through the clergymen and laymen of the civil war period in England and the Puritan moralists in New England.
Knox, John
Little is recorded of his life before 1545. He probably attended St. Andrews Univ., where he may have become acquainted with some of the new Protestant doctrines. He entered the Roman Catholic priesthood, however, and from 1540 to 1544 was engaged as an ecclesiastical notary and as a private tutor. By late 1545 Knox had attached himself closely to the reformer George Wishart. When, after Wishart's execution (1546), a group of Protestant conspirators took revenge by murdering Cardinal David Beaton, Knox, now definitely a Protestant, took refuge with them in St. Andrews Castle and preached in the parish church. Attacked by both Scottish and French forces, the castle was eventually surrendered (1547), and Knox served 19 months in the French galleys before his release (1549) through the efforts of the English government of Edward VI.
Knox spent the next few years in England, preaching in Berwick and Newcastle as a licensed minister of the crown and serving briefly as a royal chaplain. He helped to prepare the second Book of Common Prayer, but he declined a bishopric in the newly established Church of England.
The Scottish Reformation In 1557 the Scottish Protestant nobles signed their First Covenant, banding together to form the group known as the lords of the congregation (see Scotland, Church of). When, in 1559, Mary of Guise moved against the Protestants, the lords of the congregation took up arms and invited Knox back from Geneva to lead them. Aided by England and by the regent's death in 1560, the reformers forced the withdrawal of the French troops that had come to Mary's aid and won their freedom as well as dominance for the new religion.
Under Knox's direction, a confession of faith (basically Calvinist) was drawn up (1560) and passed by the Scottish Parliament, which also passed laws abolishing the authority of the pope and condemning all creeds and practices of the old religion. The Book of Discipline, however, which provided an organizational structure for the new church, failed to get adequate approval from the nobles in 1561.
When Mary Queen of Scots arrived from France to assume her crown in the same year, many Protestant lords deserted Knox and his cause, and some even joined the queen. From his pulpit and in personal debates with Mary on questions of theology and the loyalty owed by the subject to his monarch, Knox stubbornly defied Mary's authority and thundered against her religion. The queen's marriage to Lord Darnley, her suspected complicity in his murder, and her hasty marriage to James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, stirred the Protestant lords to revolt. Mary was forced to abdicate (1567) in favor of her young son, James VI. All the acts of 1560 were then confirmed, thereby establishing Presbyterianism as the official religion.
Despite the ill health of his last years, Knox continued to be an outspoken preacher until his death. It has been said of Knox that rarely has any country produced a stronger will. His single-minded zeal made him the outstanding leader of the Scottish Reformation and an important influence on the Protestant movements in England and on the Continent, but the same quality tended to close his mind to divergent views. His History of the Reformation in Scotland, finished in 1564 but published in 1584 after his death, is a striking record of that conflict, but includes a number of misstatements and omissions resulting from his strong bias.
Wesley, John
Wesley was ordained a deacon in the Church of England in 1725, elected a fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford, in 1726, and ordained a priest in 1728. At Oxford he took the lead (1729) in a group of students that included his younger brother, Charles Wesley, and George Whitefield. They were derisively called methodists for their methodical devotion to study and religious duties.
In 1735, the Wesleys accompanied James Oglethorpe to Georgia, John to serve there as a missionary and Charles to act as secretary to Oglethorpe. During John Wesley's two-year stay in the colony he was deeply influenced by Moravian missionaries; upon his return to England he made many Moravian friends. On May 24, 1738, at a meeting of a small religious society in Aldersgate St., London, Wesley experienced a religious conversion while listening to a reading of Martin Luther's preface to the Epistle to the Romans. This experience of salvation through faith in Christ alone was the burden of his message for the rest of his life.
Evangelist and Founder of Methodism After his conversion, Wesley became involved in evangelistic work, in the course of which he is said to have preached 40,000 sermons and to have traveled 250,000 mi (400,000 km). On the advice of Whitefield, Wesley undertook open-air, or field, preaching, first in Bristol, then elsewhere. In 1739 a group in London requested him to aid them in forming a society and to act as their leader. An old foundry at Moorfields was purchased; it remained until 1778 the center of Methodist work in London. Because of his Arminianism (see under Arminius, Jacobus) and belief in Christian perfection, Wesley repudiated (c.1740) the Calvinist doctrine of election. This led to a break with Whitefield, although the personal friendship of the two Methodist leaders remained firm.
In 1784, Wesley executed the deed of declaration by which the Methodist societies became legally constituted; it was in essence the charter of the Wesleyan Methodists. In the same year he became convinced that he must ordain a superintendent to administer sacraments and to serve the Methodist societies in America, although he had long hesitated to assume the authority of ordination. Wesley ordained Dr. Thomas Coke to this office; Francis Asbury was to serve as associate superintendent.
It was not Wesley's intention to found a separate church, but toward the end of his life the Methodist Episcopal Church had already come into existence in America, and it became apparent that in England the Methodists could not work within the Anglican Church. He therefore made plans for his societies to go on independently after his death, although both Wesleys remained clergymen of the Church of England to the end of their lives. During John Wesley's later years admiration for his abilities largely replaced the rejection he had endured in earlier days.
Erasmus Pronounced As: irazms or Desiderius Erasmus desidrs [Gr. Erasmus, his given name, and Lat., Desiderius=beloved; both are regarded as the equivalent of Dutch Gerard, Erasmus' father's name], 1466?-1536, Dutch humanist, b. Rotterdam. He was ordained priest of the Roman Catholic Church and studied at the Univ. of Paris. Erasmus' influence began to be felt in Europe after 1500. It was exercised through his personal contacts, his editions of classical authors, and his own writings. He was acquainted with most of the scholars of Europe and his circle of friends was especially large in England; it included Thomas More, John Colet, and Henry VIII. His editions of Greek and Latin classics and of the Fathers of the Church (especially of Jerome and Athanasius) were his chief occupation for years. His Latin edition of the New Testament was based on the original Greek text. For many years he was editor for the printer Johannes Froben in Basel. Erasmus' original works are mainly satirical and critical. Written in Latin, the language of the 16th-century scholar, the most important works are Adagia (1500, tr. Adages or Proverbs), a collection of quotations; Enchiridion militis christiani (1503, tr. Manual of the Christian Knight); Moriae encomium (1509, tr. The Praise of Folly, 1979); Institutio principis christiani (1515, tr. The Education of a Christian Prince, 1968); Colloquia (1516, tr. Colloquies); and his collected letters (tr., ed. by F. M. Nichols, 1904-18; repr. 1962). Erasmus combined vast learning with a fine style, a keen and sometimes sharp humor, moderation, and tolerance. His position on the Reformation was widely denounced, especially by Martin Luther, who had first looked on Erasmus as an ally because of Erasmus' attacks on clerical abuse and lay ignorance. Though eager for church reform, Erasmus remained all his life within the Roman Catholic Church. As a humanist he deplored the religious warfare of the time because of the rancorous, intolerant atmosphere and cultural decline that it induced. Erasmus was finally brought into open conflict with Luther and attacked his position on predestination in On the Freedom of the Will.
More, Sir Thomas
(Saint Thomas More), 1478-1535, English statesman and author of Utopia, celebrated as a martyr in the Roman Catholic Church. He received a Latin education in the household of Cardinal Morton and at Oxford. Through his contact with the new learning and his friendships with Colet, Lyly, and Erasmus, More became an ardent humanist. As a successful London lawyer, he attracted the attention of Henry VIII, served him on diplomatic missions, entered the king's service in 1518, and was knighted in 1521. More held important government offices and, despite his disapproval of Henry's divorce from Katharine of Aragón, he was made lord chancellor at the fall of Wolsey (1529). He resigned in 1532 because of ill health and probably because of increasing disagreement with Henry's policies. Because of his refusal to subscribe to the Act of Supremacy, which impugned the pope's authority and made Henry the head of the English Church, he was imprisoned (1534) in the Tower and finally beheaded on a charge of treason.
A man of noble character and deep, resolute religious conviction, More had great personal charm, unfailing good humor, piercing wit, and a fearlessness that enabled him to jest even on the scaffold. His Utopia (published in Latin, 1516; tr. 1551) is a picture of an ideal state founded entirely on reason. Among his other works in Latin and English are a translation of The Life of John Picus, Earl of Mirandula (1510); a History of Richard III, upon which Shakespeare based his play; a number of polemical tracts against the Lutherans (1528-33); devotional works including A Dialogue of Comfort against Tribulation (1534) and a Treatise on the Passion (1534); poems; meditations; and prayers. More was beatified (1886) by a decree of Pope Leo XIII and canonized (1935) by Pius XI.
Economics
Marx, Karl
Marx's father, a lawyer, converted from Judaism to Lutheranism in 1824. Marx studied law at Bonn and Berlin, but became interested in philosophy and took a Ph.D. degree at Jena (1841). He early rejected the idealism of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and turned toward materialism, partly through the influence of Ludwig Feuerbach and Moses Hess.
Later Work and Life In 1847 Marx joined the Communist League and with Engels wrote for it the famous Communist Manifesto (1848), which strikingly expressed his general view of the class struggle. The failure of the revolutions of 1848 convinced Marx of the need to stimulate the consciousness and solidarity of the working class through the founding of open revolutionary parties. Exiled from most continental centers, he settled permanently in London in 1849. He lived in poverty, made more bitter by his own chronic illness and the death of several of his children. At times he was able to earn funds as a correspondent for the New York Tribune, but he was continually dependent on Engels for financial aid. Nonetheless, he pursued research in the British Museum and continued to write steadily.
In 1864 Marx helped to found the International Workingmen's Association. Through this First International and through the work of Ferdinand Lassalle and others, Marx's ideas began to gain primacy in European socialist and radical thought. This primacy was greatly furthered with the publication of the first volume of Das Kapital (Vol. I, 1867, tr. 1886; Vol. II-III, ed. by Engels, 1885-94; tr. 1907-9). The manuscript for the fourth volume was edited by Karl Kautsky and published as Theorien über den Mehrwert (3 parts, 1905-10; tr. of 1st part, A History of Economic Theories, 1952). A monumental work, Das Kapital provided a thorough exposition of Marxism and became the foundation of international socialism.
As Marx's reputation spread, so too did public fear of him. He insisted on authoritarian sway within the International, and finally, after controversy with Mikhail Bakunin, virtually destroyed the International for fear of losing control over its direction. He remained the prophet of socialism and was often consulted by the various socialist party leaders. His role was frequently that of urging more hard- minded policies, further removed from bourgeois embellishments; The Gotha Program (1891, tr. 1922), a critique, illustrates this position. The complexity and vituperation of this polemic characterize much of Marx's prose. In his last years Marx's great intellectual vigor continued unabated. The importance of his dialectical method and of his theories goes far beyond their immense political influence; many scholars consider him a great economic theoretician and the founder of economic history and sociology.
Smith, Adam
1723-90, Scottish economist, educated at Glasgow and Oxford. He became professor of moral philosophy at the Univ. of Glasgow in 1752, and while teaching there wrote his Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), which gave him the beginnings of an international reputation. He traveled on the Continent from 1764 to 1766 as tutor to the duke of Buccleuch and while in France met some of the physiocrats and began to write An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, finally published in 1776. Smith postulated the theory of the division of labor and emphasized that value arises from the labor expended in the process of production. He was led by the rationalist current of the century, as well as by the more direct influence of Hume and others, to believe that in a laissez-faire economy the impulse of self-interest would bring about the public welfare; at the same time he was capable of appreciating that private groups such as manufacturers might at times oppose the public interest. Smith was opposed to monopolies and the concepts of mercantilism in general but admitted restrictions to free trade, such as the Navigation Acts, as sometimes necessary national economic weapons in the existing state of the world. Smith wrote before the Industrial Revolution was fully developed, and some of his theories were voided by its development, but as an analyst of institutions and an influence on later economists he has never been surpassed. His pragmatism, as well as the leaven of ethical content and social insight in his thought, differentiates him from the rigidity of David Ricardo and the school of early 19th-century utilitarianism. In 1778, Smith was appointed commissioner of customs for Scotland. His Essays on Philosophical Subjects (1795) appeared posthumously.
The Cromwellian Period
To save the expense and administration of governing Ireland from abroad the English appointed the Fitzgeralds as Governors of Ireland. Garrett Mor Fitzgerald , the great Earl of Kildare, became known as "all but the King of Ireland" and was later succeeded by his son Garrett Og Fitzgerald, a man who lacked his fathers fine diplomacy and authority. In addition to that he had the arrogant young King Henry VIII to contend with. In 1541 Henry, after declaring himself head of the Church of England also declared himself King of Ireland. For the most part many of the Irish chieftains and Anglo Irish entertained this position and paid him patronage. However he also declared himself head of the church in Ireland which infuriated the devout Christian Church and led to revolt.
There were numerous uprisings .Eventually a strong army, led by the Earl of Tyrone, Hugh O'Neill , and Red Hugh O'Donnell marched south from Ulster to join a Spanish force which had sailed to the County Cork coast at Kinsale. The battle that ensued, the Battle of Kinsale, was another turning point in Irish history. O'Neill and O'Donnell retreated to Ulster and they along with almost ninety of Irelands most powerful families fled to continental Europe from Lough Swilly in County Donegal in what became known as "The Flight of the Earls."
In spite of this retreat Ireland remained a considerable military risk to the English and in 1649 Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) arrived in Ireland with his army. He began by capturing the town of Drogheda in County Louth after the infamous siege of Drogheda and went on to engulf the country granting his soldiers confiscated lands in lieu of pay and wrecking the infrastructure of Ireland . He thus laid the foundation for the widespread Protestant ownership of land and the Protestant land-owning ascendancy.
The Flight of the Earls had left a strong power vacuum in Ulster which James I of England filled with Protestant immigrants, mostly from Scotland, who were given land subsidies in the six counties of Ulster. The importation three hundred years ago of privileged immigrants with a distinct nationality and strict religious observances could be said to have laid the foundation for the years of religious conflict that dogs modern Ireland.
From 1695 penal laws had been introduced with the aim of destroying Catholicism as a political force in Ireland, along with its threats from sympathetic Catholic allies in Spain and France. Catholics were debarred from Parliament , from holding public office , from the legal professions and from holding positions in the army. In fact they were not even allowed own a horse worth more than £5. However those who crossed over to the Established Church were allowed take to privileged positions. Thus most of the Norman and Old English families managed to retain their land and positions by adopting the new faith. The Irish were further compelled to Anglicise their family names and drop the 'O' and 'Mac' prefixes in favour of English variants. Many town and locality names were also anglicised during this period.
King James II (1633-1700) succeeded his brother, Charles I. James II, a Catholic, after a violent and mismanaged reign fled to Ireland where the Irish flocked to his side. However the Protestant King William of Orange had been invited to take over James's throne and in 1690 landed with an army of 35,000 men and fought King James with his army of 23,000 Irish and French soldiers at the Battle of The Boyne for the throne of England. Outnumbered and defeated King James fled. The Irish struggled on, but heavy defeats at Limerick and the Battle of Augrim a year later in the heart of O'Kellys Country, dominated for generations by the O'Kellys of Ui Maine many of whom were amongst the 4,000 Irish fatalities , took their toll and effectively ended Irish resistance.
During the period 1690 to 1730 , it is estimated that as many as 120,000 Irish sailed for the save haven of mainland Europe. Many of them stowed away on merchant vessels smuggling wine from France to Ireland and became known as "the Wild Geese". This name later became synonymous with the hundreds of thousands of Irish emigrants whose talents were to flower abroad as the could not do at home. In fact far from defeating Irish Catholicism the flight of the "Wild Geese" served to spread Irish influence throughout Europe.
In the Catholic countries of France, Spain, Portugal and Italy they were well received. Supported by the martial art- soldiering, they soon occupied high positions within the armies of Europe and put their administrative talents to work in the courts of Europe.
The Struggle for Home Rule
In 1781 the American colonies defiance of English authority inspired the Irish to do likewise. Led by patriotic Ulster Protestants , the agitated for legislative independence, which they achieved in 1782. For a brief period Ireland was an independent kingdom, though sharing a monarchy with England. A number of religious restrictions were removed , Catholics were permitted to vote but were still excluded from holding public office.
Because of the constant communication between the Irish and the exiled "Wild Geese" in France the philosophy of the French Revolution filtered back and took seed amongst the Irish. Under the leadership of Wolfe Tone a rebellion took place in 1798 mainly in Dublin and Wexford. Unsupported as they were by the rest of the country the rebellion and brutally and quickly suppressed.
In 1801, despite much opposition , and by creating many new peerages an Act of union with Britain was passed. Ireland lost its independent parliament to become once again a minor part of the United Kingdom. The union effectively set the political and cultural life of Ireland back a hundred years and Dublin ceased to be one of Europe's leading capitals.
It was not until 1829 that Daniel O'Connell won full catholic emancipation . the Young Ireland Movement, contrary to O'Connell, believed that force was the only way to repeal the harsh anti Irish laws. In 1848 their abortive insurrection was defeated and its leaders, William Smith O'Brien and Charles Gavin Duffy, were sent to Australia as convicts. Not only did their ideas enrich Australia but their writings had greater effect in Ireland that their abortive coup.
The Great Famine
In 1845 the potato crop, on which the Irish were largely dependant, failed as a result of widespread blight. Within the following five years the population of seven million fell to an estimated three million through starvation, drought and emigration, largely to the United States, Canada and the Americas.
In Ireland, despite the loss of some many of its leaders the fight for home rule and land reform continued largely through the efforts of Charles Stewart Parnell (1845-1891). In the United States it was taken up by the militant Fenian Brotherhood. However sexual scandals marred Parnell who died in 1891 without realising his goal of Home Rule.
The 1916 Easter Uprising
For many the ill prepared uprising of 1916 came as a surprise. Many of the local population were against the Declaration of Independence made by a band of poets and young republican idealists in the General Post Office in the centre of Dublin City on a quiet Easter Monday. Fierce fighting erupted all over Dublin for a short time before the English ordered a gunboat up the River Liffey to bombard the ill armed rebels in the GPO. Patrick Pearse and the remaining rebels quickly surrendered to the British and were marched away through a crowd of Dubliners who spat at and insulted them.
However the ruthless execution of the leaders of the uprising quickly turned the tide of public opinion against the English and left a legacy of hatred.
The Emergence of Modern Ireland
After the 1916 Uprising Home Rule was finally granted but six counties of Ulster held firm and refused to join a united Ireland. A compromise solution which allowed for the partition of Ireland and separate status for Northern Ireland was agreed under the stewardship of Eamonn de Valera, Michael Collins and Lloyd George, then Prime Minister of England. However the republican movement who had striven for a thirty two county united republic refused to accept the Peace Treaty and a bitter Civil War between those in favour and those against the Treaty effectively splitting the Irish Republican Army (IRA) into pro-treaty and anti-treaty factions.
Almost eighty years later this conflict continues to perpetuate the violent history of Ireland . Chronology of the French Revolution
1789
May 5: Meeting of the Estates-General June 17: National Assembly declared June 20: Tennis Court Oath July 14: Storming of the Bastille August 4: Surrender of feudal rights August 27: Declaration of the Rights of Man October 5-6: Outbreak of the Paris mob; Liberal monarchical constitution
1790
July 14: Constitution accepted by the king; July -- : Growing power of the clubs; July -- : Reorganization of Paris September: Fall of Necker
1791
April 2: Death of Mirabeau June 20-25: Flight of the King September 30: Dissolution of Constituent Assembly October 1: Legislative Assembly meets
1792
February 7: Alliance of Austria and Prussia April 20: French declare war against Austria September 21: National Convention meets; Abolition of the monarchy December: Trial of Louis XVI before the Convention
1793
January 21: Execution of Louis XVI February 1: War declared against Britain, Holland, Spain April -- : Power centered in two committees; Committee of Public Security June 2: Arrest of 31 Girondist deputies July 13: Assassination of Marat August 23: Levy of entire male population October 16: Execution of Marie Antoinette October 31: Execution of Girondists November 10: Abolition of the worship of god: cult of Reason
1794
April 6 : Execution of Dantonists June 8 : Festival of the Supreme Being July 27 : Fall of Robespierre (9 Thermidor)
1795
March 5 : Treaty of Basel (Prussia withdraws from war) April 1 : Bread riots in Paris June 8 : Death of the dauphin (Louis XVII) August 22 : Constitution of 1795 October 5 : Napoleon's "whiff of grape-shot" October 26 : Convention dissolved
1796
March 5 : War against the empire March 9 Marriage of Bonaparte and Josephine May 10 Battle of Lodi (Napoleon in Italy) July Siege of Mantua European Monarchs and Rulers
SPAIN Monarchs Felipe III 1598- 1621 Felipe IV 1621-1665 Carlos II 1665- 1700 Felipe V 1700-1746 Luis 1724-1725 Fernando VI 1746- 1759 Carlos III 1759- 1788 Carlos IV 1788-1808 Fernando VII 1808- 1833 Isabel II 1833- 1870 Amadeo 1870-1873 First Republic, 1873-1874 Alfonso XII 1874-1885 Alfonso XII 1886-1931 Second Republic, 1931-1939 FRANCO, Francisco/Caudillo 1939-1975 Juan Carlos 1975 BRITAIN Monarchs Elizabeth I 1558-1603 James I 1603-1625 Charles I 1625- 1649 Commonwealth, 1649 --1660 Cromwell, Oliver Lord Protector 1653-1658 Cromwell, Richard Lord Protector 1658- 1659 Restoration, 1660 Charles II 1660-1685 James II 1685-1689 Glorious Revolution William III 1689-1702 Mary II 1689- 1694 Anne 1702-1714 Great Britain George I 1714-1727 George II 1727-1760 George III 1760-1820 George IV 1820- 1830 William IV 1830-1837 Victoria 1837- 1901 Edward VII 1901- 1910 George V 1910- 1936 Edward VIII 1936-1936 George VI 1936- 1952 Elizabeth II 1952 Prime Ministers Of Importance WALPOLE, Robert 1721- 1742 PITT, William 1783-1801 PITT, William 1804-1806 WELLINGTON, Duke of 1828-1830
GREY, Earl 1830-1834 DISRAELI, Benjamin 1868- 1868 GLADSTONE, William 1868-1874 DISRAELI, Benjamin 1874-1880 GLADSTONE, William 1880-1885 SALISBURY, Marquis of 1885-1886 GLADSTONE, William 1886-1886 SALISBURY, Marquis of 1886-1892 GLADSTONE, William 1892-1894 BALFOUR, Arthur 1902- 1905 LLOYD GEORGE, David 1916-1922 CHAMBERLAIN, Neville 1937-1940 CHURCHILL, Winston 1940-1945 ATLEE, Clement 1945-1951 CHURCHILL, Winston 1951- 1955 EDEN, Anthony 1955-1957 MACMILLIAN, Harold 1957-1963 WILSON, Harold 1964-1970 HEATH, Edward 1970-1974 WILSON, Harold 1974-1976 THATCHER, Margaret 1979-1990 MAJOR, John 1990-1997 BLAIR, Tony 1997\ FRANCE Kings Henri IV 1589-1610 Louis XIII 1610- 1643 Louis XIV 1643- 1715 Louis XV 1715- 1774 Louis XVI 1774- 1792 First Republic, 1792 -- 1804 National Convention, 1792 -- 1795 Directory, 1795 -- 1799 Consulate, 1799 -- 1804 BONAPARTE, Napoleon First Consul 1799-1804 First Empire Napoleon I Emperor 1804- 1814 Restoration Louis XVIII 1814-1824 Charles X 1824-1830 Louis-Philippe 1830-1848 Second Republic BONAPARTE, Louis President 1848- 1852 Second Empire Napoleon III 1852-1870 Third Republic German Occupation, 1940-1944 PETAIN, Philippe Chief of the French State 1940-1944 DEGAULLE, Charles Provisional President 1944-1946 Fourth Republic Fifth Republic DEGAULLE, Charles 1959-1969 POMPIDOU, Georges 1969-1974 GISCARD D'ESTAING, Valerie 1974-1981 MITTERAND, François 1981- 1995 CHIRAC, Jacques 1995 GERMANY HOUSE OF AUSTRIA Rudolf II Roman Emperor Elect King of Germany, Hungary and Bohemia 1576-1612 Matthias 1612- 1619 Ferdinand II 1619-1638 Ferdinand III 1638- 1658 Leopold I 1658- 1705 Josef I 1705-1711 Karl VI 1711-1740 Maria Theresia Queen of Hungary and Bohemia 1740-1780 Josef II Roman Emperor Elect King of Germany, Hungary and Bohemia 1780- 1790 Leopold II 1790-1792 Franz Emperor of Austria [1804] 1792- 1835 Ferdinand 1835- 1848 Franz Josef 1848-1916 Karl 1916- 1918 HOUSE OF PRUSSIA Joachim Friedrich Elector of Brandenburg 1598- 1608 Johann Sigismund 1608-1619 Georg Wilhelm 1619- 1640 Friedrich Wilhelm 1640- 1688 Friedrich I King of Prussia [1701] 1688- 1713 Friedrich Wilhelm I 1713- 1740 Friedrich II 1740- 1786 Friedrich Wilhelm II 1786- 1797 Friedrich Wilhelm III 1797- 1840 Friedrich Wilhelm IV 1840- 1861 Wilhelm I German Emperor [1871] 1861-1888 Friedrich III 1888-1888 Wilhelm II 1888- 1918 GERMANY Presidents of the First German [Weimar] Republic EBERT, Friedrich President 1919-1925 HINDENBURG, Paul von 1925-1934 Third Reich [Nazi] HITLER, Adolf Fuehrer 1934- 1945 DOENITZ, Karl von President 1945-1945 Allied Occupation, 1945 -- 1949 GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC Communist East Germany, 1949 1990 GERMAN FEDERAL REPUBLIC Democratic West Germany, 1949 1990 Reunified Germany, 1990 -- RUSSIA Russian Emperors Boris 1598-1605 Feodor II 1605- 1605 Dmitri 1605- 1606 Vasily IV 1606- 1610 Mikhail 1613- 1645 Aleksei 1645- 1676 Feodor III 1676-1682 Ivan V 1682- 1689 Petr I 1689- 1725 Ekaterina I 1725- 1727 Petr II 1727-1730 Anna 1730-1740 Ivan VI 1740-1741 Elisaveta 1741- 1762 Petr III 1762- 1762 Ekaterina II 1762-1796 Pavel 1796- 1801 Aleksandr I 1801-1825 Nikolai I 1825- 1855 Aleksandr II 1855- 1881 Aleksandr III 1881- 1894 Nikolai II 1894-1917 Provisional Government LVOV. Giorgi Regent-Premier 1917- 1917 KERENSKY, Aleksandr Provisional President 1917- 1917 COMMUNIST RULE Russian Republic, 1917 -- 1922 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics], 1923 -- 1991 Leaders of the Soviet Communist Party LENIN, Vladimir Premier 1917- 1924 STALIN, Josef General Secretary 1924-1953 MALENKOV, Giorgi 1953- 1953 KHRUSHCHEV, Nikita First Secretary 1953-1964 BREZHNEV, Leonid General Secretary 1964- 1982 ANDROPOV, Yuri 1982-1984 CHERNENKO, Konstantin 1984-1985 GORBACHEV, Mikhail Executive President 1985- 1991 President of the Russian Federation YELTSIN, Boris 1991- 1999 PUTIN, Vladimir 2000-08
English History
Tudors
Henry VII is generally considered to have restored the monarchy after the turmoil of the Wars of the Roses (although he built on the work of Edward IV.) Henry's policies included keeping the country at peace, putting the monarchy and the country on a firm financial footing, and destroying the independent power of the great nobles. He married Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV, and contrary to Josephine Tey, was not responsible for the deaths of the Little Princes. He was a very, very good monarch.
The most important development during the reign of Henry VIII was the breach with Rome and setting England on the path to becoming a Protestant nation. Henry was an important but not really a good king. He spent the wealth his father amassed on futile wars, executed hundreds of political opponents, including two wives and some of his best servants, and was not a nice person. Parliament became important during his reign.
Edward VI was a minor and his reign was marred by all the problems associated with a protectorate. Most significant is that his ministers furthered the Protestantism of England.
Bloody Mary tried to return England to Catholicism and might well have succeeded had she lived longer and produced a Catholic heir. Her marriage to Philip of Spain and her weak government left England nearly bankrupt.
Elizabeth (the Great) had her father's ability to choose good councilors, but unlike him, was loyal to them. She was by default a Protestant and England became the leading Protestant power during her reign. This and other factors led ultimately to war with Spain and to the great victory over the Armada. She restored the country's finances and prestige and presided over its greatest cultural age.
Stuarts
The Stuarts were, on the whole, much less able monarchs than their predecessors and also faced an increasingly assertive Parliament which objected to both their financial and their religious policies. James managed to muddle through, but his son Charles alienated many of the political elite, especially when he refused to call Parliament for eleven years (1629- 1640). When war with the Scots forced him to call Parliament, the grievances were great and the distrust of the monarch intense. The country drifted towards civil war, which broke out in 1642. The Cavaliers (Royalists) and Roundheads (Parliamentarians) fought a number of battles and ultimately the latter prevailed, largely because of their financial resources based on control of London and their better generals, including Cromwell. The king's treacherous activities finally convinced the more radical leaders of parliament that he must be disposed of and they tried him for treason and executed him on January 30, 1649. For 11 years England had no king, first ruled by parliament and then by Cromwell as Lord Protector. After Cromwell's death, there was no strong leader and the political elite moved to restore the Stuarts to the throne (the Restoration).
Charles II was restored to a much weaker monarchy than had existed before the Civil War. Parliament had assured its control over revenues and its frequent meetings. Charles was an astute monarch who "didn't want to go on his travels again." He wished to restore the monarchy to its former (or even greater) power and was probably a proto-Catholic, but he was wise enough not to push to far and died peacefully in bed.
His brother James was not so smart. A Catholic, he sought to assure the free exercise of his religion in England, contrary to his countrymen's prejudices. His greatest mistake was producing a male heir who would be raised Catholic and thus assure a Catholic succession. The political elite banded together to invite him to leave (the Glorious Revolution) and parliment bestowed the throne on his daughter and son-in-law.
The reigns of William and Mary and Anne saw a protracted struggle between England and France, with England and its allies finally prevailing. Parliament was an increasingly important institution and the first political parties made their appearance. Probably the most telling indication of the shifting balance of power was the Act of Succession passed in 1701, in which Parliament determined who would follow the childless Anne on the throne - the nearest Protestant heir, George, Elector of Hannover. The Age of Reform: 1822 - 1848
The Age of Tory Reform: The death of Castlereagh (a particularly unpleasant death since he committed suicide with a penknife) introduced a period of political instability. The reactionary Tories were in retreat and the more liberal George Canning became the most important political figure. Canning, the son of an actress, was not a traditional tory, but rather one of the talented men whom the party often made use of. The most important reforms were carried out by the young Home Secretary, Sir Robert Peel (the younger) who began the process of reforming the draconian penal laws that had punished so many minor crimes with death. Another reform repealed the Combination Acts which had prevented working men from unionizing and had inhibited their political activity. Canning's death in 1827 left a political vacuum which was filled by a Tory administration headed by the Duke of Wellington. His government faced the first of the century's many Irish crises. Under the leadership of Daniel O'Connell, the Irish organized to demand Catholic Emancipation, that is the right of Catholics to sit in parliament and to hold other governmental offices. Although his party was adamently opposed to such a major change in in the constitution, Wellington, in the interests of preserving the peace, passed the reform, with the support of the Whigs. Then, in 1830, George IV died and new parliamentary elections were held. Candidates who favored a reform of the political system won the majority of the contested seats, and Wellington resigned in favor of the Whig leader, Earl Grey.
The Great Reform Bill & After: The issue of reforming the the electoral system had first been broached in the late 18th century. Representation in the House of Commons no longer reflected the realities of British life. The south and west were grossly overrepresented while many of the new industrial cities of the north sent no members to the House of Commons. Moreover, the right to vote in parliamentary elections was anything but uniform. In some places, almost all men could vote; in others, the so-called rotten boroughs, a single man could determine who served in parliament. Almost everywhere, landed wealth was grossly overrepresented at the expense of the newly important wealth based on commerce and industry.
The early attempts at reform had been stymied by the social and political reaction that had followed the French Revolution, but by 1830 it was clear that the system had to bend if it were not to break. It took two years, extensive popular agitation, two elections, and the threat to create enough peers to get the bill through the Lords, but in 1832 the first major change in the British political system became law. It disenfranchised the rotten boroughs, standardized the rights to the franchise and more than doubled the number of voters. The British middle class were now participants in electoral politics.
The next several years saw other innovative laws passed. The first effective Factory Act was passed, which limited the employment of children in textile factories and provided an enforcement mechanism. The Poor Law was amended, establishing poor houses, ending the practice of "outdoor relief" and prohibiting the supplementing of wages from the poor rates. A start was made on providing government funds for education and acts were passed to improve health and sanitation in Britain's growing cities. In short, the government began to take steps, however halting, to deal with the problems of the new industrial society.
Economic & Social Developments: The industrialization of Britain continued apace during these years. Perhaps the most significant innovation was the development of the railways. Between their beginnings in the 1820s and 1850, the country was crisscrossed by tracks and suddenly, journeys which had taken days now took hours. The demand for iron to construct the engines and tracks and coal to fuel the trains led to the expansion of mining. The metallurgical industries grew. And the cheaper transport reduced still further the cost of manufactured goods.
But the new capitalistic society had costs as well as benefits. And the working class mostly bore these costs. Hours were long, wages were low, and living conditions were abysmal. Moreover, the new economy was subject to recessions when thousands were thrown out of work and forced into the hated poor houses. Indeed, there were cyclical bad times in 1837, 1842 and 1848.
In the face of these problems there emerged the first organized working class movement, Chartism. The Chartist solution to working class problems was a further reform of the political system: universal manhood suffrage, secret ballot, equal electoral districts, no property requirements for MPs and the payment of members of parliament so working class representatives could sit in the House of Commons. The Chartists gathered millions of signatures on their petitions, but the government simply ignored their demands and viewed the movement with great suspicion.
More successful was the middle class movement that argued that the solution to hard times was the repeal of those laws which protected British agriculture and drove up the price of bread. The Anti-Corn Law League put continued pressure on the government and finally, in 1846 the Tory government of Sir Robert Peel repealed the Corn Laws. His actions split his party and changed the direction of politics.
The Potato Famine:Ireland One factor that led Peel to act against the wishes of his party was the dreadful famine that wracked Ireland in 1845 and 1846. It has always been Ireland's misfortune to be near neighbor to an expansionistic and ruthless England. The first English excursion into Ireland came as early as the 12th century as ambitious and greedy Norman barons sought land and power in the neighboring Ireland. Many English kings campaigned in Ireland, but until Tudor times, English control did not extend much beyond the so-called Pale of Dublin, although the English king called himself the king of Ireland.
However, the situation changed during the 16th century. England became a Protestant country while Ireland remained devotedly Catholic. And a Catholic Ireland was a threat to England. Her enemies could use Ireland as a staging ground for an attack on England, as Philip of Spain tried to do more than once. Thus, at the end of Elizabeth's reign, she sent troops to break the independent power of the Irish chieftains. James I sought to consolidate his control over the troublesome island by settling Scots Protestants in Ulster, dispossesing the Irish much as the English would later dispossess the Indians. The governance of the country was placed in the hands of reliable Protestants, and a more greedy and grasping group would be hard to find.
But the really bad times would come during the Civil War and in its aftermath. The Catholic Irish rose against their Protestant rulers, claiming they were acting in support of Charles I. After Charles had been deposed, Cromwell took his seasoned troops to Ireland and reasserted English dominance. His utter ruthlessness toward the Irish was so great that for more than a century, Irish mothers would threaten their children with Cromwell to make them behave. He also settled large numbers of his soldiers on seized Irish lands.
The final tragedy for the Irish came in 1690. After the Glorious Revolution, the Irish Catholics rallied to James II, providing him with soldiers to win back his kingdoms. James was ignominiously defeated by William III at the Battle of the Boyne and henceforward, Ireland was treated as an occupied enemy.
A myriad of penal laws were passed. The practice of the Catholic religion was made illegal and priests were subject to arrest. Catholic fathers were prevented from passing their lands on to their Catholic sons. Catholics were barred from the professions and were denied access to education. Most land passed into the hands of Englishmen, most of whom were absentee landowners who demanded high rents from their tenants and did little or nothing to improve their properties. Moreover, the English parliament passed laws (or forced the Irish parliament to pass acts) which severely limited Irish economic development. For example, a flourishing woolen industry was destroyed at the behest of the English manufacturers. (It should be noted that the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians were treated no better than their Catholic counterparts. As a result, large numbers emigrated to the American colonies where they and their descendants became some of the staunchest opponents of British rule.)
Yet despite all this persecution, the Irish population continued to grow, until it had risen from perhaps 3 million in 1700 to around 8 million in 1840. The reason? The potato. The potato, introduced from America, is a marvelous source of food. It has all sorts of valuable vitamins, grows readily in a cool, damp climate, and can be grown in large quantities on a small piece of ground. The Irish peasants, on their small holdings, grew grain to pay their rents and taxes, but depended for their own sustenance on the lowly potato.
When the potato crop failed in 1845, the result was famine, a famine of such mammouth proportions as had not been known in western Europe for centuries. At least a million Irish died of starvation or starvation induced diseases and another million emigrated. And neither the government in London nor the absentee landlords did anything much to alleviate the crisis. Indeed, many landlords continued to insist on receiving their rents, so at the same time that Irish men, women and children were dying of hunger, grain continued to be shipped to England. (In fact, the Irish had become so dependent on the potato that many lacked the facilites to mill the grain or bake the bread.)
The Irish Famine ended any chance that there might have been for peaceful coexistence between England and Ireland within a United Kingdom. The grudging accomodations that the British government had made to the Irish paled before the failure of that government to act effectively to deal with the crisis. The famine made the final break between Britain and Ireland inevitable, although it would take decades and still more martyrs to achieve an independent Ireland.
The Victorian Era (1837 - 1901) The Victorian era is generally agreed to stretch through the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). It was a tremendously exciting period when many artistic styles, literary schools, as well as, social, political and religious movements flourished. It was a time of prosperity, broad imperial expansion, and great political reform. It was also a time, which today we associate with "prudishness" and "repression". Without a doubt, it was an extraordinarily complex age, that has sometimes been called the Second English Renaissance. It is, however, also the beginning of Modern Times.
The social classes of England were newly reforming, and fomenting. There was a churning upheaval of the old hierarchical order, and the middle classes were steadily growing. Added to that, the upper classes' composition was changing from simply hereditary aristocracy to a combination of nobility and an emerging wealthy commercial class. The definition of what made someone a gentleman or a lady was, therefore, changing at what some thought was an alarming rate. By the end of the century, it was silently agreed that a gentleman was someone who had a liberal public (private) school education (preferably at Eton, Rugby, or Harrow), no matter what his antecedents might be. There continued to be a large and generally disgruntled working class, wanting and slowly getting reform and change.
Conditions of the working class were still bad, though, through the century, three reform bills gradually gave the vote to most males over the age of twenty-one. Contrasting to that was the horrible reality of child labor which persisted throughout the period. When a bill was passed stipulating that children under nine could not work in the textile industry, this in no way applied to other industries, nor did it in any way curb rampant teenaged prostitution.
The Victorian Era was also a time of tremendous scientific progress and ideas. Darwin took his Voyage of the Beagle, and posited the Theory of Evolution. The Great Exhibition of 1851 took place in London, lauding the technical and industrial advances of the age, and strides in medicine and the physical sciences continued throughout the century. The radical thought associated with modern psychiatry began with men like Sigmund Feud toward the end of the era, and radical economic theory, developed by Karl Marx and his associates, began a second age of revolution in mid-century. The ideas of Marxism, socialism, feminism churned and bubbled along with all else that happened.
The dress of the early Victorian era was similar to the the Georgian age. Women wore corsets, balloonish sleeves and crinolines in the middle 1840's. The crinoline thrived, and expanded during the 50's and 60's, and into the 70's, until, at last, it gave way to the bustle. The bustle held its own until the 1890's, and became much smaller, going out altogether by the dawning of the twentieth century. For men, following Beau Brummell's example, stove-pipe pants were the fashion at the beginning of the century. Their ties, known then as cravats, and the various ways they might be tied could change, the styles of shirts, jackets, and hats also, but trousers have remained. Throughout the century, it was stylish for men to wear facial hair of all sizes and descriptions. The clean shaven look of the Regency was out, and mustaches, mutton-chop sideburns, Piccadilly Weepers, full beards, and Van Dykes (worn by Napoleon III) were the order of the day.
The "prudishness" and "repressiveness" that we associate with this era is, I believe, a somewhat erroneous association. Though, people referred to arms and legs as limbs and extremities, and many other things that make us titter, it is, in my opinion, because they had a degree of modesty and a sense of propriety that we hardly understand today. The latest biographies of Queen Victoria describe her and her husband, Albert, of enjoying erotic art, and certainly we know enough about the Queen from the segment on her issue, to know that she did not in anyway shy away from the marriage bed. The name sake of this period was hardly a prude, but having said that, it is necessary to understand that the strictures and laws for 19th Century Society were so much more narrow and defined that they are today, that we must see this era as very codified and strict. Naturally, to an era that takes more liberties, this would seem harsh and unnatural.
Culturally, the novel continued to thrive through this time. Its importance to the era could easily be compared to the importance of the plays of Shakespeare for the Elizabethans. Some of the great novelists of the time were: Sir Walter Scott, Emily, Anne, and Charlotte Bronte, Anthony Trollope, George Eliot, Oscar Wilde, and, of course, Charles Dickens. That is not to say that poetry did not thrive - it did with the works of the Brownings, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, the verse of Lewis Carroll and Rudyard Kipling.
An art movement indicative of this period was the Pre-Raphaelites, which included William Holman Hunt, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Christina Rossetti, and John Everett Millais. Also during this period were the Impressionists, the Realists, and the Fauves, though the Pre-Raphaelites were distinctive for being a completely English movement.
As stated in the beginning, the Victorian Age was an extremely diverse and complex period. It was, indeed, the precursor of the modern era. If one wishes to understand the world today in terms of society, culture, science, and ideas, it is imperative to study this era. Existentialism
Existentialism, philosophical movement or tendency, emphasizing individual existence, freedom, and choice, that influenced many diverse writers in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Major Themes: Because of the diversity of positions associated with existentialism, the term is impossible to define precisely. Certain themes common to virtually all existentialist writers can, however, be identified. The term itself suggests one major theme: the stress on concrete individual existence and, consequently, on subjectivity, individual freedom, and choice.
Moral Individualism: Most philosophers since Plato have held that the highest ethical good is the same for everyone; insofar as one approaches moral perfection, one resembles other morally perfect individuals. The 19th-century Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, who was the first writer to call himself existential, reacted against this tradition by insisting that the highest good for the individual is to find his or her own unique vocation. As he wrote in his journal, “I must find a truth that is true for me . . . the idea for which I can live or die.” Other existentialist writers have echoed Kierkegaard's belief that one must choose one's own way without the aid of universal, objective standards. Against the traditional view that moral choice involves an objective judgment of right and wrong, existentialists have argued that no objective, rational basis can be found for moral decisions. The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche further contended that the individual must decide which situations are to count as moral situations.
Subjectivity: All existentialists have followed Kierkegaard in stressing the importance of passionate individual action in deciding questions of both morality and truth. They have insisted, accordingly, that personal experience and acting on one's own convictions are essential in arriving at the truth. Thus, the understanding of a situation by someone involved in that situation is superior to that of a detached, objective observer. This emphasis on the perspective of the individual agent has also made existentialists suspicious of systematic reasoning. Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and other existentialist writers have been deliberately unsystematic in the exposition of their philosophies, preferring to express themselves in aphorisms, dialogues, parables, and other literary forms. Despite their antirationalist position, however, most existentialists cannot be said to be irrationalists in the sense of denying all validity to rational thought. They have held that rational clarity is desirable wherever possible, but that the most important questions in life are not accessible to reason or science. Furthermore, they have argued that even science is not as rational as is commonly supposed. Nietzsche, for instance, asserted that the scientific assumption of an orderly universe is for the most part a useful fiction.
Choice and Commitment:Perhaps the most prominent theme in existentialist writing is that of choice. Humanity's primary distinction, in the view of most existentialists, is the freedom to choose. Existentialists have held that human beings do not have a fixed nature, or essence, as other animals and plants do; each human being makes choices that create his or her own nature. In the formulation of the 20th-century French philosopher Jean Paul Sartre, existence precedes essence. Choice is therefore central to human existence, and it is inescapable; even the refusal to choose is a choice. Freedom of choice entails commitment and responsibility. Because individuals are free to choose their own path, existentialists have argued, they must accept the risk and responsibility of following their commitment wherever it leads.
Dread and Anxiety: Kierkegaard held that it is spiritually crucial to recognize that one experiences not only a fear of specific objects but also a feeling of general apprehension, which he called dread. He interpreted it as God's way of calling each individual to make a commitment to a personally valid way of life. The word anxiety (German Angst) has a similarly crucial role in the work of the 20th-century German philosopher Martin Heidegger; anxiety leads to the individual's confrontation with nothingness and with the impossibility of finding ultimate justification for the choices he or she must make. In the philosophy of Sartre, the word nausea is used for the individual's recognition of the pure contingency of the universe, and the word anguish is used for the recognition of the total freedom of choice that confronts the individual at every moment.
History: Existentialism as a distinct philosophical and literary movement belongs to the 19th and 20th centuries, but elements of existentialism can be found in the thought (and life) of Socrates, in the Bible, and in the work of many premodern philosophers and writers.
Pascal: The first to anticipate the major concerns of modern existentialism was the 17th-century French philosopher Blaise Pascal. Pascal rejected the rigorous rationalism of his contemporary René Descartes, asserting, in his Pensées (1670), that a systematic philosophy that presumes to explain God and humanity is a form of pride. Like later existentialist writers, he saw human life in terms of paradoxes: The human self, which combines mind and body, is itself a paradox and contradiction. Kierkegaard: Generally regarded as the founder of modern existentialism, reacted against the systematic absolute idealism of the 19th-century German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, who claimed to have worked out a total rational understanding of humanity and history. Kierkegaard, on the contrary, stressed the ambiguity and absurdity of the human situation. The individual's response to this situation must be to live a totally committed life, and this commitment can only be understood by the individual who has made it. The individual therefore must always be prepared to defy the norms of society for the sake of the higher authority of a personally valid way of life. Kierkegaard ultimately advocated a “leap of faith” into a Christian way of life, which, although incomprehensible and full of risk, was the only commitment he believed could save the individual from despair.
Nietzsche: Who was not acquainted with the work of Kierkegaard, influenced subsequent existentialist thought through his criticism of traditional metaphysical and moral assumptions and through his espousal of tragic pessimism and the life- affirming individual will that opposes itself to the moral conformity of the majority. In contrast to Kierkegaard, whose attack on conventional morality led him to advocate a radically individualistic Christianity, Nietzsche proclaimed the “death of God” and went on to reject the entire Judeo-Christian moral tradition in favor of a heroic pagan ideal.
Heidegger: Like Pascal and Kierkegaard, reacted against an attempt to put philosophy on a conclusive rationalistic basis— in this case the phenomenology of the 20th-century German philosopher Edmund Husserl. Heidegger argued that humanity finds itself in an incomprehensible, indifferent world. Human beings can never hope to understand why they are here; instead, each individual must choose a goal and follow it with passionate conviction, aware of the certainty of death and the ultimate meaninglessness of one's life. Heidegger contributed to existentialist thought an original emphasis on being and ontology as well as on language.
Sartre: First gave the term existentialism general currency by using it for his own philosophy and by becoming the leading figure of a distinct movement in France that became internationally influential after World War II. Sartre's philosophy is explicitly atheistic and pessimistic; he declared that human beings require a rational basis for their lives but are unable to achieve one, and thus human life is a “futile passion.” Sartre nevertheless insisted that his existentialism is a form of humanism, and he strongly emphasized human freedom, choice, and responsibility. He eventually tried to reconcile these existentialist concepts with a Marxist analysis of society and history.
Existentialism and Literature: A number of existentialist philosophers used literary forms to convey their thought, and existentialism has been as vital and as extensive a movement in literature as in philosophy. The 19th-century Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky is probably the greatest existentialist literary figure. In Notes from the Underground (1864), the alienated antihero rages against the optimistic assumptions of rationalist humanism. The view of human nature that emerges in this and other novels of Dostoyevsky is that it is unpredictable and perversely self-destructive; only Christian love can save humanity from itself, but such love cannot be understood philosophically. As the character Alyosha says in The Brothers Karamazov (1879-80), “We must love life more than the meaning of it.”
In the 20th century, the novels of the Austrian Jewish writer Franz Kafka, such as The Trial (1925; trans. 1937) and The Castle (1926; trans. 1930), present isolated men confronting vast, elusive, menacing bureaucracies; Kafka's themes of anxiety, guilt, and solitude reflect the influence of Kierkegaard, Dostoyevsky, and Nietzsche. The influence of Nietzsche is also discernible in the novels of the French writers André Malraux and in the plays of Sartre. The work of the French writer Albert Camus is usually associated with existentialism because of the prominence in it of such themes as the apparent absurdity and futility of life, the indifference of the universe, and the necessity of engagement in a just cause. Existentialist themes are also reflected in the theater of the absurd, notably in the plays of Samuel Beckett and Eugène Ionesco. In the United States, the influence of existentialism on literature has been more indirect and diffuse, but traces of Kierkegaard's thought can be found in the novels of Walker Percy and John Updike, and various existentialist themes are apparent in the work of such diverse writers as Norman Mailer, John Barth, and Arthur Miller. Genocide In 20th Century European History
Armenia
The first genocide of the 20th Century occurred when two million Armenians living in Turkey were eliminated from their historic homeland through forced deportations and massacres.
In the eleventh century, the first Turkish invasion of the Armenian homeland occurred. Thus began several hundred years of rule by Muslim Turks. By the sixteenth century, Armenia had been absorbed into the vast and mighty Ottoman Empire. At its peak, this Turkish empire included much of Southeast Europe, North Africa, and almost all of the Middle East.
But by the 1800s the once powerful Ottoman Empire was in serious decline. For centuries, it had spurned technological and economic progress, while the nations of Europe had embraced innovation and became industrial giants. Turkish armies had once been virtually invincible. Now, they lost battle after battle to modern European armies.
By the 1890s, young Armenians began to press for political reforms, calling for a constitutional government, the right to vote and an end to discriminatory practices such as special taxes levied solely against them because they were Christians. The despotic Sultan responded to their pleas with brutal persecutions. Between 1894 and 1896 over 100,000 inhabitants of Armenian villages were massacred during widespread pogroms conducted by the Sultan's special regiments.
But the Sultan's days were numbered. In July 1908, reform-minded Turkish nationalists known as "Young Turks" forced the Sultan to allow a constitutional government and guarantee basic rights. The Young Turks were ambitious junior officers in the Turkish Army who hoped to halt their country's steady decline.
Armenians in Turkey were delighted with this sudden turn of events and its prospects for a brighter future. Jubilant public rallies were held attended by both Turks and Armenians with banners held high calling for freedom, equality and justice.
However, their hopes were dashed when three of the Young Turks seized full control of the government via a coup in 1913. This triumvirate of Young Turks, consisting of Mehmed Talaat, Ismail Enver and Ahmed Djemal, came to wield dictatorial powers and concocted their own ambitious plans for the future of Turkey. They wanted to unite all of the Turkic peoples in the entire region while expanding the borders of Turkey eastward across the Caucasus all the way into Central Asia. This would create a new Turkish empire, a "great and eternal land" called Turan with one language and one religion.
But there was a big problem. The traditional historic homeland of Armenia lay right in the path of their plans to expand eastward. And on that land was a large population of Christian Armenians totaling some two million persons, making up about 10 percent of Turkey's overall population.
The Young Turks decided to glorify the virtues of simple Turkish peasantry at the expense of the Armenians in order to capture peasant loyalty. They exploited the religious, cultural, economic and political differences between Turks and Armenians so that the average Turk came to regard Armenians as strangers among them.
When World War I broke out in 1914, leaders of the Young Turk regime sided with the Central Powers (Germany and Austria- Hungary). The outbreak of war would provide the perfect opportunity to solve the "Armenian question" once and for all. The world's attention became fixed upon the battlegrounds of France and Belgium where the young men of Europe were soon falling dead by the hundreds of thousands. The Eastern Front eventually included the border between Turkey and Russia. With war at hand, unusual measures involving the civilian population would not seem too out of the ordinary.
As a prelude to the coming action, Turks disarmed the entire Armenian population under the pretext that the people were naturally sympathetic toward Christian Russia. Every last rifle and pistol was forcibly seized, with severe penalties for anyone who failed to turn in a weapon. Quite a few Armenian men actually purchased a weapon from local Turks or Kurds (nomadic Muslim tribesmen) at very high prices so they would have something to turn in.
At this time, about forty thousand Armenian men were serving in the Turkish Army. In the fall and winter of 1914, all of their weapons were confiscated and they were put into slave labor battalions building roads or were used as human pack animals. Under the brutal work conditions they suffered a very high death rate. Those who survived would soon be shot outright. For the time had come to move against the Armenians. The decision to annihilate the entire population came directly from the ruling triumvirate of ultra-nationalist Young Turks. The actual extermination orders were transmitted in coded telegrams to all provincial governors throughout Turkey. Armed roundups began on the evening of April 24, 1915, as 300 Armenian political leaders, educators, writers, clergy and dignitaries in Constantinople (present day Istanbul) were taken from their homes, briefly jailed and tortured, then hanged or shot
Next, there were mass arrests of Armenian men throughout the country by Turkish soldiers, police agents and bands of Turkish volunteers. The men were tied together with ropes in small groups then taken to the outskirts of their town and shot dead or bayoneted by death squads. Local Turks and Kurds armed with knives and sticks often joined in on the killing.
Then it was the turn of Armenian women, children, and the elderly. On very short notice, they were ordered to pack a few belongings and be ready to leave home, under the pretext that they were being relocated to a non-military zone for their own safety. They were actually being taken on death marches heading south toward the Syrian desert.
Most of the homes and villages left behind by the rousted Armenians were quickly occupied by Muslim Turks who assumed instant ownership of everything. In many cases, young Armenian children were spared from deportation by local Turks who took them from their families. The children were coerced into denouncing Christianity and becoming Muslims, and were then given new Turkish names. For Armenian boys the forced conversion meant they each had to endure painful circumcision as required by Islamic custom.
Individual caravans consisting of thousands of deported Armenians were escorted by Turkish gendarmes. These guards allowed roving government units of hardened criminals known as the "Special Organization" to attack the defenseless people, killing anyone they pleased. They also encouraged Kurdish bandits to raid the caravans and steal anything they wanted. In addition, an extraordinary amount of sexual abuse and rape of girls and young women occurred at the hands of the Special Organization and Kurdish bandits. Most of the attractive young females were kidnapped for a life of involuntary servitude.
The death marches, involving over a million Armenians, covered hundreds of miles and lasted months. Indirect routes through mountains and wilderness areas were deliberately chosen in order to prolong the ordeal and to keep the caravans away from Turkish villages.
Food supplies being carried by the people quickly ran out and they were usually denied further food or water. Anyone stopping to rest or lagging behind the caravan was mercilessly beaten until they rejoined the march. If they couldn't continue they were shot. A common practice was to force all of the people in the caravan to remove every stitch of clothing and have them resume the march in the nude under the scorching sun until they dropped dead by the roadside from exhaustion and dehydration.
An estimated 75 percent of the Armenians on these marches perished, especially children and the elderly. Those who survived the ordeal were herded into the desert without a drop of water. Others were killed by being thrown off cliffs, burned alive, or drowned in rivers.
The Turkish countryside became littered with decomposing corpses. At one point, Mehmed Talaat responded to the problem by sending a coded message to all provincial leaders: "I have been advised that in certain areas unburied corpses are still to be seen. I ask you to issue the strictest instructions so that the corpses and their debris in your vilayet are buried."
But his instructions were generally ignored. Those involved in the mass murder showed little interest in stopping to dig graves. The roadside corpses and emaciated deportees were a shocking sight to foreigners working in Turkey. Eyewitnesses included German government liaisons, American missionaries, and U.S. diplomats stationed in the country.
Temporary relief for some Armenians came as Russian troops attacked along the Eastern Front and made their way into central Turkey. But the troops withdrew in 1917 upon the Russian Revolution. Armenian survivors withdrew along with them and settled in among fellow Armenians already living in provinces of the former Russian Empire. There were in total about 500,000 Armenians gathered in this region.
In May 1918, Turkish armies attacked the area to achieve the goal of expanding Turkey eastward into the Caucasus and also to resume the annihilation of the Armenians. As many as 100,000 Armenians may have fallen victim to the advancing Turkish troops.
However, the Armenians managed to acquire weapons and they fought back, finally repelling the Turkish invasion at the battle of Sadarabad, thus saving the remaining population from total extermination with no help from the outside world. Following that victory, Armenian leaders declared the establishment of the independent Republic of Armenia.
No Allied power came to the aid of the Armenian Republic and it collapsed. Only a tiny portion of the easternmost area of historic Armenia survived by being becoming part of the Soviet Union. The Holocaust
It began with a simple boycott of Jewish shops and ended in the gas chambers at Auschwitz as Adolf Hitler and his Nazi followers attempted to exterminate the entire Jewish population of Europe.
In January 1933, after a bitter ten-year political struggle, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. During his rise to power, Hitler had repeatedly blamed the Jews for Germany's defeat in World War I and subsequent economic hardships. Hitler also put forward racial theories asserting that Germans with fair skin, blond hair and blue eyes were the supreme form of human, or master race. The Jews, according to Hitler, were the racial opposite, and were actively engaged in an international conspiracy to keep this master race from assuming its rightful position as rulers of the world.
But they were gradually shut out of German society by the Nazis through a never-ending series of laws and decrees, culminating in the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 which deprived them of their German citizenship and forbade intermarriage with non-Jews. They were removed from schools, banned from the professions, excluded from military service, and were even forbidden to share a park bench with a non-Jew.
Back in Germany, years of pent-up hatred toward the Jews was finally let loose on the night that marks the actual beginning of the Holocaust. The Night of Broken Glass (Kristallnacht) occurred on November 9/10 after 17-year-old Herschel Grynszpan shot and killed Ernst vom Rath, a German embassy official in Paris, in retaliation for the harsh treatment his Jewish parents had received from Nazis.
Hitler intended to blame the Jews for the new world war he was soon to provoke. That war began in September 1939 as German troops stormed into Poland, a country that was home to over three million Jews. After Poland's quick defeat, Polish Jews were rounded up and forced into newly established ghettos at Lodz, Krakow, and Warsaw, to await future plans. Inside these overcrowded walled-in ghettos, tens of thousands died a slow death from hunger and disease amid squalid living conditions. The ghettos soon came under the jurisdiction of Heinrich Himmler, leader of the Nazi SS, Hitler's most trusted and loyal organization, composed of fanatical young men considered racially pure according to Nazi standards.
During the summer of 1941, SS leader Heinrich Himmler summoned Auschwitz Commandant Rudolf Höss to Berlin and told him: "The Führer has ordered the Final Solution of the Jewish question. We, the SS, have to carry out this order...I have therefore chosen Auschwitz for this purpose."
At Auschwitz, a large new camp was already under construction to be known as Auschwitz II (Birkenau). This would become the future site of four large gas chambers to be used for mass extermination. The idea of using gas chambers originated during the Euthanasia Program, the so-called "mercy killing" of sick and disabled persons in Germany and Austria by Nazi doctors.
By now, experimental mobile gas vans were being used by the Einsatzgruppen to kill Jews in Russia. Special trucks had been converted by the SS into portable gas chambers. Jews were locked up in the air-tight rear container while exhaust fumes from the truck's engine were fed in to suffocate them. However, this method was found to be somewhat impractical since the average capacity was less than 50 persons. For the time being, the quickest killing method continued to be mass shootings. And as Hitler's troops advanced deep into the Soviet Union, the pace of Einsatz killings accelerated. Over 33,000 Jews in the Ukraine were shot in the Babi Yar ravine near Kiev during two days in September 1941.
The next year, 1942, marked the beginning of mass murder on a scale unprecedented in all of human history. In January, fifteen top Nazis led by Reinhard Heydrich, second in command of the SS, convened the Wannsee Conference in Berlin to coordinate plans for the Final Solution. The Jews of Europe would now be rounded up and deported into occupied Poland where new extermination centers were being constructed at Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, and Auschwitz-Birkenau.Code named "Aktion Reinhard" in honor of Heydrich, the Final Solution began in the spring as over two million Jews already in Poland were sent to be gassed as soon as the new camps became operational. Hans Frank, the Nazi Governor of Poland had by now declared: "I ask nothing of the Jews except that they should disappear."
Every detail of the actual extermination process was meticulously planned. Jews arriving in trains at Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka were falsely informed by the SS that they had come to a transit stop and would be moving on to their true destination after delousing. They were told their clothes were going to be disinfected and that they would all be taken to shower rooms for a good washing. Men were then split up from the women and children. Everyone was taken to undressing barracks and told to remove all of their clothing. Women and girls next had their hair cut off. First the men, and then the women and children, were hustled in the nude along a narrow fenced-in pathway nicknamed by the SS as the Himmelstrasse (road to Heaven). At the end of the path was a bathhouse with tiled shower rooms. As soon as the people were all crammed inside, the main door was slammed shut, creating an air-tight seal. Deadly carbon monoxide fumes were then fed in from a stationary diesel engine located outside the chamber. In April 1944, two Jewish inmates escaped from Auschwitz and made it safely into Czechoslovakia. One of them, Rudolf Vrba, submitted a detailed report to the Papal Nuncio in Slovakia which was then forwarded to the Vatican,
In several instances, Jews took matters into their own hands and violently resisted the Nazis. The most notable was the 28-day battle waged inside the Warsaw Ghetto. There, a group of 750 Jews armed with smuggled-in weapons battled over 2000 SS soldiers armed with small tanks, artillery and flame throwers. Upon encountering stiff resistance from the Jews, the Nazis decided to burn down the entire ghetto.
An SS report described the scene: "The Jews stayed in the burning buildings until because of the fear of being burned alive they jumped down from the upper stories…With their bones broken, they still tried to crawl across the street into buildings which had not yet been set on fire…Despite the danger of being burned alive the Jews and bandits often preferred to return into the flames rather than risk being caught by us."
Resistance also occurred inside the death camps. At Treblinka, Jewish inmates staged a revolt in August 1943, after which Himmler ordered the camp dismantled. At Sobibor, a big escape occurred in October 1943, as Jews and Soviet POWs killed 11 SS men and broke out, with 300 making it safely into nearby woods. Of those 300, most were hunted down and only fifty survived. Himmler then closed Sobibor. At Auschwitz-Birkenau, Jewish Sonderkommandos managed to destroy crematory number four in October 1944.
But throughout Nazi-occupied Europe, relatively few non-Jewish persons were willing to risk their own lives to help the Jews. Notable exceptions included Oskar Schindler, a German who saved 1200 Jews by moving them from Plaszow labor camp to his hometown of Brunnlitz. The country of Denmark rescued nearly its entire population of Jews, over 7000, by transporting them to safety by sea. Italy and Bulgaria both refused to cooperate with German demands for deportations. Elsewhere in Europe, people generally stood by passively and watched as Jewish families were marched through the streets toward waiting trains, or in some cases, actively participated in Nazi persecutions.
By 1944, the tide of war had turned against Hitler and his armies were being defeated on all fronts by the Allies. However, the killing of Jews continued uninterrupted. Railroad locomotives and freight cars badly needed by the German Army were instead used by the SS to transport Jews to Auschwitz.
In May, Nazis under the direction of SS Lt. Colonel Adolf Eichmann boldly began a mass deportation of the last major surviving population of European Jews. From May 15 to July 9, over 430,000 Hungarian Jews were deported to Auschwitz. During this time, Auschwitz recorded its highest-ever daily number of persons killed and cremated at just over 9000. Six huge open pits were used to burn the bodies, as the number of dead exceeded the capacity of the crematories.
The Soviet Army reached Auschwitz on January 27, 1945. By that time, an estimated 1,500,000 Jews, along with 500,000 Polish prisoners, Soviet POWs and Gypsies, had perished there. As the Western Allies pushed into Germany in the spring of 1945, they liberated Buchenwald, Bergen-Belsen, and Dachau. Now the full horror of the twelve-year Nazi regime became apparent as British and American soldiers, including Supreme Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower, viewed piles of emaciated corpses and listened to vivid accounts given by survivors.
Bosnia
In the Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina, conflict between the three main ethnic groups, the Serbs, Croats, and Muslims, resulted in genocide committed by the Serbs against the Muslims in Bosnia.
Bosnia is one of several small countries that emerged from the break-up of Yugoslavia, a multicultural country created after World War I by the victorious Western Allies. Yugoslavia was composed of ethnic and religious groups that had been historical rivals, even bitter enemies, including the Serbs (Orthodox Christians), Croats (Catholics) and ethnic Albanians (Muslims).
During World War II, Yugoslavia was invaded by Nazi Germany and was partitioned. A fierce resistance movement sprang up led by Josip Tito. Following Germany's defeat, Tito reunified Yugoslavia under the slogan "Brotherhood and Unity," merging together Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, along with two self-governing provinces, Kosovo and Vojvodina.
Tito, a Communist, was a strong leader who maintained ties with the Soviet Union and the United States during the Cold War, playing one superpower against the other while obtaining financial assistance and other aid from both. After his death in 1980 and without his strong leadership, Yugoslavia quickly plunged into political and economic chaos. A new leader arose by the late 1980s, a Serbian named Slobodan Milosevic, a former Communist who had turned to nationalism and religious hatred to gain power. He began by inflaming long-standing tensions between Serbs and Muslims in the independent provence of Kosovo. Orthodox Christian Serbs in Kosovo were in the minority and claimed they were being mistreated by the Albanian Muslim majority. Serbian-backed political unrest in Kosovo eventually led to its loss of independence and domination by Milosevic.
In June 1991, Slovenia and Croatia both declared their independence from Yugoslavia soon resulting in civil war. The national army of Yugoslavia, now made up of Serbs controlled by Milosevic, stormed into Slovenia but failed to subdue the separatists there and withdrew after only ten days of fighting.
Milosevic quickly lost interest in Slovenia, a country with almost no Serbs. Instead, he turned his attention to Croatia, a Catholic country where Orthodox Serbs made up 12 percent of the population.
During World War II, Croatia had been a pro-Nazi state led by Ante Pavelic and his fascist Ustasha Party. Serbs living in Croatia as well as Jews had been the targets of widespread Ustasha massacres. In the concentration camp at Jasenovac, they had been slaughtered by the tens of thousands.
In 1991, the new Croat government, led by Franjo Tudjman, seemed to be reviving fascism, even using the old Ustasha flag, and also enacted discriminatory laws targeting Orthodox Serbs.
Aided by Serbian guerrillas in Croatia, Milosevic's forces invaded in July 1991 to 'protect' the Serbian minority. In the city of Vukovar, they bombarded the outgunned Croats for 86 consecutive days and reduced it to rubble. After Vukovar fell, the Serbs began the first mass executions of the conflict, killing hundreds of Croat men and burying them in mass graves.
The actions of the Serbs were labeled as 'ethnic cleansing,' a name which quickly took hold among the international media.
Despite media reports of the secret camps, the mass killings, as well as the destruction of Muslim mosques and historic architecture in Bosnia, the world community remained mostly indifferent. The U.N. responded by imposing economic sanctions on Serbia and also deployed its troops to protect the distribution of food and medicine to dispossessed Muslims. But the U.N. strictly prohibited its troops from interfering militarily against the Serbs. Thus they remained steadfastly neutral no matter how bad the situation became.
Throughout 1993, confident that the U.N., United States and the European Community would not take militarily action, Serbs in Bosnia freely committed genocide against Muslims. Bosnian Serbs operated under the local leadership of Radovan Karadzic, president of the illegitimate Bosnian Serb Republic. Karadzic had once told a group of journalists, "Serbs and Muslims are like cats and dogs. They cannot live together in peace. It is impossible."
The U.S. then launched diplomatic efforts aimed at unifying Bosnian Muslims and the Croats against the Serbs. However, this new Muslim-Croat alliance failed to stop the Serbs from attacking Muslim towns in Bosnia which had been declared Safe Havens by the U.N. A total of six Muslim towns had been established as Safe Havens in May 1993 under the supervision of U.N. peacekeepers.
Bosnian Serbs not only attacked the Safe Havens but also attacked the U.N. peacekeepers as well. NATO forces responded by launching limited air strikes against Serb ground positions. The Serbs retaliated by taking hundreds of U.N. peacekeepers as hostages and turning them into human shields, chained to military targets such as ammo supply dumps.
At this point, some of the worst genocidal activities of the four-year-old conflict occurred. In Srebrenica, a Safe Haven, U.N. peacekeepers stood by helplessly as the Serbs under the command of General Ratko Mladic systematically selected and then slaughtered nearly 8,000 men and boys between the ages of twelve and sixty - the worst mass murder in Europe since World War II. In addition, the Serbs continued to engage in mass rapes of Muslim females.
On August 30, 1995, effective military intervention finally began as the U.S. led a massive NATO bombing campaign in response to the killings at Srebrenica, targeting Serbian artillery positions throughout Bosnia. The bombardment continued into October. Serb forces also lost ground to Bosnian Muslims who had received arms shipments from the Islamic world. As a result, half of Bosnia was eventually retaken by Muslim-Croat troops.
By now, over 200,000 Muslim civilians had been systematically murdered. More than 20,000 were missing and feared dead, while 2,000,000 had become refugees. It was, according to U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Richard Holbrooke, "the greatest failure of the West since the 1930s." European History Time Line
732 Battle of Tours (Victory of Charles 1588 Spanish Armada Martel over Muslims) 1598 Edict of Nantes 768-814 Reign of Charlemagne 1603-1714 Stuart rule in England 800 Charlemagne crowned "Holy 1607 English found Virginia Roman Emperor" (Jamestown) 962-1792 Capetian/Bourbon rulers of 1608 French found Quebec France 1609 Spanish found Santa Fe 1066 Norman Conquest of England 1611 King James version of the Bible 1095-1272 CRUSADES published 12th Century Rise of Towns 1612 Dutch found New York 1122 Concordat of Worms 1613-1917 Romanov rule of Russia 1189-1192 Third Crusade 1618-1648 Thirty Years War 13th Century Rise of Universities, 1619 First African slaves in Virginia Scholasticism 1643-1715 Reign of Louis XIV in France 13th Century Rise of Parliaments 1648 Peace of Westphalia 1215 Magna Carta 1649 Charles I executed in England 1303-1416 "Babylonian Captivity" of 1688-1689 Glorious Revolution in papacy (Avignon) England 1337-1453 Hundred Years' War 1689-1725 Reign of Peter the Great in 1378-1417 Great Schism Russia 15th - 17th Century RENAISSANCE 1690 John Locke's "Treatises on 1453 Fall of Constantinople to Turks Government" 1454-1455 Printing (moveable type), 18th Century AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT Gutenberg Bible published 1701-1918 Hohenzollern rule of 1455-1485 War of the Roses Prussia/Germany 1469 Union of crowns of Aragon and 1748 Montesquieu's "Spirit of Laws" Castile 1760-1830 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 1485-1603 Tudor rule in England begins in England 1492 Discovery of America by 1761 Rousseau's "Social Contract" Columbus 1769 James Watt's Steam Engine 1497-1499 Voyage of Vasco da Gama 1776 American "Declaration of to India Independence" 1517 (Oct. 31) REFORMATION BEGINS Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations" 1519-1521 Conquest of Mexico by 1776-1783 American War of Cortes Independence 1519-1522 Magellan and crew 1787 American Constitution ratified circumnavigate the world 1789 Beginning of French Revolution 1521 Luther excommunicated 1790's Romanticism begins 1534 Luther's German Bible 1794 Fall of Robespierre 1536 John Calvin - "Institutes of the 1804 Napoleon becomes emperor of Christian Religion" France; "Napoleonic Codes" begun 1534 Act of Supremacy in England 1806-1811 "Continental System" 1545-1563 Council of Trent 1806-1825 Latin American countries 1555 Peace of Augsburg win independence 1812 United States/British War 1939 (Sept. 1) WW II BEGINS (Germany 1814-1815 CONGRESS OF VIENNA invasion of Poland) 1815 Battle of Waterloo 1940 (June) German occupation of Paris 1823 Monroe Doctrine 1941 (June) German invasion of Russia 1830 Revolutions throughout Europe 1944 (June) Allied invasion of 1832 First Reform Bill in England Normandy 1848 Marx and Engels' "Communist 1945 (Feb.) Yalta Conference Manifesto" 1945 (May) Unconditional surrender of Revolutions throughout Europe Germany 1853-1854 Commodore Perry "opens" 1945 (Aug.) Potsdam Conference Japan 1945 (Aug. 6) Atomic bomb dropped on 1859 Darwin's "Origin of Species" Hiroshima 1861-1865 Civil War in United States 1945 (Aug. 14) Unconditional surrender 1861 Emancipation of serfs in Russia of Japan 1866 Austro-Prussian War 1945 (Oct.) United Nations (UN) 1870-1871 Franco-Prussian War established 1870 Unification of Italy 1946-1963 COLD WAR 1871 Unification of Germany 1947 Truman Doctrine announced, 1880-1914 Height of Imperialism Marshal Plan announced 1900 Freud's "Interpretation of 1948 Communist coup in Dreams" Czechoslovakia 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War 1949 North Atlantic Treaty 1905 Einstein's relativity theory Organization (NATO) formed 1914 (June 28) Assassination of 1950 Korean War begins Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand 1953 (March) Stalin dies 1914 (July-Aug.) WORLD WAR I BEGINS 1957 SPACE 'RACE' BEGINS ("Sputnik" 1917 (April) United States enters World is launched) War I 1958 European Common Market 1917 (November) Bolshevik Revolution formed in Russia 1959 Castro takes over Cuban 1918 (March) Treaty of Brest-Litovsk government (Russia leaves WWI) 1960 OPEC formed 1918 (November) World War I 1961 Berlin Wall erected Armistice 1962 (Aug.) Cuban Missile Crisis 1919 Treaty of Versailles 1963 (Nov.) President John F. Kennedy 1920 League of Nations begins assassinated 1921-1927 New Economic Policy (NEP) 1961-1975 UNITED STATES in Russia Involvement in VIETNAM 1923 Hitler "Beer-Hall Putsch" 1967 Six Day War (Arab-Israeli War) 1928 First "Five Year Plan" in Russia 1968 Soviet Union invades 1929 Stock market crash in United Czechoslovakia States 1969 United States lands a man on the 1930-1935 Great Depression moon 1933 (January) Hitler becomes 1975 Vietnam War ends chancellor of Germany 1978 Revolution in Iran, Camp David 1936 (July) Spanish Civil War begins Accords 1936 (October) Rome-Berlin Axis 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 1938 (March) Anschluss (German U.S./China re-establish diplomatic annexation of Austria) relations 1939 (August) German/Russian Non- 1980 Solidarity formed in Poland aggression Pact 1981 U.S. launches first space shuttle 1985 Gorbachev comes to power in the EU. Soviet Union 1995Austria, Finland and Sweden 1988 Soviets begin withdrawal from joined the EU Afghanistan 1995U.S. imposes peace in Balkans 1980-89 Iran/Iraq Middle Eastern War 1998 Kosovo breaks from Serbia 1990 Berlin Wall removed, Democratic 1998 NATO imposes peace in Balkans reforms sweep Eastern Europe 1990 Germany Unified 1992 a Maastricht Treaty on European Union was signed. 1992 Balkan Civil war 1993 Treaty on European Union entered into force. The EC now became Short Outline of History
1400-1600 English Reformation Renaissance (1350-1600) Henry VIII & Catherine & Anne Trans. between mod. & medieval Boylen Resurgence of pop. & economy (new Gets own "reformed church", Parl. wealth) increases power Rebirth of classics (Greece & Rome) Calvinist Puritans in North Humanism (response to scholasticism) Presbyterians in Scotland Lay patronage Eddie's more Protestant Starts in Italy, ends in NW Europe Mary I (Roman Cath.) Bloody Greats Elizabeth I Compromise Machiavelli Religious Wars Leonardo da Vinci Dutch Revolt Michelangelo More wealthy Calvinist in late 1500s Rafael Phillip II height of power, needs Erasmus (Northern Humanism) shipping & tax $$$ (war debt & More inflation) Growth of Nation-States Sends in Granville & Alva England (War of Roses) Orange resists France (Valois) Spanish Fury, Pac. of Ghent Spain (Ferdinand & Isabella) French Conflict Not in HRE or Italian City States End to Hundred Years’ Wars turns Exploration conflict inward Prince Henry Rom. Cath. (RC) Guises support Diaz & DeGama Monarchy (Catherine & children) Columbus (America?) Huguenots oppose Cortez (Aztecs) & Pizarro (Incas) Coligny & St. Bart's Reformation Henry III & Henry of Navarre Church abuses Edict of Nantes Luther's 95 Thesis English/Spanish Faith alone for salvation Mary I reverses Reformation Leipzig & Worms Elizabeth vs. Mary Queen of Scots Peasant revolts Elizabethan England starts trade & Other Reformers expansion Zwingli Elizabethan Settlement & Puritans Calvin & Predestination in Geneva Treaty of Nonsuch (Theocracy, total church control) Mary QOS gets axed Anabaptists - (Mennonites, Amish, Spain's Armada eventually done Quakers, Baptists) 30 Years War (1618-1648) Counter Reformation Habs (Ferd.) try to rid HRE of Council of Trent Protestant princes Index of Forbidden Books Bohemian Period Loyola & Jesuits Danish Period Inquisition Swedish Period Swedish/French Destruction of Germany Peace of Westphalia o Princes in charge, o Prot. recognized, o Prussia & Austria only strong states
1600-1789 France (starting to fade, big debt, wars,) England Flickering Powers The Stuarts Poland (feuding nobility, others crave) James I (Divine Right, Debt) Sweden (rises, but then squashed by Charles I (1/4, ship money, disbands Charles XII) Parl., thorough, pro-RC) Emerging Powers Laud & Scots Austria unifies Magyars, Slavs, Italians; Short Par & Long Par Rump Pragmatic Sanction Growing wealth of middle-class in Prussia (Great Elector, military, Commons Junkers) Parl. Probs: Petition of Right, Grand Russia (westernized by Peter, Boyars & Remonstrance Strelts, outside experts, exerts control) English Civil War GB Under Walpole Puritans/ Parl. vs. Mon. Whigs (Hanover) Tories (Stuart) Cavaliers vs. Roundheads (New Model Prosperity, peace & patronage Army) Walpole 1st Prime Minister after South Charles is defeated 1646, rallies with Sea Scots, defeated again, executed Cabinet System Cromwell becomes Lord Protector Scientific Revolution Unites Eng, Scot. & Ireland Copernicus (challenger to Ptolemy) Restoration Brahe (publicity & observations) Charles II, return to fun Kepler (Cop.+Brahe, elliptical) Clarendon Code & Test Act vs. non- Galileo (telescope, shift to math & Anglican evils reason) Navigation Acts & Anglo-Dutch Wars Newton (universal gravity, whole new Whigs & Tories world) James II the absolutist New Philosophy Glorious Revolution of 1688 Bacon (now, prig. & science, William III & Mary empiricism) Constitutional Monarchy Descartes (deductive, mod. philosophy, Bill of Rights: fair elections, not subject absolute truth) to monarch, etc. Pascal (leap, God is rational) Cooperation with Parl. gives them 17th Cent. Political Thought strong base Hobbes (Lev., evil, social contract, Absolute France anarchy) Henry IV & Sully build base Locke (Nat. Rights, blank slate, Louis XIII & Richelieu freedom) (Centralization, elimination of Philosophes opposition) Salons, pamphlets, bourg. Louis XIV & Mazarin, Fronde Montesquieu (3 branch, no one set of Louis XIV laws) Propaganda, army, Versailles Voltaire (free speech, critical of French, Bureaucracy of unimportant bigotry, superstition) (intendants) Rousseau (spheres, will, contract) Suck up central Diderot Encyclopedia (worldly Revoke Edict of Nantes knowledge) Oppose Jansenists Major Tenets of Enlight/Phil: Wars of Louis XIV Progress+new environment & change Devolution (Span Neth.) Reason reforms ills, mock old 7 Yrs War (Loss of colonies in North Deism America and India) Laws for society can be found through Spanish Succession (vs. Haps heir) sci. method Utrecht (Louis gets Spain, Austria gets Humanitarianism will remove inhuman turf) practices & institutions Fading Powers (1686-1740) Material improvement=moral Spain (expensive wars, lack of exports, improvement political disunity, bullion fades) Ancien regime (pre-1789) Netherlands (jealousy, trade vs. Nobility (rights & privileges, vary) settlement, political disunity, Bourgeoisie (professional mid. class) overextended) Urban Workers (guild members on Conflict with monarchy & nobility down) 1789 - Estates General called Peasants (largest group) Nat'l Assembly Families (vary, economic unit) Bastille, Great Fear & Versailles Agricultural Revolution Dec. of Rights of Man & Const. of '91 Demand for change (pop. & prices) Church put under gov't control Enclosure Second Rev. starts New crop rotation Austria & Prussia attack (1792) Iron plow, seed drill Committee for Public Safety holds on New crops but starts "The Terror" Industrial Rev. (early) Thermidorian Reaction GB leads Directory takes over (1795) Flying shuttle, spinning jenny Napoleon Water frame (out of home) Gen. in Rev. wars Steam engine (factory) Directory's threat is royalists New Cities of 18th Century 1802 - Consul for life Semi-industrial Consolidation of Power Hubs, ports Const. of Year VIII - First Consul Wealth & splendor to blight Bourgeoisie & Proletariat support Not ready for influx Variety in gov't Riots Secret police, cent. Bureaucracy 18th Cent. Wars Amnesty for émigrés Jenkins Ear Concordat with Church Austrian Succession New social structure increases power Diplomatic Rev. Nap. Code Seven Years War Reforms French law Mercantilism Protects property Main goal is accumulation of bullion No privileges by birth Response to fall of Spain Equitable taxation Trade empires of 1600-1750 Officials based on merit Protectionist - tariffs, shipping Labor orgs. banned regulations, subsidies for national Men are dominant over women industries Applied to France, then empire Building an Empire Massive military Can't beat GB, heads east Austerlitz (12/05) Confederation of Rhine (7/06) 1789-1848 Berlin Decrees (10/06) Enlightened Absolutism Installs his family as rulers of Europe Philosophes were practical monarchists Cont. Sys.: defeat GB economically Using enlightened ideas to gain Treaty of Tilsit (West-East) traditional powerful ends Territorial Peak (1810-11) Movement ends with backlash German response Examples Guerilla warfare in Spain Fred. II (agr. base, religious tolerance, Austria renews conflict legal reform) Empire Falls with Russ. Campaign Marie Theresa (undercuts noble 1812- don't like continental (timber assemblies, taxes nobility & church, sales to GB), Grand Duchy, Holland, lightens peasants robot) marriage Joseph II (MC in bur., less control of Conditions suck, scorched earth peasants, rel. tol., takes ch. lands, legal R., Pr., & A push west, Wellington reforms) pushes east Catherine the Great (needs nobles, Done except 100 Days reduces trade barriers, boosts industry, Louis XVIII, France back to 1792 gets warm water ports) Congress of Vienna French Revolution Dominated by 4 powers Government & society in crisis (high No single state should dominate again food prices & government debt) France & Eastern Europe Leg. monarchs, Concert of Eur. Accommodation vs. repression Results of C of V (GB only emp., Great Reform Bill solves probs of day, Quad Alliance, Rotten boroughs & increase # of voters HRE officially done, no major wars for Increases Voters, (men & prop.) 100 years, transfers people) Reconciles econ. interests to politics Spanish Revolution (1820) Makes revolution unnecessary, gives Military officers revolt vs. Ferdinand new influence VII 2 Sicilies revolt 1848-1919 Gets Protocol of Troppau: stable gov’t can intervene Problems of 1848 Cong of Laibach: restore King to Hunger nonconst. gov’t Unemployment Cong. of Verona (1822): GB withdraws, City strife & industrialization OK French into Spain Conservative oppression, liberals appeal French repress Spanish Rev. to workers GB (Canning) prevents repression in 50 uprisings colonies, dominates trade with Lat. Revolts in Vienna & Hungary Amer. 3/3/48, Kossuth students inspired & Wars of LA Independence rebel (3/13/48) Nationalism Metternich resigns, Ferd. gives Const. Fr. Rev. + Ind. lead to "isms" Magyar Rebellion – encourages Defined by ethnicity language Hungarians Roms, Serbs & Czechs to Self-determination resist & support Habsburgs Writers & historians (Volksgeist) 9/48 Aust army crushes revolt Repression (Ireland, Germany, Poland) Czech & Italian Rebellion Liberalism Want Slavic state, clash with Germans Bourg. feel excluded 6/12/48 uprising squashed Enlight: legal =, free trade, free press, Divide & Conquer rel. tol. Italian Unification Fails Rep. for prop., despised working class Aust. out Mercantilism is bad conservatism Liberal Pope?, he takes off under (Mon., Aris., Ch.) pressure Burke & Hegel 2/49 Roman Republic declared Only trust arist. gov’t. French troops squash Italians & back Const. are bad Pope (becomes reactionary) British Repression Germany Hunger & unemployment after war Revolts in states for lib. gov't & unity, Leg. trend against poor fear of independence Spa Fields Coercion Acts Fred. Will. IV's Liberal Ministry Peterloo Six Acts: easier to repress Frankfurt Parl. to write German Const. Rest. & Rev. in France & Russia Tick off conservatives & workers Louis XVIII very mod., ultra-royalists Kleinsdeutsch dismayed 3/27/49 Cons. Fred. Will. IV refuses Charles X, liberals win (Rev of 1830), crown Louis Philippe Liberals crushed 1825- Alex I dies, Constantine vs. France, February Rev. of 1848 Nicolas Banquets (2/21), barricades & protest Nicolas wins, hates liberals, becomes Louis abdicates (2/24) reactionary Workshops Belgian Independence Conservatives Assembly (4/23) Rioting in Brussels after Opera June Days (24-26) Provincial Nat'l gov’t formed Workshops close, class warfare in Powers too busy to stop it streets Trouble in Ireland Army wins, many killed or jailed Act of Union (1800), reps. to Parl. must Violence necessary for capitalism be Prot. Chartists see France & rally, prep for Catholic Association revolt squashed Cath. Emancipation Act Louis Napoleon (Nap III) Reform in Great Britain Wins Pres. election, disperses assembly Marx (sci. accuracy, reject reform, need Makes himself emperor (Nap. III) revolution) Rise of the Proletariat Economic conditions evolve through No stake, wage system, income to history owners Capitalism leads to conflict and… Division of labor REVOLUTION End of guilds & artisans Dictatorship to reorganize society GB faces no comp. until 1870 Prolet. can't be an oppressor = no Industrialism & the Family oppression Fathers employ kids This is the culmination of history Mid-1820's- men supervise women & Socialism Evolves children not from family 1871 – First International (Marxism) Child labor (assets), Factory Act 1833 Fabianism in GB Break home & child Reform oriented in France 1847 - 10 hr. day SPD in Ger, Bis. tries to oppress More Ind. & Family Bernstein & Revisionists, mainstream Just consumption Crimean War Domestic role for women in working Russia vs. Ottomans class France & GB oppose Russia, Aust. Women work until married Prussia stay neutral Prostitution Russia lose territory & intimidation Lots of new, unskilled jobs Ends Concert of Europe Less arranged marriages Stirs the pot of instability for next 20 More illegitimate kids years Chartism (1830s-40s) Italian Unification Working class in politics Used by France and Austria, They push the Charter: universal unsuccessful suffrage, annual election, secret ballot, Republicans (Mazzini &Garibaldi) vs. no prop. req. Monarchists (Cavour, Efficiency & Almost all met over time Economy) Fails as nat'l movement Struggles w/Austrian control (Roman Split between violent & peaceful Rep.) Mass movement workers needed to C goes after Austria w/French help make a difference G goes south, met by C, G accepts Failure of Chartism leads to rise of nation over republic unions C's boy Victor Emmanuel II becomes Urbanization king Draws attention, organize, contact with German Unification world Prussia sick of #2, Junkers in control, Cities are redesigned strong industry Classical Economics Bismarck - cons. opportunist, “blood Gov't should: maintain currency, and iron” enforce contracts, protect prop. Wars of Unification Malthus: WC can't improve, pop. Danish (Schleswig-Holstein prob) overwhelm food supply, more wages Austrian - spoils, N. German Confed. more kids less food Franco - encirc, EMS, occupation, WC needs higher standard & less kids indemnity, Nap. III done, stragglers join Ricardo's Iron Law of Wages, justifies NGC low wages Third Republic Bentham & utility+reason Fails abroad, too lib., F-P war, Gov't & Classic Econ imprisoned, then goes to GB France - accepted for benefit of MC 3rd Rep., Monarchists vs. Paris Comm. Germany - some tariffs abolished No king, republic survives to WWII GB - love them classics despite scandals... Poor Law of 1834 - sucks to be poor Dreyfus (wrongly accused, splits France, antisem., RC & army Corn Laws weakened) Socialism Habsburgs in Austria Saint Simon, Fourier, Owen Dynastic, absolutist, & agrarian run by Ger. Nationalists got shafted (AP) toasted by o Nietzsche attacks reason: Italians ubermensch, church A-P war forces Francis Joseph to deal democracy, etc. with Magyars o Freud: new reasons for actions 1867 - Dual Monarchy of Austria o Weber: need role, group more Hungary important, non-rational Other nationalities? Race Theories (genetics, history, Territories look to Russia domination, etc.) A-H & Russia competitive in the Racism aggressive Nationalism Balkans Anti-Semitism stirred back up after Russia reprieve, Zionist Movement starts Unchanged since Peter The Great New Imperialism (1700) 1850 only GB Reform? rev. reaction? repression Imp. necessary for power Alex. II - serfdom abolished new rights: Tech use force, cultural superiority sell stuff, trades, marry freely, 49 years Methods: capital, infr., exploit Conditions still suck Motives: rel., raw materials, markets Judicial & military reform 1880-1900 Race for Africa Russification of Poland 1900 - all but Ethiopia & Liberia Nobody's satisfied with Alex. Rev. Testing ground for rivalries activity GB in India (Sepoy, direct rule, educ.) Land & Freedom, Alex punishes Dutch in Indonesia educators, tactics shift to direct More Imperialism Alex. III worse GB vs. Russia in India & Asia Major Movements China: Opium Wars, Open Door Policy, Labor settlements, Boxer Rebellion Women Russo-Japanese War: Manchuria, loss Education to non-white, weakens Russ. Voting rights Alliances upset balance of COV GB toward Democracy Bis. wants to avoid 2 fronts Model liberal state 3 Emp. League (ARG) Unions push for cash, Parl. absorbs new 1882 - Italy hooks up with A-H & Ger. interests (Triple Alliance) Gladstone (lib.) & Disraeli (cons.) 1888 - Willy II Bis. (peace) out expand suffrage 1894 - F & R form defensive alliance Second Reform Act of 1867,WC more GB colon. rival with R, econ. with Ger. responsible, Disraeli allows expansion Ger. messes w/ GB, 1907 Triple from 1.4m to 2.4m Entente Gladstone's Great Ministry, 1868-74 Colonial competition, industrialism Artist. institutions opened to all, pub. World War I schools 6/28/14 - Archduke FF killed Disraeli follows Gladstone (Health Act, Schlieffen Plan Dwelling Act) GB comes in to back Bel. & Fr. Irish Home Rule, major issue of G's 2nd Allies: numbers, ind. strength, navy 2 major probs: landlords, tithes Cent. Powers: 1st attack, Irish bloc in Parl., back & forth communication 1912 – Home Rule Bill passed over New weapons (machine gun, poison Lords veto 3 times, Catholic Ireland gas, tank, sub, plane) (Eire) ind. in 1922, N. Ire stay with GB Trench warfare (Galipoli, Marne, Modern Thought Verdun, Somme) New availability of ed (free GB blockades, Ger U-Boats intellectually) War draws to a Close Growth of science: 1917 U.S. enters Comte, progress, industry. o R's out -> Ger looks west, U.S. counters Darwin: Sci. & Soc. o 3/18 - Ger. offensive fails, Allies o Spencer: struggle's imperative counter Intellectuals challenge church, Ludendorff - peace on 14 Points resurgence in response, C & S clash Meeting at Paris U.S., GB, Fr., & It. in, USSR & Ger. Southeastern Europe ethnic lines, much left out conflict between groups, Royal Wilson's idealism vs. war aims of Euros Dictatorships (promised stuff) Weimar & Nazis Bolsheviks!!! T of V, weaknesses, inflation, A-H is toast (6 states) Streselman, Dawes & Locarno Poland-Finland buffer vs. USSR Beer Hall, Elections of '28, '30, & '32, Reparations, demilitarize, Rhine, etc. Von Papen & Hindenburg L of N, w/out U.S. Nazi Platform, Kristallnacht, Huge cost of war shatters confidence propaganda, rearm Reichstag Fire, assass. enemies, pub. 1919-1993 works Great Depression After the War… Currency & Investments, commodities, Democracy, fear of Bols, can't return to lack of leadership prosperity (humans, resources, RRs, Gov't cuts spending, fears inflation, production) attention to home Post War France: Treaty, Alliances, GB: Nat'l Gov't, etc. inner turmoil, occupy Ruhr France: Popular Front GB: slow econ., Labour, empire begins Fascism vs. Totalitarianism to fade Purges, Collective, 5 Year Plans Back in Russia Centralized planning top to bottom, Russian Civil War (1919-22) bur., heavy industry & collective agr. dictatorship, White vs. Red, "War (like rev without $ to owners) Communism" Kulaks resist & are squashed, livestock Bols. win, policies stir opposition slaughtered Red Terror, strikes, rebellion, mutiny Supplies labor for industry, massive ind. New Economic Policy: bank, trade, growth (low quality) trans, some private OK, divides party 1933 - start of purges, 700k executed, Trotsky (Left): Red Army, int., indust., all old Bols. gone collect., expand Rev. Stalin in total control Stalin (Right): nat., not int., Gen Sec., Road to War Rev. in USSR, NEP Span. Civil War: Franco, testing Comintern: int party, Bols. splits, helps ground, fight fascism right Axis with Italy Fascism (bundles of rods) in Italy Rhineland, Austria, Sudetenland, Post war violence against left Czech…Appeasement March on Rome - emr. powers, fixes Defensive France & GB elections Non-agg. with Soviets, invades Poland Democracy creates division, unification (9/1/39) War, What is it Good For? & power solve probs. Sweeps west Belg. into France, Dunkirk Ireland (6/40) 1916 - Easter Rebellion, Sinn Fein & Vichy Gov't, Festung Europa, Battle of IRA Britain, Lend Lease Act, Pearl Harbor, 1921 - Irish Free Republic Barbarossa, North Africa, Sicily, D-Day 1921-23 - Civil War Destruction of Europe, atrocities, area The Successor States bombing Self determination & provide buffer Home front: shortages, propaganda, Dependant on foreign loans, backward resistance, etc. econ Tehran, Yalta, & Potsdam (divisions Poland: parts from G, A & R, can't lead to CW) overcome diffs in class, political Cold War Sets In structure, economic interests, too many Division of Germany, satellite states, parties airlift Czechoslovakia: only success, ind., Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan MC, lib. ideals, Sudetenland UN: SC & GA, veto, nukes Hungary: bad economy, repression Warsaw Pact & NATO Austria: Xian Soc., tough economy Nuke Arms Race China under Mao Korean War Slight Thaw 1989 - Poland starts chain reaction 1953 - Stalin out (Czech., Rum., Hung., EG) Spirit of Geneva United Nations stops Iraqi invasion of 1955 - Khrushchev: Secret Speech, Kuwait some freedom, cons. goods, space race Paris Accord 1990 1956 - Suez, Poland, Hungary 1991 - Coup & Gorby done, CIS (recognition of curtain) Thermostat formed Back Down 1993 - Yeltsin bombs Parliament . to 1957 - Sputnik keep control Modern Society 1960 – U-2 & Paris Women's Movement 1961 - Bay of Pigs Population shifts 1962 - Cuban Missile Crisis Welfare State 1964 - Brezhnev: clamp down, agr. & New Europe ind struggle, defense build up, Germany Unites 1968 - Dubcek & Prague Spring European Union Established (alienation) Euro Introduced Out of the Cold Balkans Crisis Afghanistan, Grain & Olympics Gorby's reforms go awry
Review Essays
1. The Renaissance was a springboard for defining modernity. Assess the validity of this statement. 2. Compare and contrast the Northern Renaissance with the Mediterranean Renaissance. 3. Compare and contrast Catholicism, Lutheranism and Calvinism from economic, religious, and social perspectives. 4. Analyze the rule of Peter I, Catherine II and Alexander I from the perspective of their attempts to control their aristocracy and their church, and also the perspective of their relations with Western Europe. 5. Compare the development of the Commercial Revolution, mercantilism and capitalism. 6. Compare and contrast 16th century and 19th century imperialism. 7. Trace the development of the English parliament during the 17th century. 8. Compare 17th century French Absolutism with 17th century eastern European Absolutism. 9. Describe the relationship between the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. 10. Compare and contrast the ideas of Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc, Karl Marx, Robert Owen, Edward Bernstein and Vladimir Lenin. 11. Discuss the Parliamentary actions, which brought social and political power to the middle and lower classes of English society in the 19th century. 12. Compare and contrast the social classes of the first and second industrial revolution. 13. Trace the history of Germany from its rise as a Prussian state through its collapse after the First World War. 14. Describe the effect of the theories of Freud, Marx, and Einstein upon the twentieth century. 15. Beginning with the French Revolution and ending with the WW II, discuss the manner in which women began to achieve a role in society equal to men. 16. Analyze the events causing the decline of the British Empire. 17. Describe the economic and political development of Post World War II Europe. 18. Describe the problems in the Balkans from 1945 to 1989. 19. Beginning with the end of World War II, describe the demise of the Soviet Union. 20. Describe the role of science in changing the history of western civilization. (Note: These are NOT normal essay type questions. They tend to be very broad in order to better serve as a review of the entire course.) European History Identification
National Monarchies War of the Spanish Succession Papacy Peace of Utrecht scholasticism Hohenzollern Crusades Extraterritorial privileges Thomas Aquinas Junker Medieval universities Cottage industries Black Death New world products Hundred Years War Treaty of Paris 1763 Conciliar movement Jacobites Renaissance sculpture, painting, Francis Bacon architecture Rene Descartes Babylonian Captivity Copernican doctrine Florence (1400-1500's) John Kepler Humanism Galileo Francesco Petrarch Sir Isaac Newton Niccolo Machiavelli Mathematical Principles of Natural Dante Philosophy Charles V Skepticism Martin Luther John Locke Ninety-five Thesis Natural rights/natural law Lutheranism Thomas Hobbes Peace of Augsburg Idea of progress John Calvin 18th century Philosophes Calvinism Denis Diderot English Reformation Montesquieu Council of Tent Voltaire Jesuits Rousseau Thomas More Adam Smith Erasmus of Rotterdam Enlightened Despotism Commercial revolution American Revolution Spanish Empire in America Old Regime Mercantilism First, Second, Third Estates Henry IV Tennis Court Oath Philip II\ Bastille Edict of Nantes Great Fear Spanish Armada "Rights of Man" Cardinal Richelieu National Assembly Thirty Years War Constitution of 1791 Treaty of Westphalia Jacobins Louis XIV Robespierre Balance of power Committee of Public Safety Oliver Cromwell Thermidorian Revolution Restoration Directory Poor Laws Napoleon Bonaparte English Civil War Napoleonic Codes Revolution of 1688 Battle of Trafalgar Jean Baptiste Colbert Austerlitz War of the League of Augsburg Continental System Congress of Vienna Revolution of 1905 Agricultural Revolution October manifesto James Watt February/March 1917 Rev. Romanticism October/November 1917 Rev. Classical liberalism Civil War 1918-1922 Socialism Communist party Robert Owen New Economic Policy (NEP) Mazzini Five-Year Plans Friedrich Hegel Third International Conservatism Weimar Republic Peterloo Massacre Mohandas Gandhi Decembrist Revolt Chinese Revolution Revolution of 1830 and 1848 Sun Yat-sen Chartism New Deal Louis Blanc Nazism Frankfurt Assembly Fascism Communist Manifesto Totalitarianism Realpolitik Spanish Civil War Crimean War Stalingrad Cavour Teheran Conference Zollverein Final Solution Bismarck Yalta Conference Franco-Prussian War Munich pact Act of Emancipation (Russia) Potsdam Garibaldi United Nations Atlantic migration Solidarity Dreyfus affair Truman Doctrine Kulturkampf Marshall Plan Origin of Species NATO Freud Berlin Blockade Nietzsche Mao Tse-tung Inner/outer zone of civilization Common Market Balance of power Nikita Khrushchev New imperialism Nuremberg Trials Cecil Rhodes Berlin Wall Boer War Cold War Russo-Japanese War Korean War Box Rebellion Vietnam War Triple Alliance OPEC Triple Entente/Alliance Perestroika Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Glasnost Fourteen Points Gorbachev Sarajevo Yeltsin Treaty of Versailles Putin Western Front Milosevic All Quiet on the Western Front Ethnic Cleansing Schleiffen Plan Kosovo Plan 16 European Community Article 231 European Union Social Democrats Maastricht Treaty Marxist-Leninism Euro Gulf War