CITIES OF VESUVIUS 1

The region of Campania An area that is dominated by volcanic activity takes on a unique character. The particular nature of the volcanoes themselves has determined the way that settlements have developed, and how people have migrated to and from the area. From the first, Vesuvius emerges as the dominant physical feature on the landscape. It is impossible to miss, and beneath it is the urban sprawl of Naples and Greater Naples. There is little doubt that the region is now, as it was then, subject to Vesuvius and its capricious nature, with over 30 eruptions since AD 79. The eruptions of this particular volcano, Mount Vesuvius, have led to the creation of a unique food bowl, with terrestrial and marine provisioning for the population. Environmental archaeologist Robyn Veale with the Anglo–American project (2005) has been part of a team that has examined man’s interaction with the Campanian environment during pre-eruption times and concluded that the area was extremely well provisioned.1 The volcanic region provided excellent sources of timber for building and heating, soils for intensive agriculture, and the huge Bay of Naples provided fish and transport routes for the region. The development of the Campanian settlement has been dominated by the rich sources of food in this volcanic region. Originally, the area was colonised by Greeks, who found the area accessible by ship, with all manner of food sources. The discovery of Epicurean philosophical works in Naples and in the Villa of the Papyrii, Herculaneum, demonstrates the dominance of food production and consumption in the region.2 The Neapolitan area has a history of waves of settlement, showing the various interests groups had in settling such a rich area. The area has been well documented in Roman times by Pliny the Elder’s Natural History. Stationing himself at Misenum, he was in an excellent position to enjoy the warm climates and the outstanding environment: But how shall I commence this undertaking? So vast is the number of celebrated places (what man living could enumerate them all?), and so great the renown attached to each individual nation and subject, that I feel myself quite [p. 1182] at a loss … And then too the coast of Campania, taken singly by itself! so blest with natural beauties and opulence, that it is evident that when nature formed it she took a delight in accumulating all her blessings in a single spot—how am I to do justice to it?3 The eruption of Mount Vesuvius Nevertheless, the pre-eruption supposition that the area of Campania was dominated by a dormant volcano was erroneous. Strabo, in his work Geography, described the mountain this way: CITIES OF VESUVIUS 2

Above these places lies Mt. Vesuvius, which, save for its summit, has dwellings all round, on farm-lands that are absolutely beautiful. As for the summit, a considerable part of it is flat, but all of it is unfruitful, and looks ash-coloured, and it shows pore-like cavities in masses of rock that are soot-coloured on the surface, these masses of rock looking as though they had been eaten out by fire; and hence one might infer that in earlier times this district was on fire and had craters of fire, and then, because the fuel gave out, was quenched …4 The eruption of the volcano was therefore unexpected by the region’s inhabitants. The process of the eruption in AD 79 presents us with a series of catastrophic events that, later, create a paradigm of archaeological sites, 5 including Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae, Oplontis and Boscoreale, which centres on the eruption and its aftermath.

Layers of ash can be seen here. Gradual build up occurs continuously. (Scholar’s own photograph 2005)

The name ‘Vesuvius’ means ‘great cone’. On an ascent to the crater, the title seems most apt. The layers of ash build-up and the steam at the base of the crater show that the activity is continuous. The Mount Somma complex surrounds it, showing activity of 17,000 years ago. The nature of the volcano involves a build-up of a ‘plug’ at the neck of the volcano, under which pressure builds until a violent eruption occurs. Over the volcano, there are measuring devices and a thick vine-like forest where Spartacus hid as a fugitive. The lararium fresco at the House of the Centenary CITIES OF VESUVIUS 3 shows a tall peaked mountain beside Dionysus. The area was benign for many years, until AD 79, when the eruption was believed to occur. The eruption of Vesuvius gains the label ‘Plinian’ because of the observations of Pliny the Younger, in his letters to Tacitus. While noting that these letters are themselves sources with which an historian should use caution, they outline the apparent phases of the eruption. The work of Haraldur Sigurdsson (1985) and the measurement and modern recording of the eruption of Mount Saint Helens in 1980 show some parallels to Pliny’s description, thereby giving a worthwhile outline of the phases of the eruption. Of course, other vulcanologists, geologists and archaeologists have examined the remains, and from these, looked at the impact of the eruption on the physical environment of the region. The eruption was preceded by seismic activity in AD 62. Sources indicate that the February eruption had differing effects on the area, and archaeological evidence points to some post earthquake reconstruction. Apparently, on 24 August AD 79 (with the date itself being open to question) the plug burst, followed by a massive eruption column which blew the top off the mountain. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius created totally different impacts on the areas around it. It is imperative to note that the different speeds and materials that were expelled by Vesuvius on the region have determined the way that the victims died; the ways that the sites have been destroyed and preserved, respectively; and later, the knowledge gained from the sites; their discoveries, excavations, interpretations, conservation and management. The destruction of Herculaneum, 7 km from Vesuvius, was immediate and complete. A study of the eruption of Mount Saint Helens, and the study of the bodies in the barrel vaults by Mastrolorenzo6 have led to better pictures of the stages of the eruption and the impact on Herculaneum. CITIES OF VESUVIUS 4

The view from the Villa San Marco, originally Flowers placed beside the child: to the beach. (Scholar’s own photograph, The Garden of the Fugitives. 2005) (Scholar’s own photograph, 2005)

The first phase of the eruption for Herculaneum was the descent of hot gasses at estimated temperatures of 480 Degrees.7 The 26 victims at Mount Saint Helens in 1980 show deaths from asphyxiation and thermal shock, and the correlation of the autopsy findings to those at Herculaneum have been extrapolated.8 The constriction of tendons, the pugilistic poses and the sutures in the skulls of bodies strongly indicate that high temperatures killed the residents of Herculaneum.9 The town was then covered in the next 24-hour period with between 9 and 21 metres of volcanic material,10 evidence of which is clearly seen in some of the excavations around windows and doors. The depth, density and hard composition of the material on Herculaneum are unique. The city of Resina now is constructed around the site, with multistorey buildings well supported by the hardened volcanic deposits underneath. The documented phases of the eruption on Pompeii were very different to Herculaneum. The first phases of the eruption were not fatal, according to Sigurdsson,11 with the descent of ash and lapilli being blown by the winds to the south of the eruptive column. The next phase affecting Pompeii was after Herculaneum’s destruction, which was lethal. The surges of debris, ash and later pyroclastic flow killed most of the Pompeiian victims, knocked second storeys off buildings and covered the area with 4 metres of material. Clearly the deposits of material were much thinner than at Herculaneum, with layers of pumice and ash relatively easy to remove. The district was affected in varying degrees. The landscape changed, with the Bay of Naples extended. On site, the extension of the landform on the CITIES OF VESUVIUS 5 beachside villas is clearly shown. The destruction of the villas and their surrounding lands varied according to their proximity to the eruption. Post-eruption history of the Campanian region The post-eruption history of Campanian region is, like the pre-eruption history, comprehensively dominated by the existence of Vesuvius. The subsequent outline of developments in the region is again a direct impact of the mountain on the area. Pompeii is now a tourist Mecca, with over 30,000 tourists visiting daily. Personal experience of the sheer mass of tourists on such an old site offends the conservationist sensibilities of an Australian ancient history teacher. The visitation of this 66-hectare city is so intense simply because of the rarity of this find. The excavation of Pompeii to the AD 79 level produces an archaeological and historical discovery like no other. For the layperson it provides an experience of walking through time, to see in the present day how everyday people may have lived. Bodies sculpted from plaster castings are dispersed through the site for the public to contemplate their fate in the face of the eruption. Gardens have been replanted in houses that reflect styles akin to those described by Vitruvius, 12 and people can sit in the amphitheatre and contemplate the size of the crowds before AD 79. The tradition of visiting Pompeii is a relatively old one. The grand tours of previous centuries drew visitors from the European and American elite during a time when artefacts were collected as curios, and vignettes of skeletons and furniture were set up for viewing.13 The Bourbon monarchy sponsored the tunnelling and chiselling that eventually led to the massive collection at the Archaeological Museum of Naples, where few glass cases exist for statues or mosaics and masonry spills out into the courtyard. The archaeological value of Pompeii has been enhanced as well as reduced by the international interest generated by the site. Scholars and interested benefactors, like the Packard Humanities Institute, have provided funds to ensure study and conservation. Tourists, conversely, have often damaged materials on the site, but give revenue to the soperintendenza for future developments. The traditions of tours, the rearrangement and collection of artefacts, removal and rapid excavation of material in the name of archaeology come from an age when archaeology was looting. Conservation has only been a relatively recent concern of the general public and the political nature of control over the sites has led to a spasmodic excavation and management history. Pompeii was first discovered in the 16th century and its chequered progress as a ‘preserved’ ancient site is owed to the ease with which the site was discovered CITIES OF VESUVIUS 6 and excavated. It reflects the history of archaeology as well as the history of Roman settlement in the Campanian region.14 Why other sites were discovered later, and why tourist visitation there has never been as intense, is fundamentally due to the thinner and more porous coverage that Pompeii received from the Vesuvian eruption. Furthermore, the trends of investigation and study of the region are due to the material deposited. Two examples strengthen this argument. Firstly, the light ash substance allowed for intact frescoes on lower storey walls that remained without warping that have been of remarkable quality. The advent of the art history approach to Pompeii, particularly in the German schools, comes from Johann Wincklemann and his access to the many frescoes excavated in the 18th century.15 This approach has altered the perspective of scholarship on Pompeii, with objects of art the priority rather than any other objects. The scientific approach to study in Pompeii was pushed aside due to the art history influence.16 While contemporary exhibitions such as the Food and Flavourings Exhibition at Boscoreale (2005) are now created, the everyday life element of Pompeii had been largely disregarded in the past in favour of frescoes, sculptures, and less utilitarian artefacts. A distinct archaeological bias in favour of elites has been presented due to the fascination with interest in classical art.

(above) Ceiling feature from the Men’s Stabian Bath House. (left) The Forum Women’s Bath House, converted to a restaurant. (Scholar’s own photographs, 2005) CITIES OF VESUVIUS 7

Secondly, the pumice and ash created perfect fossils of organic matter, like doors, tree roots, and, of course, bodies. The Fiorelli method of creating plaster casts of the fossils led to an immediate visual of the victims in their death throes. The twisted agony of the dog and the infant beside its mother in the Garden of the Fugitives evoke huge emotional responses from people. This has led to a more immediate impression and, therefore, more curiosity about the victims of Vesuvius. The fact of an eruption wreaking havoc on a populace is enhanced with actual human reminders of death—skeletons with ‘flesh’ upon them. This confrontation with death has led to many dramatic recreations of the events of Vesuvius. Films such as The Last Days of Pompeii build on the old staged vignettes of the grand tour days. Even now, bestsellers of populist recreations such as Pelligrino’s Ghosts of Vesuvius or Harris’ Pompeii exist, and the BBC’s most recent offering, Pompeii: The Last Day, show stories of imagined human experiences. The fossils have heightened the drama that people have tried on many occasions to recreate about the Pompeiians in the face of the eruption. The dominance of art history in its scholarship and the importance of high drama in its presentation are immediately evident when visiting Pompeii. The sites that have been given precedence are those that contain (or did contain) art works, with ‘lesser’ structures being treated according to their lack of art works. A simple comparison of men’s and women’s bath houses or the poorer and richer homes will give the visitor a visual contrast. Art has been removed from the site, officially in the past, and illegally in the present.17 Additionally, there is tremendous attention to the bodies, which has led to many populist recreations of the last moments of the people of Pompeii. In contrast, the Vesuvian volcanic materials deposited on Herculaneum have determined the course of its excavation and management. The depth and density of the material burying Herculaneum left it harder to discover and excavate and easier to build upon, and has preserved a whole range of organic remains which provide massive challenges for conservation. Herculaneum was accidentally rediscovered in 1709, much later than Pompeii. The prolific sources of marble led to tunnelling sponsored by the Bourbon royalty. Subsequently, a highlight of early scholarship in archaeology occurred with the vigilant supervision of the Villa of the Papyrii under Karl Weber.18 However, comprehensive excavations of whole structures were abandoned in favour of the easier working conditions in Pompeii and Stabiae.19 (The ash had undergone a lithification process through water contact and had made the substance tuffaceous rock.20) Work resumed in Herculaneum during the Mussolini dictatorship. Manpower and modern machinery led to a fairly rapid excavation of the site, with the Maiuri CITIES OF VESUVIUS 8

20th century concept of an open air museum.21 Post war attention went again to Pompeii and various soperintendenzas are recognised as leaving Herculaneum neglected (though this does not appear in publications). Reclamation of the township of Resina for Herculaneum excavations no longer became an issue after Mauri’s work finished in 1963. A building beside the excavations, once planned for display, sits rather emptily, a project from one of the Mafioso-dominant times. Periods of high interest have existed for Herculaneum, but unlike Pompeii, these have been generally about the organic remains of the site. The work of Dr Sara Bissell on the skeletal remains attracted international attention,22 but politics intervened and the National Geographic Society sponsorship was ended.23 The concept of studying the bodies for their live state rather than their victimisation by the volcano was a priority.24 The 1982 sensational discovery of a boat led to great study on the design and material construction of boats.25 Herculaneum continued to be the lesser known and therefore less visited site. Today, the visitor to Herculaneum is predominantly an Italian school student. It never experienced the grand tour days, and does not suffer the thousands of tourist visitors as does Pompeii. However, conservation of this precious site has become a priority. This is due to what has been preserved in Herculaneum by Vesuvius after its eruption AD 79. Andrew Wallace-Hadrill in September 2005 explained to the tour group that his ‘far from modest ambition is to literally save the site of Herculaneum’.26 The site is so precious due to the better preservation of its archaeological material than that of Pompeii, but by the very nature of the material it is at risk of being lost forever. The meeting with the Herculaneum Conservation Project shed light on the Packard Humanities-sponsored initiative to safeguard the site before any other activity can take place. Since 2004 there has been new legislation to give some autonomy to this proactive group of Italian and international specialists, who work on supporting crumbing walls, restoring fading frescoes, stopping pigeon destruction and arresting the destruction of crumbling mosaics. This groundbreaking work has allowed international agencies to collaborate with the soperintendenza, Pier Giovanni Guzzo, to actively work towards conservation, not excavation or exhibition. The materials preserved in Herculaneum include organic matter, such as bread, grapes and timber. Second storeys of buildings that in all other sites have been knocked down by the final phases of the eruption have also remained intact. It is the very nature of the material preserved, according to Wallace-Hadrill that makes it so fragile.27 For example, carbonised timber is charcoal, so it just crumbles. CITIES OF VESUVIUS 9

Post-eruption studies have also extended to the various villas outside the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The quest for otium (productive leisure) is shown in various examples of the villas available to the visitor. The contrasts between the sumptuous Oplontis villa, the Villa San Marco, the Villa of the Mysteries and the Villa Rustica show the differing levels of leisure and productivity, size and wealth, and purpose of living in the Campania region.28 The availability of productive land, the temperate climate and proximity to the beach led to pre- eruption settlement and the later existence of sites that add to a whole area of post-eruption excavation, scholarship and management. The rediscovery, excavation and management of the Villa of the Papyrii have again been very different to the aforementioned southern villas. This villa, now literally across a road from Herculaneum, is comprised of elite living unparalleled in the area, with sheer size and prodigious amounts of art works. International interest has existed in the 20th century from millionaire John Paul Getty (whose Villa Malibu, open to the public in 2006, is a pastiche of styles existing in the villa29) and the Philodemus project, which centred on the scrolls found in the library. The existence of the controversial second library containing the scrolls of papyrus has provided substantial historical debate,30 with the painstaking process of unrolling and deciphering excavated scrolls a massive and therefore unfinished task.31 The fact that materials such as papyrus are still available to scholars are a consequence of the depth of material deposited by Vesuvius and the heat- sealing of the area in the early phases of the eruption. Conclusion Since the 18th Century, the discoveries in Herculaneum, Pompeii and Stabiae have aroused interest or curiosity in scholars and non experts alike.32 Pier Giovanni Guzzo gives an apt summation of the importance of the Campanian region in the introduction of the guidebook to Pompeii, in describing the visitors as experiencing ‘one of the most significant legacies of the ancient world.’33 It is the very nature of the eruption by Vesuvius that has led to the contrasting sites. Studied alone, recognition of the differences in pre-eruption development and post-eruption treatment cannot be achieved. The natural consequence for the international community is to study, value and conserve the paradigm of sites in an entity, the product of an eruption that sealed over an ancient area. The wealth of archaeological and historical material, the links found to the heritage of all modern western civilisation, the consequences of previous excavations and management strategies, and the debatable issues related to ethics make it a particularly appropriate core topic CITIES OF VESUVIUS 10 of study for Australian ancient history teachers and students in NSW high schools. In the consultative findings of the NSW Board of Studies, 76 per cent of ancient history teachers voted for the study of Pompeii as the new core study for the 2006 Ancient History syllabus. However, the Board Consultation Committee (BCC) decided on the title ‘Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum’ to extend the field of study beyond Pompeii.* After a tour of the region, it is essential to look at the area as a complete product of the dominant geophysical entity. The cities of Vesuvius and all that they entail are owed to the activity of the ‘great cone’.

Endnotes 1. Veale, MAHA Conference Paper, Macquarie University, 2005. 2. Lancaster, J., The Shadow of Vesuvius: A Cultural History of Naples (I.B. Taurus, London: 2005). 3. Pliny the Elder, The Natural History (eds John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S. & H.T. Riley, Esq., B.A.). 4. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/home.html 5. Estelle Lazar, ‘The Eruption’, lecture at Cities of Vesuvius Tour, 2005. 6. Cameron, K, and Lawless, J., Secrets of Vesuvius: Unlocking the Sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum (Thomson Nelson, Melbourne: 2006), p.90. 7. Estelle Lazar, ‘The Eruption’, lecture at Cities of Vesuvius tour, September, 2005. 8. Brennan, B., & Lazar, E., Pompeii and Herculaneum: Interpreting the Evidence (Ancient History Seminars, Sydney: 2005), p.13. 9. Ibid., p.12. 10. Herculaneum Conservation Project, mimeograph for tour teachers, September, 2005, p.2. 11. Brennan, B., & Lazar, E, Pompeii and Herculaneum: Interpreting the Evidence (Ancient History Seminars, Sydney: 2005), p. 12. 12. Vitruvius, as mentioned in Penelope Allison, Atria in Pompeii, MAHA. 13. Estelle Lazar, ‘A History and Philosophy of the Management of Pompeii’, lecture at Cities of Vesuvius Tour, September 2005. 14. R. Granger, ‘Pompeii: Excavations and Discovery’, with permission from the author. CITIES OF VESUVIUS 11

15. Estelle Lazar, ‘A History and Philosophy of the Management of Pompeii’, lecture at Cities of Vesuvius Tour, September 2005. 16. Ibid. 17. B. Brennan, and E Lazar, op.cit., pp. 148–149. 18. Pirozzi, M.E.A., Herculaneum: the excavations, local history and surroundings (Electa Napoli: 2000), p.36. 19. Herculaneum Conservation Project mimeograph, p. 2. 20. Ibid., p.2. 21. Ibid., p.2. 22. Deiss, J.J., Herculaneum: Italy’s Buried Treasure (The John Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles:1985), p. 190. 23. Estelle Lazar, MAHA Conference Lecture, 2004. 24. Deiss, J.J., op.cit., p.191. 25. Pirozzi, M., op.cit., p.44. 26. Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, ‘Saving Herculaneum’, lecture at the British School of Rome, October, 2005. 27. Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, Ibid. 28. Brian Brennan, ‘Houses and Villas on the Bay of Naples’, on Tour, September, 2005. 29. Ibid. 30. Cameron, K, and Lawless, J., op.cit., pp.103–40. 31. Dr. Rosalie Cook, MAHA lecture, ‘The Villa of the Papyrii’, August, 2005. 32. Pier Giovanni Guzzo, Introduction, Pompeii: Guide to the site (Electa Napoli, 2002), p.7. 33. Ibid., 35. CITIES OF VESUVIUS 12