Rafting Club Copenhagen

ROPES AND KNOTS Table of Contents

Department Information  Introduction  Rope Construction  Classification & Identification of Ropes  Rope Care  Additional Software  Hardware  Fire Service Knots  Anchors

INTRODUCTION River rescuers have always used ropes and knots in the normal course of their operations. Ropes, or lines, are used in a wide variety of operations including hoisting, lowering, anchoring, rigging, as lifelines, and for crowd control. For example, rope arranged with pulleys in a mechanical advantage system can double or triple the weight a river rescuer. Improper use of ropes or knots could cause the failure of an operation resulting in injury to life and damage to property.

Chapter Overview The use of ropes, knots, and hitches during some emergencies operations is a requirement of all river rafters. Familiarity with ropes and knots is important so river runners can choose the proper rope and accessory for each operation. River runners must also know how to tie various knots and construct rescue systems. River runners should know the difference between the different types of ropes, and the proper uses of each. The strengths and specifications presented in this chapter represent only comparative averages. Slight specification variances may exist between individual ropes due to manufacturers' differences. Each rope’s strength and specifications are found in the manufacture’s literature and/or documented in the appropriate rope log.

Ropes and Knots Objectives  Explain the difference between static and dynamic rope and identify their use  Define Kernmantle construction emphasizing the strength  Know how to identify the types of ropes used by the Department and complete all appropriate rope logs  Demonstrate the proper care and maintenance procedures for all ropes carried on Department apparatus  Describe safety precautions associated with the use of ropes and knots  Identify and demonstrate each of the knots and hitches used by the Department for life safety, rescue, and fire ground operations  Identify and use the rope rescue hardware carried on Department apparatus

ROPE CONSTRUCTION Ropes are used to raise, lower, and traverse, provide safety and construct mechanical advantage systems. To perform these functions, a ropes specific type, construction, strength and durability must be carefully considered.

Types of Ropes Although there are several types of materials used to make ropes, each type can be classified into two basic categories: Natural Fiber and Synthetic.

Natural ropes include Manila, Hemp, Jute, Cotton and Sisal. Natural ropes are not recommended for rescues due to the low strength to weight ratio, and the tendency to rot, mold and mildew.

Synthetic ropes include Nylon, Dacron, Polypropylene and Kevlar. These ropes have superior strength and provide good chemical, abrasion and improved heat resistance while being impervious to rot, mold and mildew.

Construction Ropes can be constructed using various methods for strength and durability. Some types include laid, Braid, Braid on Braid and Kernmantle.

Laid Rope Braid on Braid Kernmantle Kernmantle The construction of Kernmantle rope identifies a high strength and continuously stranded inner core (kern) protected by an outer braided protective sheath (mantle). The braided nature of the outer sheath makes Kernmantle easy to use. The kern consists of parallel filaments often running the entire length of the rope. This is known as Block Creel construction. The kern carries the majority of the load, or about 75% - 90% of the rope’s strength. The mantle is a tight weave of nylon that provides the remaining strength and protects the kern from abrasion and contamination. It is very difficult to damage the core without obviously disrupting the sheath weave.

Ropes and Knots Section There are two different types of Kernmantle ropes: Low Stretch (Static) and High Stretch (Dynamic).

Low Stretch/Static Ropes Static lines are more appropriate for rescue service applications such as raising and lowering. Static lines allow very little stretch when loaded, less than 5% @ 450 lbf. (pounds force) with minimum elongation of not less than 15% @ 75% of the breaking strength, and a maximum elongation of 45% @ 75% of breaking strength (NFPA 1983, 1995 edition). Static lines are temperature rated to perform efficiently up to 250° F. The minimum melting temperature is 400° F. C A. Outer Jacket B. Parallel yarn bundles C. Yarns A D. Fibers D

High Stretch/DynamicRopes Dynamic ropes are common in climbing operations when a person must work in an unsafe position (e.g., above a belay or in positions that there is a likelihood of falling). If the climber falls, the rope stretches, absorbing the shock, and breaking the fall when the individual reaches the end of the line. Dynamic ropes stretch at least 10% at 450 lbf. And may stretch as much as 60% of their length before breaking. This is to absorb the shock of a falling load and reduce the impact on the falling person and their anchor system. Dynamic ropes act like a rubber band when loaded, which is a definite hazard and disadvantage when raising or lowering a heavy load. A B C

A. Outer Jacket or Sheath B. Diamond Braided yarn bundles C. Yarns D. Fibers

ROPE CARE

Care and Maintenance Ropes require very little maintenance, but they can be damaged through improper care. It is extremely important that all river runners understand a few basic principles in rope handling and maintenance. Rope lasts much longer with proper care. Avoid jumping, walking, sitting, standing, or dropping objects on a rope. This type of mistreatment could damage the fibers of the rope. Although at times not practical, ropes should contact the ground as little as possible. Contact with dirt by laying the rope on the ground or by dragging it allows small dirt particles to become imbedded in the sheath. These particles can work through to the core and slowly cut the rope fibers. Edge protection and chaffing material minimize this damage. Ropes should not extend outside the bag when stored.

Avoid sharp or rough edges and sharp bends, especially when the rope must be moved back and forth, as these can cut rope fibers. Place edge rollers or padding between the rope and any unavoidable sharp edges. Use edge protection any time there is contact between the rope and an abrasive surface.

Never allow chemicals to come in contact with rope. Chemical exposure may weaken or damage the nylon without visible evidence.

Avoid products that contain benzene, phenol (pine oil cleaners), carbon tetrachloride, formaldehyde, and petroleum products (gasoline).

DO NOT use permanent marking pens as these products contain benzene. Software ends can be marked with a “Rub- A-Dub” laundry-marking pen. Always consult the manufacturer instructions for marking of equipment. Avoid exposing rope to sunlight for long periods (especially when storing). Ultraviolet radiation will significantly shorten the life of the nylon rope.

Nylon fiber is affected by the absorption of water. Nylon is hydrophilic meaning it will absorb water. The overall strength and stretch can be greatly affected by moisture in the fiber. Sterling Rope’s in-house testing shows that loss of strength in wet nylon ropes may be as high as 70%. A wet rope is weaker, and up to 40% heavier, than a normal one. A wet rope is harder to handle and may not fit in a pulley or other hardware. Try to use polyester or polypropylene ropes in excessively wet or water rescue situations. High temperatures will damage nylon very quickly. The minimum melting temperature is 400° F. A common problem occurs when a rope runs through a brake or rappel system too rapidly. Nylon should also never be moved across another piece of nylon, as the heat generated would melt the stationary piece in a short period. Always use a carabineer between two pieces of software. A less preventable “nylon on nylon” situation is when single or tandem prusiks are used on a rescue rope as a safety brake and a hauling cam. In normal circumstances a rope runs through a brake slowly and the brake is “set” when the rope is not moving at all. A rescue rope should not be allowed to run rapidly through prusiks used as a brake. This will generate a tremendous amount of heat in a very short period of time and will melt the stationary piece of equipment.

Rope Inspection All ropes to be inspected after each use. A record of this inspection and any pertinent findings should be recorded on the rope log. Inspection often reveals that the rope needs to be cleaned to remove dirt or mud. There are several important conditions and flaws to look for when inspecting rope:

Visually inspect the rope for the following:  Dirt or other foreign debris imbedded in the rope fibers  Cuts, abrasions, unusual wear, and other damage to the sheath. Fuzz appears on the surface of the rope, as individual fibers are broken. Closer examination of the fibers with a magnifying glass is required if this type of sheath damage appears. By examining the base of each strand one can estimate the ratio of cut to uncut fibers. When 50% of the fibers are broken in one pique* or when 30% of the fibers are broken over a larger area, the rope should be taken out of service.  Discoloration of the rope that could be from chemical contamination  Burn marks from excessive heat  Rust from improper storage

*A “pique” is the area of a braided sheath where two strands of the rope intersect. This is where one strand passes over another. This area forms a visible square on the sheath. A pique refers to one of these strands only.

Feel the rope for the following:  Dirt or other foreign debris imbedded in the rope fibers  Inconsistencies in the diameter of the rope  Soft spots, bulges and kinks  Inconsistencies in the flexibility and texture  Hard, melted or glazed areas on the sheath  Wetness, nylon loses approximately 15 percent of its strength when wet. If any of the following rope conditions occur, remove the rope from service.  Excessive contact with dirt and grime  Contact with any form of chemical, which could ruin the rope (i.e., acid, petroleum, and vapors)  Visible damage is evident to the fibers on the outer jacket  Inner core is visible  Exposure to temperatures in excess of 250° F  A load fall is absorbed by the rope  An excessive load was hauled by the rope (greater than 50% of tensile strength)  An object has fallen on the rope from an extreme height or at extreme speeds

Note: The history of a rope is important. Any rope subjected to sustained loads, shock loads, or loads three times the recommended working load should be downgraded or discarded.

Consult the Scene or a person who is on charge before re-using a rope that has experienced one of these conditions during an incident. It may not withstand any weight due to weakening from the fault. The rope should be retired if it is unsafe to use in further life and property saving operations.

Ropes should be retired when:  There is excessive sheath wear  More than 50% of the fibers are broken in one pique  More than 30% of the fibers are broken over a larger area of the rope  After a severe shock load or fall load  Contaminated by chemicals  An inspection reveals any obvious damage  The manufacturers "shelf life" of the rope has expired

Taking a Rope Out of Service If a rope has sustained damage (as listed above) the rope will need to be taken out of service. To take a life safety line out of service, cut the ends off of the rope and place the rope in the equipment cache. Most ropes sustain damage to a specific area. The damaged area can be removed and the rope can be placed back in service as a utility line.

Rope Log A Rope Log for recording the usage of each rescue rope must be maintained. The Rope Log is kept in the unit directory. Information to be recorded may include:

• Purchase date • Size "shock load" • Any type of damage • Length • In Service Date • Whether an object fell on the rope • Any unusual loading • Type of rope • Manufacturer • What materials or contaminants the • Whether it sustained a "fall load" or a • Washings rope came into contact with

Every time a rope is used, the usage should be recorded in the Rope Log. Information about how it was used will help to decide when to retire a rope from service. The decision to retire a rope will be determined by reviewing the rope log, inspecting the rope for damage, and by using common sense and good judgment.

Washing Rope and Webbing Rope that has come into contact with blood or other body fluids can be cleaned using a chlorine bleach per your department’s protocols for decontaminating equipment. Wellington Commercial Cordage states that the small amount of bleach specified in most decontamination protocols will have minimal effect on the rope’s fibers. Rope should be washed following the manufacturer’s guidelines. Small amounts of dirt can be removed by rinsing the rope off at the station with a bucket, a soft brush, and a hose. Using a front loading washing machine is the easiest and most effective method of cleaning heavily soiled ropes. Remember to rinse harsh detergents from the washtub before you start. Some Manufacturers suggest either a special product made for washing nylon rope or Woolite. Some rope may require a presoak for 30-60 minutes (depending on dirtiness). A muddy or extra dirty rope should be rinsed and scrubbed with a nylon bristle brush before soaking and/or washing. Various manufacturers recommend a fabric softener, like Downy, should be added during the rinse cycle. When rope is manufactured the fibers are coated with a lubricant so they can go through the machines. This lubricant stays on the rope and allows the individual fibers to slip and slide when the rope is loaded. This makes the rope stronger. When a rope gets wet through washing or use, this lubricant is washed out and the rope losses up to 4 percent of its rated strength. Fabric softener restores some of the lubricant and up to 2 percent of the lost strength. Air-dry ropes and webbing in a cool, dark place. DO NOT dry rope or webbing in the sun because the ultraviolet rays will attack the nylon. At the scene of an incident, ropes may be stuffed in the bags wet if necessary. However, they will need re washing and proper drying later. Remember that dirt left on rope and associated hardware can cause rapid wear. Rope bags will protect a rope from abrasion and exposure to unwanted chemicals. As a final rule, always inspect your rope for damage each time it is used and again as it is being recoiled or bagged.

ADDITIONAL SOFTWARE Nylon Webbing Nylon webbing is made from the same material as Kernmantle rope and its properties are similar. Because of its small diameter, webbing is used to build anchor systems, create harnesses, package and secure victims; and to lash rescue components together. Check any knots tied in webbing frequently. Webbing is slippery and may loosen or untie itself when not under tension. Knots slip through themselves if the free ends are too short, so leave plenty of tail on any knot and back it up with a safety knot. Do not tie webbing directly to ropes; the heat generated by nylon-to- nylon friction can wear through the webbing.

The 1” size is the most widely used and has an NFPA minimum breaking strength of 4,000 lbs. 2” webbing has a minimum breaking strength of 7,000 lbs. Webbing may be constructed using a tubular design that is hollow. This style is tightly woven in a spiral weave/shuttle loom with a stop stitch added to eliminate unraveling (top right). Other construction styles include needle loom construction, which is flat webbing folded over and stitched on one side (left). The newest webbing on the market is solid, flat webbing (right). This Mil Spec flat webbing has a minimum breaking strength of 5,000 lbs. Webbing comes in several sizes. All department rescue webbing must meet the NFPA minimum standards for the appropriate construction type used.

Care and Maintenance Webbing is constructed with nylon and should be cleaned the same as Rope.

Identification of Webbing The Webbing color indicates its length: Green 5’, Yellow 12’, Blue 15’ and Orange 20’.

Inspection Webbing should be inspected after each use. Surface wear should be taken seriously because there is no protection sheath to reinforce its strength. Webbing has a tendency to wear faster than rope due to its large surface area. Whenever a utility strap is scuffed, stiff, cut, or discolored, retire it from service and obtain another. Remember that nylon webbing is constructed from the same materials as nylon rope and can be affected in the same manner. Follow the same precautions for rope.

Prusik Loop Another device used with ropes is a Prusik Loop. A Prusik can be used as a hauling or braking cam. It is not less than 1/3rd but no more than1/2 the diameter of the rope. The Club uses ?8mm cord (3600 lbs.) cut at 57” and 70” lengths tied with a double overhand bend. Prusiks should not be untied!

Care and Maintenance/Inspection Prusiks are constructed with nylon and should be cleaned the same as Rope.

Harnesses A Class II Rescue Harness is pre-manufactured commercial harness designed to assist rescuers in quickly donning a safe and comfortable sit harness. A chest harness should always be worn in conjunction with the Rescue Harness. Rescue Harnesses range is size, types and features. All harnesses should be rated and designed to meet the needs of the user. Newer Harnesses have features like quick fit buckles at the waist and legs allow for rapid adjustment. These buckles will hold up to 6500

HARDWARE Hardware includes all adjunct equipment used along with a rope to set up a rescue system. These include but are not limited to, Carabiners, Gibbs, Pulleys, Anchor Plates, Brake Bar Racks, Figure 8 Plates and Edge Rollers. Hardware will be classified into two categories: General and Personal Use. Single person loads up to 300lbs are classified “Personal Use”. Any load 300lbs or greater is classified “General Use”. All pieces of hardware should be inspected after every use. This will prevent premature wear and ensure the safe use of the equipment. Like software, hardware should be kept out of the dirt and off the ground as much as possible. Hardware must be kept clean, dry and free of lubricants. When applicable and practical, use edge protection, covers and/or tarps to keep hardware/software off the ground. This may prevent dirt from being forced into the moving parts and becoming jammed.

Avoid dropping pieces of hardware as this may cause stress fractures in the equipment. If a piece of hardware is dropped from a significant height (waist high) on to a hard surface it must be inspected. If an initial inspection of the equipment reveals obvious damage, defects, or burrs remove the item from service until a repair can be made. Un repairable items should be retired. If there is ever a doubt about the integrity of a piece of equipment it should be taken out of service until a full evaluation can be made.

Carabiners Carabiners are used to connect different pieces of equipment together. "D" shaped Carabiners are used because they transfer the load to the strongest points. The steel carabiner is rated at a minimum of 9000 lbs, heat treated carabiner is rated at 13,000 lbs and aluminum carabiner is rated at 5,000 lbs. with the gate closed and locked (NFPA’s MBS is 5,000 lbs.).

Things to avoid include:

1. Never allow a carabiner to be side loaded or tri-axial loaded. 2. Never open a carabiner that is under a load as this will weaken the carabiner and could cause an entire system failure. 3. Never lock a carabiner when it is under a load. When the weight is taken off of the carabiner it will jam the locking mechanism so tight it may be impossible to loosen. Therefore, carabiners locks should be tightened before they are loaded. 4. Never "chain" or “stack” carabiners together when they are used in a rescue system.

Inspection Inspect carabiners by checking for cracks, corrosion, burrs, rust and unusual wear. Look for signs of overloading such as permanent deformation of the frame or difficulty closing the gate. Close attention should be given to the gate, the pin, and the lock. Check to make sure the gate will self close all the way and the locking mechanism operates freely. Ensure carabiners are clean and free of dirt and other abrasives.

Anchor Plates This rigging plate features five oval shaped holes, which allows carabiners to be inserted easier. Numbered holes make it quick to organize connections. Machined from 1/2-inch aircraft aluminum plate and anodized red. Anchor plates have a MBS of 8,000 lbs.

Inspection Visually inspects for wear, cracks, burrs, rust, and distortion. Smooth out nicks or soft spots with emery cloth.

Figure Eight Descenders Figure Eight Descenders were designed as descending devices or rappelling devices. Machined from 1/2-inch aircraft aluminum plate and anodized black. Figure Eight Descenders should only be used for oneperson loads of a limited distance, and for lowering one-person loads. Figure Eight Descenders have a MBS of 3,822 lbf. Inspection Visually inspects for wear, cracks, burrs, rust, and distortion. Smooth out nicks or soft spots with emery cloth. Retirement is when the wear is greater than 15% of the original thickness.

Pulleys Pulleys reduce friction, while providing a change of direction and/or mechanical advantage. Their maximum working load is 6000 lbs.

Inspection Visually inspects the side plates for distortion, cracks, and wear. Check the Carabiner hole for distortion. Check the nuts for tightness. Make sure the wheel turns freely and is free of dirt and grit. Never oil a Pulley!.

Edge Rollers Edge rollers protect rope as it runs or is pulled over a sharp edge. They also reduce friction on the system as the rope passes over the rollers.

Inspection: Visually checks for cracks and distortions. Ensure that nuts are tight. Check that rollers run freely and are free from dirt and grit.

Gibbs The Gibbs is an ascending device made to ascend fixed ropes. It is often used with ropes, Carabiners, and pulleys to build mechanical advantage systems or as a braking cam. Care must be taken not to "shock load" the Gibbs because the cam may damage or cut the rope. Although the Gibbs ascender is rated at 2550 lbs., it is only pull tested to 1,000 lbs. at the factory. Tandem Prusik loops may be used in the place of a Gibbs in most application.

Inspection: Visually inspects all parts of the Gibbs. Check the cam for cracks, distortion and wear. Check the shell for sharp edges and elongation of the hole. Make sure the indent works in the pin and that the pin is not bent. Also check the cables and chains.

Brake Bar Rack A rope is applied to a brake bar rack to create friction. The brake bar rack consists of consecutive bars that create bends in a rope. This unique feature allows rescuers the ability to add or remove bars to adjust the friction. Sliding the bars together and apart or adjusting the angle of the rope also adjusts the friction. A tie-off bar is used to secure the rack while under a load. A brake bar rack has an MBS of 10,000 lbs.

Inspection Visually inspect for wear, cracks, burrs, rust, and distortion. Smooth out nicks or soft spots with emery cloth. Replace bars when 1/3rd the diameter of the bar is worn.

RIVER SERVICE KNOTS Several factors are important concerning service knots. Knots should be easily tied, un-tied, and identified. There should be minimal or no strength loss to the rope.

Remember to always use the right rope system for the job. Identify the weakest link in the system to determine the operational load limit. Never allow anyone to stand in line or within a 45 degree on either side of a rope under tension. If the system fails, the recoil force could cause serious injury or death

Working end

Standing part

Running end

**Always clean-up your knot to improve strength. COMMONLY KNOTS USE IN RIVER RESCUE

Figure 8 Stopper Uses: a. A Stopper knot keeps the end of the line from running through an object b. Starting knot for Figure 8 Bend and Figure 8 Follow-Through

Figure 8 on a Bight Uses: a. Forming a bight at the end of a line b. Forming a bight at any part of a line c. Commonly used to clip into Carabiner coming off of an anchor sling

Note: The size of the bight varies on the application. Anchor attachments should be small. Pelvic and chest harness attachments would be larger.

Double Figure 8 on a Bight Uses: a. Forming a bight at the end of a line b. Commonly used to clip into Carabiner coming off of an anchor sling

Note: The size of the bight varies on the application. This knot is preferred for anchor attachments.

Figure 8 Bend Uses: Joining two lines together that are approximately equal diameter

Note: Start with a Stopper Knot. End of second rope weaves through the stopper. The ends of the ropes finish on opposite sides of the knot.

Figure 8 Follow Through Use: To secure a line around or through a trussed anchor

Note: Start with a Stopper Knot. The working end goes around the anchor and weaves back through the stopper. The ends of the rope finish on the same side of the knot.

Inline Eight Uses: a. Provides an in-line attachment b. Situations where you need to tension the main line c. Used in place of Gibbs or Prusik d. Retains 85% - 90% tensile strength

Note: Starting with a bight in the rope, wrap the bight around the mainline in a Figure 8 fashion. The bight should exit next to the main line.

Square Knot Uses: a. Secure two rope/webbing ends b. Tie bandages on victims c. Situations where ease of removal is important Disadvantages: a. Safety knots must be tied because slippage can occur b. Strength loss is excessive, retains only 43% - 47% tensile strength

Bowline Uses: a. Tying ropes used as lifelines b. Securing lines to fixed anchors c. Advantage: Does not slip or jam

Disadvantage:

a. Line will retain 50% tensile strength b. Should not be used on human loads

Butterfly Knot Uses: a. Provides an in-line attachment b. Situations where you need to tension a line c. Used in place of a Gibbs, Prusik or In-line 8

Overhand Bend (Also known as a Water Knot) Uses: a. Join the ends of nylon webbing together or to form a loop or sling

b. Use when tying off a Swami sit harness

Disadvantages: Retains 60% - 70% tensile strength

Becket Bend Uses: a. Join two unequal items together b. Largest rope forms the bight

Clove Hitch Up or Down — Depending on Direction of Pull) Use: Fastening a rope around a fixed object

Disadvantage: a. This knot has a tendency to slip so it requires an overhand safety knot

b. Retains 60% - 65% tensile strength

Double Overhand Bend Uses: a. Joining together two lines of equal diameter b. Forming temporary or permanent loops (i.e., Prusik Loop) c. Retains 85% tensile strength

Three Wrap Prusik Uses: a. Hauling or Braking cam in rope systems b. Securing rescuer or victim to a sing harness and/or a fixed line c. Tandem Prusik increase overall strength Advantage: Will not come undone under stress

Disadvantage: a. Wrap will slip at approximately 800 to 1000 lbs. of tension b. Create a Nylon-on-Nylon situation

ANCHORS

Anchors Uses: Securing webbing or rope to an anchor point Note: Although there are other types of anchors, the anchors shown are approved for life loads. A “Girth-Hitch” also referred to as a “Lark’s Foot” should not be used for human loads!