Media Representations of Atrocities: the Case of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Mentor: Professor Joachim Savelsberg Spring 2013 UROP Proposal

Media Representations of Atrocities: The Case of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Introduction

I originally met Professor Joachim Savelsberg in the spring of 2012. I took his course,

“Crime and Human Rights”. Hearing about his research in class spurred my interest in the subject. At the end of the semester I contacted Professor Savelsberg about working with him on his research. Professor Savelsberg has been published extensively for his work on genocide and gross human rights violations, and the proposed research is an extension of his work on the region of Darfur in Sudan. We will be working toward a comparison of media portrayals of genocide in The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Rwanda, the Balkans, Cambodia, and East Timor with those Professor Savelsberg identified for Darfur. I will briefly summarize his research and then explain how the UROP project in fall 2013 adds to that work.

Past Research

Dr. Savelsberg has been working, with the support of the National Science Foundation, on a study about the representation of the violence in Darfur. He is especially interested in ways in which interventions by the United Nations Security Council and the International Criminal

Court changed the views of the conflict. Preliminary results show that countries differ in their understanding of the violence and their response to interventions. He and his graduate students have thus conducted a content analysis of 3,500 media reports and opinion pieces, web sites of

NGOs and foreign ministries from eight countries. In addition, Dr. Savelsberg has conducted

1 interviews with Africa correspondents and Darfur experts at foreign ministries and NGOs. The question arises if patterns of representation of violence identified for Darfur also apply in other cases. This is where my volunteer work and my proposed UROP research come in.

The UROP Extension

My research will identify, on a smaller scale, patterns for The Democratic Republic of the

Congo and explore how they differ from those in four other cases of genocidal violence. My contributions to this research go through several stages. The method I will use is currently being used by another undergraduate student, Taylor Yess, to compare patterns in Rwanda to the other countries.

Stage 1: First, a set of editorials and op-eds will be selected from the New York Times, published during the time periods during which the genocidal violence unfolded. The cases already under progress are Darfur, Rwanda, the Balkans, Cambodia, and East Timor

(completed). I will be selecting op-eds regarding the DRC. We will be using a system in which we chose every third editorial from that time period in order to create a manageable but sufficiently large sample.

Stage 2: We have adapted a coding scheme (Attached as Appendix A and Appendix B) in order to reliably measure the relevant content of these editorials on the DRC. Categories we examine speak to the editorials’ assessment of the forms and extent of victimization (e.g., number of persons killed, villages destroyed), type of victims (e.g., gender, ethnic/tribal affiliation), nature of the violence (e.g., war crimes, genocide), and of perpetrators (e.g., militias, military, levels of government), and demands and evaluations of diverse types of interventions

(e.g., humanitarian aid, criminal justice, peace keeping mission). We will use a three page

2 coding sheet, adapted from Dr. Savelsberg’s National Science Foundation-funded research project on Darfur. We use these codes to identify important discussions that reflect America’s collective consciousness completed.

Stage 3: I will then begin coding the pieces. The type of coding used allows us to both quantitatively and qualitatively analyze the selected editorials. The coding is done using printed copies of the articles and coding sheets. Both are numbered (in chronological order). I will read each editorial and identify descriptions of the conflict that coincide with a code on the coding sheet. I will highlight these passages, identify the corresponding code, and mark it on the coding sheet. In cases of doubt the code, “flag” will be used to mark a passage for discussion with Dr.

Savelsberg’s graduate student, Suzy Maves McElrath. Suzy will review my codes to check for consistency. I will begin coding this fall on a volunteer basis. The first half of the UROP support would be used to complete this task.

Stage 4: The second half of the UROP funding would be devoted to analyzing the data we collected. We will then set up a quantitative data set, using the Statistical Package for the

Social Sciences (SPSS) for a statistical analysis, software that is commonly taught in statistics courses in the social sciences. It allows for basic and sophisticated analysis of statistical data sets. We would use it for the calculation of frequencies, cross-tabulations, and significance tests.

I will supplement this statistical analysis through a qualitative content analysis using Atlas.ti, a program that allows for the organization of text passages by themes.

Stage 5: The final weeks of the UROP project will be devoted to working with Professor

Savelsberg and his graduate students to write a conference paper to be submitted to the American

Sociological Association for their 2014 annual meeting.

3 This project would be of great mutual benefit. I would learn much about genocidal violence and the way it is represented in the Western world. I would also extend my understanding of empirical methods, and I would learn how to write a scholarly paper. The project would benefit, as this research should shed some light on the question if the patterns identified for the Darfur crisis also apply to other cases of genocidal violence. We will better understand distinct ways in which the world community takes note of and responds to genocidal violence.

Literature Citations

-Savelsberg, Joachim J. Crime and Human Rights: Criminology of Genocide and Atrocities. London: SAGE, 2010. Print.

-Hagen, John, and Wenona Rymond-Richmond. Darfur and the Crime of Genocide. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008. Print.

-Law and Collective Memory: Savelsberg, Joachim, Ryan D. King, Annual Reviews, Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 3 181-211, 2007.

-American Memories: Atrocities and the Law. Savelsberg, Joachim, Ryan D. King, Russell Sage Foundation, Author, 2011.

4 Appendix A

Atlas Coding scheme Updated October, 08 2012

General instructions:  Use the “FLAG” code often when things are unclear.

Catalog documents Include the Date, Author, Word Count, and Title of each article in an excel spread sheet.

Family: History/Roots ***Include these codes if mentioned within the context of the current conflict. On code sheet, include note if there is a causal link. (e.g. “The current conflict is a result of the civil war” or “The current conflict is a result of cycles of violence since independence”).

Civil War: A civil war or ongoing conflict is mentioned.  Only use this code when the civil conflict is mentioned in the context of a discussion on the conflict of interest. Oftentimes, there are separate “segments” for each, which isn’t really what this code is meant to capture.  Catchphrases: 1990-1993 Civil War Imperialism: Imperialism (colonialism/post-colonialism) is mentioned. Social Revolution: The Social revolution is cited as a cause of the current conflict. Cycles of Violence: The current conflict is described as a continuation of decades of fighting in the DRC Regime Change: Coup or regime change specific to the conflict of interest mentioned as cause of violence Rebellion: Rebellion mentioned possibly as a cause of the conflict of interest Neglect: Neglect of the region is mentioned. Any reference to unequal distribution of resources (material, support, infrastructure etc.)  Catchphrases: marginalization Desertification: Desertification or resource scarcity is mentioned as a possible cause/root of the conflict

Family: Types/Amt of Violence Killings: Killings are mentioned.  This includes ALL “deaths,” both violence-related and disease-related.  This DOES NOT include deaths of peacekeepers or aid workers (separate code) #Killings: Total number of killings given. This applies only to the total # from the entire conflict, or entire conflict to date. For specific events, only code killings. #Natural deaths: Number of natural deaths given.

5 Refugees: Refugees (or internally displaced persons – IDPs) are mentioned.  Catchphrases: IDPs #Refugees: Total number of refugees given. Rapes: Rapes are mentioned.  Catchphrases: sexually-based violence, sexual violence against women #Rapes: Total number of rapes given. Applies only to the entire conflict. Torture: Torture is mentioned. Kidnappings: Kidnappings are mentioned. Disease: Disease is mentioned.  This includes malnutrition. Violence ag. aid workers: Violence or threats against aid workers, aid facilities, and/or peacekeepers are mentioned.  “Insecurity” is NOT included unless an aid worker or peacekeeper is specifically mentioned.  Also, ALL violence against aid workers is coded this way but not in “killings” or “kidnappings” – this is meant to be the catch-all code for aid workers.

FRAMES:

Family: Insurgency ***The basic idea within this frame is that the state has a legitimate right to defend itself against insurgents. Insurgency D: Actors and actions are explicitly described as “insurgents,” “terrorists,” “terrorism/terrorist acts,” or “violent gangs.” Insurgency P: Killing and arresting “insurgents”/gang members or intimidating the population in which they seek refuge is a suggested solution. Insurgency M: Maintenance of the integrity of the DRC state is mentioned as a goal.

Family: Civil War ***A civil war is a war between organized groups within a single nation state, or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly-united nation-state. Civil War D: Violence is referred to as a civil war or a tribal war. May not be explicit (if story is set up as two opposing sides within the same country fighting).  Do not code this when references were made to intertribal fighting. Ethnic War: Conflict is described as an ethnic conflict Civil War P: Peace negotiations or “peaceful mediation” between conflicting parties are suggested as solutions. Civil War M: Achieving peace is mentioned as a goal.

6 Family: Crime Crime D1: Acts that are considered criminal in most criminal codes (rape, torture, murder, pillaging, robbery, kidnapping, etc.) are mentioned. Killing is NOT necessarily a crime; murder is. Crime D2: Acts are explicitly referred to as “criminal” or “crimes” or “violations of international law.” For instance, if someone should be charged for war crimes, crimes against humanity, genocide, etc. Crime P: International judicial intervention is depicted as an appropriate response. Intervention includes arrest warrants or indictments. Also includes quotes such as “The government must cooperate with the ICC” or “The international community must support the ICC in their actions in the DRC” Crime M: “Justice” or “ending impunity” is described as a desired outcome (NOT the same as accountability, which fits more with the aggression frame). War crimes: Acts are specifically labeled “war crimes.” Crimes against humanity: Acts are specifically labeled “crimes against humanity,” or the article describes acts typically considered crimes against humanity (i.e., systematic). Genocide: Acts are specifically labeled “genocide.” Genocide debate: The speaker makes some reference to genocide without giving their opinion. For example, they may reference the ongoing ICC investigation, which will tell whether or not genocide has been committed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Perp=State: State is referred to as a criminal perpetrator or participating in criminal acts. Perp=Militia: Militias are referred to as criminal perpetrators or participating in criminal acts. Perp=Rebels: Rebels are referred to as criminal perpetrators or participating in criminal acts. Perp=PP: Civilians or the public are referred to as criminal perpetrators or participating in criminal acts. Govt Participate: The government is depicted as having participated in armed action. Govt Support: The government is shown to support a government-allied militia in any way Material support: The government gives weapons, training, etc, to a government-allied militia (same as govt support)

Family: Humanitarian Emergency Hum. Em. D: Hunger, illness, lack of (clean) drinking water, or encampment of the civilian population is depicted as the main aspect of the conflict OR the conflict is explicitly called a “humanitarian emergency” or “humanitarian crisis.”  Do not code if the speaker is speculating that it may become a humanitarian emergency (for instance, with the drought season coming up). Hum. Em. P: Delivery of aid to civilians affected by the violence and by internment is suggested or praised. Phrases such as “need to have more access for relief organizations” should also be assigned this code.

7 Non$ Problems for HE: Article discusses problems being faced by humanitarian aid organizations in the DRC. This includes violence against aid workers (so these passages will be coded as both). NOT SPECIFICALLY WITH FUNDING.

Family: Aggression *** Aggressive behavior is disproportional or inappropriate use of force that is not depicted as criminal. Captures acts that are seen as “going too far” but not criminal. Agg D1 (violence): Parties are depicted as AGGRESSIVE but not criminal (may be violence against civilians). This code is used for general references to violence, attacks, massacres, etc.  Generally does not apply to expelling aid organizations (just put that with Non$ problems for HE)  Catchphrases: violence against civilians, brutal force, attacks on the innocent or defenseless, indiscriminant violence Agg D2 (human rights): “Human rights abuses,” or examples of such abuses (i.e., unfair trials/held without reason, taking away freedom of expression or punishing those who try to participate in politics) are cited. Agg D3 (peacekeeping): Discussion of a situation that might call for peacekeepers. This would include a broken ceasefire or peace agreement. Include mentions of peacekeepers having been deployed or the force size increased or decreased. Agg P1 (give sanctions/pressure): International pressure, economic sanctions, isolation or other similar responses to the aggression are suggested.  Also code this for phrases like: “We will refuse to normalize economic relations unless…” Agg P2 (lift sanctions/pressure): Lifting sanctions (often as a reward for progress from the State) is suggested. Agg P3 (humanitarian int): Humanitarian intervention (by any actor) is suggested. Humanitarian intervention is the use of force across state borders by a state or groups of states aimed at preventing widespread violations of human rights of individuals other than its own citizens. It is NOT the same as aid/disaster relief. Agg P4 (peacekeepers): Sending a peacekeeping force is suggested.  Catchphrases: AU, UN, blue-hatted mission Non$ Problems for AP3-4: Article discusses the downfalls or problems that peacekeepers and peacekeeping missions are encountering in region from the State govt  Includes violence or attacks on peacekeepers, which should be coded here AND in Violence against Aid Workers Agg M1: End disproportional violence and human rights abuses  Catchphrases: Establish “stability” or “security”; protect civilians Agg M2 (account): Hold those responsible for the violence accountable to end the violence and to fix its aftermath. Agg=PP: Popular participation of civilians (non-military) as aggressors is mentioned Agg=Militia: State associated or sponsored militias are depicted as aggressors

8  Includes armed groups with specific reference to state support Agg=State: State government or their military is depicted as the aggressor.  Catchphrases: Presidential Guard Agg=Rebels: Rebels are depicted as aggressors.

Family: Past Atrocities *** Code these variables when past atrocities are referenced in the context of the conflict of interest (NOT as their own separate segments of the speech). Past humanitarian emergencies or wars should not be coded; this variable is mainly focused on past genocides, crimes against humanity, and similar atrocities. Past Atrocities: Use this code as a general “flag” for references to past atrocities, then use the following variables to specify which atrocity is being referenced. Cambodia Holocaust Rwanda The Congo Yugoslavia (includes Srebranica, the Balkans, Kosovo) Other PA Mimetic: Violence is mentioned as equal or equivalent to past atrocity. Contextual: Violence is mentioned as having similar contextual conditions (type of war, weak command structure, etc.) as another conflict or event. Prognostic: Document forecasts that the violence in the conflict of interest will produce similar outcome (loss, public support, etc.) as a past event. Challenge: Document contrasts the conflict of interest with another atrocity.

Family: IJI Actions General Judicial: Assign this variable anytime International judicial intervention is mentioned. Other codes are then used to specify. UN Res: Reference to UN Resolution that established international commission of inquiry on conflict Comm. Report: Reference to UN Commission Report on conflict IJI Ref: Reference to case referred to International Tribunal Req. warrant (Conflict): Prosecutor requests warrant for arrest Issue warrant (Conflict): warrant for arrest issued Initial appearance: Defendant to appear before court for the first time

Family: OTHER Atrocities: Assign this code whenever the violence is referred to as “atrocities.”

9 Race/Ethnic motive: People are targeted with violence for ethnic/racial reasons. Ethnic Cleansing: Assign this code whenever the violence is specifically called “ethnic cleansing.” Outside source: Added to certain quotations when they reflect opinions or actions taken or supported by one other than the newspaper or author of interest. For example: “The government of France called the situation ‘tribal conflicts’.” Also used when something is referenced but not outright supported by the newspaper (i.e., “There are allegations of genocide.”) List this under “source” on coding sheet. Dramatic effect: In depth depiction of killing or other form of violence as an illustration of the violence Other interesting points: Apply this code whenever something particularly interesting is found that does not fit in the code scheme. FLAG: Use this code whenever you are not sure what to code. Then you can run a query on it later and ask someone else.

10 Appendix B

Newspaper coding sheet Updated November, 20 2011

Family: History/Roots Source

Civil War: Imperialism: Social Revolution: Cycles of Violence: Regime Change: Rebellion: Neglect: Desertification: Family: Types/Amt of Violence Killings: #Killings: #Natural deaths: Refugees: #Refugees: Rapes: #Rapes: Torture: Kidnappings: Disease: Violence ag. aid workers: Family: Insurgency Insurgency D: Insurgency P: Insurgency M:

11 Family: Civil War Civil War D: Ethnic War: Civil War P: Civil War M:

Family: Crime Crime D1: Crime D2: Crime P: Crime M: War crimes: Crimes against humanity: Genocide: Genocide debate: Perp=State: Perp=Militia: Perp=Rebels: Perp=PP: Govt Participate: Govt Support: Material support: Family: Humanitarian Emergency Hum. Em. D: Hum. Em. P: Non$ Problems for HE: Family: Aggression Agg D1 (violence): Agg D2 (human rights): Agg D3 (peacekeeping):

12 Agg P1 (give sanctions/pressure): Agg P2 (lift sanctions/pressure): Agg P3 (humanitarian int): Agg P4 (peacekeepers): Agg M1: Agg M2 (account): Agg=PP: Agg=Militia: Agg=State: Agg=Rebels:

Family: Past Atrocities Past Atrocities (include name): Mimetic: Contextual: Prognostic: Challenge: Family: IJI Actions General Judicial: UN Res: Comm. Report: IJI Ref: Req. warrant (Conflict): Issue warrant (Conflict): Initial appearance: Family: OTHER Atrocities: Race/Ethnic motive: Ethnic Cleansing: Outside source:

13 Dramatic effect: FLAG: Additional Notes: