Biodiversity in Ecosystems

• Biodiversity in Ecosystems

• IB syllabus: 2.3.4, 2.3.5, 4.1.1 – 4.1.5

• AP syllabus

• Ch: 5,

• Syllabus Statements

• 2.3.4: Define the term diversity

• 2.3.5: Apply Simpson’s diversity index and outline its significance

4.1.1: Define the terms biodiversity, genetic diversity, species diversity, habitat diversity

• 4.1.2: Outline the mechanism of natural selection as a possible driving force for speciation

• 4.1.3: State that isolation can lead to different species being produced that are unable to interbreed to yield fertile offspring

• 4.1.4: Explain how plate activity has influenced evolution and biodiversity

• 4.1.5: Explain the relationships among ecosystem stability, diversity, succession & habitat

• Diversity

Often considered as a function of two components: the number of different species & the relative number of individuals of each species

• Kinds of Biodiversity

1. Biodiversity = the variation of life forms within a given ecological area

2. Genetic diversity = variation of the genetic makeup among individuals in species

3. Species diversity = variety among species in a particular area of different habitats on earth

4. Functional diversity = variety of biological and chemical processes needed for survival on earth

• Each Species and Process…

• Is key to the overall function of earth

• In general Diversity = Stability

• Biodiversity is – Nature’s insurance policy against change

– The source of all natural capital for human use

– The way chemical materials are cycled and purified

– The end result of millions of years of evolution and irreplaceable

• Hotspots

• These areas need emergency conservation attention

• Especially rich in endemic plant and animal species (found nowhere else in the world)

• They cover on 1.4% of world land area

• Mostly tropical forests

• Contain 60% of identified terrestrial biodiversity

• 55% of all primates, 22% of all carnivores

• 1.1 billion people living in poverty near these sites

• $500 million annually would go far to ensure their preservation

• Diversity includes

1. Richness: The number of species per sample is a measure of richness.

à The more species present in a sample, the “richer” the sample.

1. Evenness: A measure of the relative abundance of the different species making up the richness of an area.

• Which sample is more diverse?

• Quantifiying this Diversity – Simpson’s Index

D = N (N – 1)

∑ n (n – 1)

• Where D = diversity index

N = total # of organisms of all species n = # of individuals of particular species

• Now practice the simpson’s index

• High values of “D” suggests a stable and ancient site

• A low value of “D” could suggest pollution, recent colonization, or agricultural management

• Index normally used in studies of vegetation but can be applied to comparisons of diversity of any species

• How does diversity exist?

• Natural Selection = survival of the fittest

• Fitness = a measure of reproductive success

• If all individuals are variable

• And populations produce large numbers of offspring without increase in population size

• And resources are limited

• And traits are heritable

• Then those individuals who are best adapted to the environment will survive and pass on their genes

• Gradually the gene frequency in the population will represent more of these “fit” individuals

• Natural Selection over Time

• Environmental Pressures select for some genotypes over others

• Alleles resulting in a beneficial trait will become more common

• Heritable traits that increase survival chances are called adaptations

• There are many niches or habitats and roles available in the environment

• As populations adapt they fill new niches and over time may develop into new species

• Speciation

• Certain circumstances lead to the production of new species through natural selection • Most common mechanism has 2 phases à geographic followed by reproductive isolation

1. Geographic isolation è groups of a population of the same species are isolated for long periods

– A group may migrate in search of food to an area with different environmental conditions

– Populations may be separated by a physical barrier (mountain range, river, road)

– Catastrophic change by volcano eruption or earthquake

– A few individuals carried away by wind or water to new area

• Speciation 2

2. Reproductive Isolation è mutation and natural selection operate independently on the 2 populations to change allele frequencies = divergence

• If divergence continues long enough genetic differences may prohibit (1) interbreeding between populations and/or (2) production of viable, fertile offspring

• One species has become 2 through divergent evolution

• For most species this would take millions of years

• Difficult to document & prove this process

• Consequences of Plate Activity

• Speciation processes rely on physical separation of organisms

• Plate techtonics

– can lead to separation of gene pools – mountain ranges form, faults separating land masses

– Can link species and land areas e.g. land bridges

• Consequences of Plate Activity II

• Plate techtonics generates new habitats

– Island chains over hotspots – Hawaii

– Mountain habitats – Himalayan mountains – also associated effects on surrounding areas

– Hydrothermal vent communities – Changes climate on land masses – continents drift into new climate zones à e.g. antarctica was once covered by tropical rainforest now barren polar ice fields

• 1. Succession effects Diversity

• Succession – gradual establishment or reestablishment of ecosystems over time

• Pioneer species à Climax species

– Low diversity at first, few species can tolerate harsh conditions (r selected species)

– Most diverse in middle of succession, slower growing species start to fill in

– Low diversity at the end, climax species often strongest competitors (K selected species)

• Diversity is a function of disturbance à intermediate disturbance hypothesis

• 2. Habitat diversity influences species & genetic diversity

• More complex areas (more diverse habitats) often have higher species & genetic diversity

• Ex. Tropical rainforest & Coral reef

• In both cases, high degree of structural / spatial complexity

• Promotes coexistence by niche partitioning & diversification

• Complex ecosystems with a variety of nutrient & energy pathways provides stability

• Energy is key to the function of all ecosystems

• Biogeochemical cycles recycle necessary materials through system

• More pathways for energy & matter = more stable

• Insurance against natural or human changes

• Human activities

• Modify succession by adding disturbance

• Logging, Grazing, Burning – all prevent natural successional processes

• Fragmenting habitats by development

• Isolate populations à more likely to get diseases, succumb to local disturbances

• We simplify ecosystems à tall grass prairie converted to wheat farms à more vulnerable

• Any ecosystem’s capacity to survive change may depend on its diversity, resilience, and inertia • Evaluating Biodiversity & Vulnerability

• IB Syllabus: C.2.1 – C.2.7

• AP syllabus

• Ch.22, 23, 24

• 4.2.1: Identify factors that lead to a loss of diversity

• 4.2.2: Describe the perceived vulnerability of tropical rainforests and their relative value in contributing to global biodiversity

• 4.2.3: Discuss current estimates of numbers of species and past and present rates of species extinction

• 4.2.4: Describe and explain the factors that may make species more or less prone to extinction

• 4.2.5: Outline the factors used to determine a species’ Red List conservation status

• 4.2.6: Describe the case histories of three species: one that has become extinct, another that is currently endangered, and a third whose conservation status has been improved by intervention

• C.2.7: Describe the case history of a natural area of biological significance that is threatened by human activities

• How is biodiversity lost?

• Natural Processes

– Natural hazards (volcanoes, drought, mudslide)

– Global catastrophies (ice age, meteor impact)

• Human Processes

– Habitat degradation, fragmentation & loss

– Introduction/escape of nonnative species, genetically modified organisms, monoculture

– Pollution

– Hunting, collecting, harvesting. overfishing

• Rain Forests – A Case Study

• 2% of the land surface with 50-80% of the terrestrial species • Characterized by warm constant temperature, high humidity & rainfall

• Vertical stratification provides niche diversification

• Decomposition rates are extremely fast à little litter, thin nutrient poor soil

• Nutrients stored in biomass of organisms

• The threats to rainforests

• Most of destruction since 1950

• Brazil has ½ remaining world rainforest

• At current rates of deforestation Brazil’s rainforest will be gone in 40-50 years

• Total loss yearly to deforestation is 50,000 to 170,000 km2

• 1.5 ACRES LOST PER SECOND worldwide

• Cutting & degradation at even faster rates

• Highest average annual deforestation of primary forests, 2000-2005, by area. All countries

1 Brazil -3,466,000

• 2 Indonesia -1,447,800

• 3 Russian Federation -532,200

• 4 Mexico -395,000

• 5 Papua New Guinea -250,200

• 6 Peru -224,600

• 7 United States of America -215,200

• 8 Bolivia -135,200

• 9 Sudan -117,807

• 10 Nigeria -82,000

• Amazon Rainforest

• The Amazonian Rainforest covers over a billion acres, encompassing areas in Brazil, Venezuela, Columbia and the Eastern Andean region of Ecuador and Peru. • If Amazonia were a country, it would be the ninth largest in the world.

• The Amazon Rainforest has been described as the "Lungs of our Planet" because it provides the essential environmental world service of continuously recyling carbon dioxide into oxygen.

• More than 20 percent of the world oxygen is produced in the Amazon Rainforest.

• More than half of the world's estimated 10 million species of plants, animals and insects live in the tropical rainforests. One-fifth of the world's fresh water is in the Amazon Basin.

• One hectare (2.47 acres) may contain over 750 types of trees and 1500 species of higher plants.

• Amazon effects

• 1/3 of rainforest destruction from shifting cultivation

• Rest cleared for pasture- then planted with African grasses for cattle

• When pasture price exceeds forest prices à incentive for land clearing

• Government subsidized agriculture and colonization

• Improved infrastructure for transport

• In Brazil alone, European colonists have destroyed more than 90 indigenous tribes since the 1900's.

• Plants uniquely adapted to the conditions there

• Why rainforests vulnerable

Ecology

• Pollinator relationships – reproduction depends on other organisms

• Poor, thin soils – easily eroded once trees removed, little chance for regrowth

Location

• Surrounded by rapid population growth of developing countries – pollution, waste, space

• Poor economy benefits from any resources that are harvestable

• General Pressures on Rainforests

• Economic – raw materials, exports, cattle, oil & gas

• Socio-political – Pressures of population growth, subsidize tree plantations, colonization

• Ecological – Invasive species, climate change, soil degradation • Secondary results

• Clearing rainforests degrades tropical rivers

– Water more turbid, silts river bottoms, nutrient overload in estuaries, smothers offshore coral reefs

• Accelerates flooding & reduces aquifer recharge

• Affect precipitation patterns

– Flow of moisture to downwind areas is reduced

• Why are they special? Or…

• Why should we care?

• Some biogeographers claim that loss of tropical rainforests is no more important than loss of old growth forests in EU & NA

• 1. Important ecological & environmental services

• 2. Instrumental values à medicines from plants

• 3. Cultural value

• Cultural Extinction

• 250 million people in 70 countries from indigenous rainforest cultures

• Hunting & Gathering, Sustainable Agriculture

• Remaining tribal people are disappearing with their lands

• Irreplacable loss of ecological & cultural knowledge – most medicine men 70+ years old

• Need protection & ownership of land to survive

• BUT à that stands in the way of progress

• Biodiversity will decrease from…

1. Environmental Stress

2. Large environmental disturbance

3. Extreme environmental conditions

4. Severe limitation of an essential nutrient, habitat, or other resource 5. Introduction of a nonnative species

6. Geographic isolation

• About 1.5 - 10 million Species live on Earth

• How can we reduce biodiversity loss?

• 2 main approaches – ecosystem or species directed

1. Preventing premature extinction of species

2. Preserving & restoring ecosystems which provide habitats and resources for the world’s species

• Endangered vs. Threatened

• Organisms are classified for conservation purposes Traditionally into 2 groups

1. Endangered

• So few individuals that it could become extinct over all of its natural range

• Without protection à critically endangered à extinct

2. Threatened

• Still abundant in range but declining numbers

• Ecological warning signs

• Red Data Books

• List the species in the red – the ones most in jeopardy of extinction

• Various factors contribute to identifying species as threatened, of concern, endangered, extinct

• Examples - population size, reduction of population size, numbers of mature individuals, geographic range and degree of fragmentation, quality of habitat, area of occupancy, probability of extinction

• http://www.iucnredlist.org/

• Figure 22-7 (1) Page 564

• Figure 22-7 (2) Page 565 • Figure 22-7 (3) Page 565

• EXTINCTION

• Evidence from the past

• The fossil record remains first and foremost among the databases that document changes in past life on Earth.

• The fossil record clearly shows changes in life through almost any sequence of sedimentary rock layers.

• Successive rock layers contain different groups or assemblages of fossil species.

• 3 Types of Extinction

1. Local extinction (extirpation) à species no longer found in an area where it was once found

• Still found elsewhere (= population extinction)

2. Ecological extinction à so few members of a species are left that it can no longer play its ecological role in the ecosystem

3. Biological extinction à species is no longer found anywhere on the earth

• Mass Extinctions

• Permian mass Extinction

- Permian Period (286-248 million years ago) à Formation Of Pangea

- Terrestrial faunal diversification occurred in the Permian

- 90-95% of marine species became extinct in the Permian (largest extinction in history)

- Causes? = Formation of Pangea reduced continental shelf area, glaciation, Volcanic eruptions

• The End-Cretaceous (K-T) Extinction

- Numerous evolutionary radiations occurred during the Cretaceous (144-65 million years ago) à 1st appearance of dinosaurs, mammals, birds, angiosperms

- A major extinction occurred at the end of the period - 85% of all species died in the End-Cretaceous (K-T) extinction (2nd largest in history)

- Causes? = Meteor impact in the Yucatan, Volcanic eruption à both supported geolocially, cause climate change, atmospheric changes • Extinction Rates

• Biologists estimate that 99.9% of all species ever in existence are now extinct

– Background extinction – local environmental changes cause species to disappear at low rate

– mass extinction – catastrophic, widespread (25 – 75% of existing species

– mass depletion – higher than background but not mass

• Cause temporary biodiversity reductions à but create vacant niches for new species to evolve

• 5 million years of adaptive radiation to rebuild diversity after extinction

• Premature extinction from human causes

• Differences in Cause of Extinction

Historically most mass extinctions were caused by

• Catastrophic Agents- such as meteorite impacts and comet showers,

• Earth Agents- such as volcanism, glaciation, variations in sea level, global climatic changes, and changes in ocean levels of oxygen or salinity

Currently a mass extinction is being caused by the actions of 1 species à Us

• Which species are most vulnerable?

• Vulnerability of species affected by …

– Numbers – low numbers = automatic risk

– Degree of specialization = generalists adapt better than specialists

– Distribution = widely distributed organisms, may migrate out of harms way & different effects by area

– Reproductive potential – if low = vulnerable

– Reproductive behaviors – how complex, picky, …

– Trophic level – higher are more vulnerable to biomagnification & trophic cascades

• Vulnerability of ecosystems

1. Diversity à at species, genetic, ecological or functional levels

** Remember, Diversity = Stability ** 1. Resilience à Ability of a living system to restore itself to original condition after being exposed to a minor outside disturbance

2. Inertia à ability of a living system to resist being disturbed or altered

• Leading causes of wildlife depletion & extinction

1. Habitat loss, fragmentation or degradation

• Agriculture, urban development, pollution

• Prevent dispersal, mating, gene flow

2. Deliberate or accidental introduction of non-native species

• Rapid reproduction, no competitors, no predators, upset energy flow

• Case Studies - Elephants

Endangered

1. Ecological pressures – shrinking habitat

2. Socio-political pressures – recovery of elephants in smaller habitats = widespread habitat destruction, other species now poached for ivory

3. Economic pressures – poaching for ivory

• Ecological Role – keystone species, maintains grassland community by removing trees

• Consequences – loss of ecosystem type

• Case Studies – Passenger Pigeon

Extinct September 1, 1914

1. Ecological pressures – clearing virgin forests for agriculture lost food & nests, 1 egg laid per year

2. Socio-political pressures – Supply meat for growing east coast cities

3. Economic pressures – easy capture in large dense flocks, roosts àmarkets in the east

• Ecological Role – once most numerous bird on the planet

• Consequences – linked to spread of lyme disease

• Case Studies – American Alligator

Recovered June 4 1987 1. Ecological pressures – shrinking habitat

2. Socio-political pressures – alligator nuisance, sustainable use, tourism

3. Economic pressures – confused with American Crocadile hunted for skins

• Ecological Role – keystone predator, gator holes in everglades, top carnivore

• Consequences – loss of fish & bird populations & change whole everglades ecosystem structure / now healthy systems

• Alligator mississippiensis

• Remember

• That current changes in species numbers will be exacerbated by global warming

• When is endangered really “in danger”

• Is there a number where the population is too small to survive?

• MVP = minimum viable population à the smallest number of individuals necessary to ensure the survival of a population in a region for a specified timer period

• Time range typically 10-100 years

• Most indications are that a few thousand individuals is the MVP if time span is > 10 years

• Genetic Bottlenecks

• If populations recover from times with small numbers other problems can persist

• Genetic bottlenecks

• Think of a traffic bottleneck è many cars approach and stop, only a few get through.

• Same with genes – genetic diversity is dramatically reduced

• When populations are reduced to small numbers interbreeding occurs and genetic diversity plummets

• Cheetahs

• A few thousand years ago cheetahs experienced a population crash

• They have since recovered but they are almost all genetically identical

• Why is this a problem?

1. Inbreeding increased the chances of deformity from recessively inherited diseases 2. Identical genes gives identical vulnerability to disease

3. Weakened physiology – exaggerated recovery time from activity makes them vulnerable

• References

• www.rainforestweb.org

• www.redlist.org

Conservation of Biodiversity

IB syllabus: 4.3.1 – 4.3.5

AP Syllabus

Ch. 8, 22,

Syllabus Statements

4.3.1: State the arguments for preserving species & habitats

4.3.2: Compare the role and activities of governmental & non-governmental organizations in preserving and restoring ecosystems and biodiversity.

4.3.3: State and explain the criteria used to design reserves

4.3.4: Evaluate the success of a named protected area.

4.3.5: Discuss & evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the species based approach to conservation

Why should we worry about conservation?

A. Ethics = we know what we are doing and its negative effects à is it right to continue this?

B. Aesthetics = the natural world is more beautiful than strip malls and roads à should we keep it around?

C. Genetic resources = end result of millions of years of evolution – unique gene combinations for disease resistance, chemical production, etc

Why should we worry about conservation?

D. Commercial = many of the products we rely on result are from the biotic component of the planet - opportunity cost à value of the next best alternative forgone as a result of making a choice

-implies choice of results that are mutually exclusive

E. Life support = plants produce the oxygen we need to survive, soil provides the means for growing food, organisms/processes cycle and purify the water we need

F. Ecosystem support = the interactions of the world are all connected à effect one è effect it all

Opportunity Costs

How can we reduce biodiversity loss?

2 main approaches – ecosystem or species directed

1. Preventing premature extinction of species

2. Preserving & restoring ecosystems which provide habitats and resources for the world’s species

Protection of Wild species

CITES – convention on international trade in endangered species (1975)

152 countries – 900 species regulated as endangered, 29,000 species regulated as threatened

Helped reduce international trade in many organisms, organized international awareness, protected habitats

Enforcement is difficult, Consequences are weak, Countries have a choice, value of organisms may increase

Protection of Wild species

CBD – convention on biodiversity extends CITES to conserve biodiversity in general à172 countries

Focused on reversing trends in loss of biodiversity

Biodiversity

National Legislation

The Lacey Act – 1900

Prohibits transporting live or dead wild animals or their parts across state borders without a federal permit

The Endangered Species Act – 1973 Makes it illegal for Americans to import or trade in any product made from an endangered or threatened species unless it is used (1) for approved scientific purposes or (2) to enhance the survival of the species

Other Means of protection

Gene banks & Seed banks

Botanical gardens, Farms

Zoos & Aquariums

Captive breeding & Reintroduction programs

Aesthetic vs. Ecological value

Evaluating Species based Approaches – Captive breeding

Strengths

1. Organisms safe from poachers

2. Ensure good chance of offspring survival

3. Artificial insemination possible

4. Cross fostering is possible – raised by parent of similar species

Weaknesses

1. It is artificial

2. Organisms not born in the wild may not be able to survive reintroduction

3. Few actually returned to wild

4. Lack of habitat to return them to

Evaluating Species based Approaches – Aesthetic value

Strengths

1. Tourism & recreation – use promotes interest

2. “Sexy megafauna” get public interested in conserving whole habitats

3. Personal approach appeals to people

“Save the manatee” Weaknesses

1. More interactions with people – more damage potentially

2. People may overlook the deeper values

Evaluating Species based Approaches –Ecological values

What’s good?

1. Shows people the true critical value of species

2. See how it effects us – food web links, nutrient cycling, keystone species

What’s bad?

1. May go over the heads of the general public

2. May be hard to quantify this for some species

Preserves – If you save a habitat you get all of the species

National Parks

1,100 parks in 120 countries

US – established in 1912 à 55+ total parks

Supplemented by state, county & local park systems

Park Problems

Only 1% of parks in developing countries are actually protected, most are “paper parks”

Often invaded by people looking for subsistence or those looking for profit

Often too small to sustain larger species

Nonnative invasions

Parks are too popular à high traffic, pollution

Lack of funding – overworked underpaid staff, Worn out facilities

Nearby activities including logging, mining, grazing, power production, water diversion

Managing Parks successfully

Currently practice natural regulation, treat as self sustaining ecosystem Often too small to self sustain

Effected by nearby activities, destruction from within from unbalanced food webs (elk grazing)

Conflicting goals (1) conserve nature, (2) make nature available to public

Are there solutions?

Suggestions for the future

1. Integrate management for parks & nearby federal lands

2. Increase budget (1) add new parklands near old (2) buy existing private land within parks (3) maintenance

3. Locate commercial facilities outside of parks

4. Better surveys of wildlife conditions

5. Raise entry fees

6. Limit number of daily, yearly visitors

7. Encourage corporate sponsorship

How much land should be protected?

Need a worldwide network of supported, connected refuges

At least 20% of earth’s land area should be preserved – conservationist view

Areas vital to sustaining life on earth and continuing adaptation & evolution

Less than current 10% should be preserved – developer view

Areas contain valuable resources to aid in economic growth

Costa Rica’s Example

Principles for reserve design

1. Ecosystems are rarely at a stable point – hard to lock them and protect them from change (nonequilibrium state)

2. Ecosystems which experience frequent, moderate disturbance have the greatest diversity (intermediate disturbance hypothesis)

3. View most reserves as habitat islands in a sea of developed or fragmented lands

Recall Island Biogeography theories Diversity on islands is a function of size and distance from mainland (balance extinction vs. colonization)

Help determine …

Areas in greatest danger

Size of reserve that will be necessary

How closely must small reserves be spaced to allow immigration

Size & # of protective corridors connecting parks

The Island Effect

Isolated ecosystems studied by MacArthur and Wilson in 1960’s

Diversity effected by island size & degree of isolation

Island Biogeography theory: diversity effected by

Rate of species immigration to island

Rate of extinction on island

Equilibrium point = species diversity

Island Biogeography

Immigration and Extinction Effected by

1. Size:

– small island has less immigration (small target),

– Small island has fewer resources, more extinction

2. Distance from mainland:

– Closer to mainland à more chance of immigration

Applied in conservation for “habitat islands” like national parks surrounded by development

Island Biogeography Data

South Pacific Islands study looked at bird diversity as distance from New Guinea increased

Caribbean Island study found bigger islands had more species diversity than smaller islands which were otherwise similar

Critical Questions What shape should the reserve be?

Is one large or many small reserves better?

Is a heterogenous or homogenous reserve better?

Should corridors connect small reserves together?

What is the importance of buffer zones around reserves?

The everglades a case study

The value of wetlands

1. Flood control / water storage

2. Habitat for many species

3. Recharge for aquifer

4. Water filtration / purification

Inland and coastal Wetlands are protected because of their value in terms of biodiversity, and the ecological & economic services they provide

Everglades Habitats

Everglades II

Permits are required to fill or disturb wetlands in US > 3 acres

Current attempts to weaken protective measures, small percentage even still remain

Now trying for a zero net loss of wetlands à mitigation banking: destroy one, rebuild another

Restoration & protection projects are often successful

Also created for farm & sewage waste treatment

Everglades III

South Florida – once 100 km wide knee deep sheet of water moving from Lk. Okeechobee to FL Bay

On its way south it created various wetlands with a wide variety of species

Sawgrass is the dominant plant species

Today 56 endangered & threatened species reside there

Supplies drinking water directly or through Floridian & Biscayne aquifers for 6-10 million people Everglades IV

Since 1948 most of water flow has been diverted by 2,250 km. of canals, pumping stations, etc.

In 1960s meandering 103 mile long Kissimmee R. reformed into straight 84 mile canal by army corps of engineers

Below Okeechobee intensified agriculture of sugar cane developed

Now seeing (1) greater inputs of nutrients from fertilizer use (nitrogen & phosphorous)

(2) Decreased volume of water, moving faster through the system

(3) Increases in exotic & invasive species

Everglades V

1947 Everglades National Park established to preserve the lower end of the system

Contains 20% remaining everglades

Didn’t work because of all of the influences on the water to the north

90% of parks wading birds have disappeared

Other vertebrate populations are down 75-90%

Now the country’s most endangered national park

Florida Bay suffering from less fresh water as well as cultural eutrophication

Threatens reefs & fisheries in the Keys

1990 state & federal government agreed upon 38 year $7.8 billion restoration project

1. Restore curving flow of the Kissimmee River

2. Remove 400 km of canals blocking water flow south of Lk. Okeechobee

3. Buy 240 km2 of farmland & allow it to flood to filter agricultural runoff before it reaches Everglades National Park (ENP)

4. Add land adjacent to ENP eastern border

5. Create a network of artificial marshes

6. Create 18 reservoirs & drill wells for storage & aquifer recharge in rainy season

7. Build new canals & reservoirs to capture current water lost & return it to ENP But…

ENP does not benefit from the first 10 years, $4 billion of the project

Plan seems to favor agricultural / consumer uses of water over restoring the actual habitat

The plan does not specify how much of the water moving south will actually go to ENP

Somehow we must undo 120 years of agricultural & urban development in the area until it is too late

Evaluation

1. Has the protection of the everglades been successful thus far?

2. Does the local community support it? Think about the farmers in the area, the cities of south east FL, etc.

3. Is there enough funding?

4. Where did the research fail in the past? Where might it fail in the future?

Organizations supporting Conservation

WWF: Worldwide Fund for Nature

Established in 1961

“to conserve the natural environment and ecological processes worldwide”.

WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature, by: conserving the world’s biological diversity ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainable promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption.

Role – Promoting awareness & conservation of wildlife

Activities – Directed mostly at wildlife conservation, work with companies like Nike in reducing CO 2 emissions, Aid

Use of the media – International, internet, newsletters

Speed of Response – stays current on issues

Diplomatic constraints – international law & coordination

Enforceability – Limited, no real governmental power, but broad passive influence Greenpeace

Greenpeace exists because this fragile earth deserves a voice. It needs solutions. It needs change. It needs action.

Greenpeace is a non-profit organization, with a presence in 40 countries across Europe, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific.

To maintain its independence, Greenpeace does not accept donations from governments or corporations but relies on contributions from individual supporters and foundation grants.

As a global organization, Greenpeace focuses on the most crucial worldwide threats to our planet's biodiversity and environment.

We campaign to: --Stop climate change --Protect ancient forests --Save the oceans --Stop whaling --Say no to genetic engineering

Role - More extreme environmental activist group

Activities – Greenpeace's history began in 1971. A group of ecologists opposed to the war in Vietnam contested US nuclear testing in the north Pacific. They decided simply to position themselves in the middle of the testing zone.

Use of the media - Embarked on a campaign to save the whales. Using Zodiac inflatables, they put themselves between the whales and the harpoons, generating images too sensational not to broadcast and creating new public pressure.

Speed of Response – rapid, high profile, technological approach

Diplomatic constraints – Nonviolent but radical group - Greenpeace's scientific and market research becomes pressure tools.

Enforceability - Creative nonviolent action mobilizes public opinion against the unsustainable practices of governments or corporations. The objective is to obtain as much coverage as possible through the media in order to mobilize public opinion on certain issues.

UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme

Established in 1972

To provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.

Role – negotiate, monitor, implement environmental treaties

Activities – focus on consumption issues, energy, food, youth programs

Use of the media – limited, website

Speed of Response – slower, through government action

Diplomatic constraints – tied to the UN

Enforceability – underfunded, undersupported

World Conservation Strategy - 1980

The World Conservation Strategy clarified the ideas of sustainable development. Its concerns were with the link between the economy and the environment. The environmental programme (UNEP) together with the International Union of the Conservation of the Nation (IUCN) and World Wildlife Fund (WWF) posed ideas to conserve nature. Therefore, suggesting that economic development and growth should be used to enhance the ability of societies to conserve nature. The main aim of the Strategy was to explain how development and conservation of the environment can work together.

The World Conservation Strategy had a focus on conservation and in placing the main focus on this it does not place as much emphasis on political, social, cultural and economic issues. This was different to the United Nations Conference on Human Environment which was held in 1972. Another difference between the World Conservation Strategy and UNCHE is that the World Conservation Strategy developed ideas on how they could implement and develop sustainable development.

Quote from the Conference:

"This is the kind of development that provides real improvements in the quality of human life and at the same time conserves the vitality and diversity of the Earth. The goal is development that will be sustainable. Today it may seem visionary but it is attainable. To more and more people it also appears our only rational option".

(The World Conservation Strategy, IUCN, UNEP, WWF 1980)

World Conservation Strategy (1980)

Secretariat/focal point: IUCN/UNEP/WWF Aim/comment: To help advance the achievement of sustainable development through the conservation of living resources. The Strategy: explains the contribution of living resource conservation to human survival and to sustainable development; identifies the priority conservation issues and the main requirements for dealing with them; proposes effective ways for achieving the Strategy's aim.

World Conservation Strategy Summary Points

1. Maintenance of essential life support systems (climate, water cycle, soils) and ecological processes

2. Preservation of genetic and species diversity

3. Sustainable use of species and ecosystems

References www.iucn.org http://www.panda.org (WWF site) www.unep.org http://www.greenpeace.org/international/ http://www.cbd.int/