Philosophy, a Love of Wisdom, in a More Practical Sense Is a Way of Thinking Logically

Chapter 8 Summary

Philosophy, a “love of wisdom,” in a more practical sense is a way of thinking logically about questions that concern humankind. Since the early history of civilization, societies worldwide have had an appreciation for philosophy. Philosophical thinking over the centuries has assisted humankind in efforts to better understand the universe and to make life more fulfilling. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were ancient Greek philosophers who are still noted for their contributions to Western civilization. Socrates shifted philosophical thinking away from a search for the “unity of things” to understanding morality and discovering truth and good. Plato is credited with starting the first university, the Academy, and writing several distinguished works including The Republic, which laid out a plan for a “perfect” society ruled by wise philosopherkings. Aristotle, a student of Plato, is credited with Aristotelian logic, or deductive logic. It deals with the relations between propositions in terms of their form instead of their content. Aristotle advocated the first classification system. The philosophy of India is believed to be as old as Greek philosophy. Buddha began his work as a teacher at Sarnath in India. Many of his followers organized Buddhist communities, which spread throughout Asia. Buddhism largely vanished from India after the 12th century and the invasion of the Muslims. The concept of karma—that what a person does influences what will happen to that person in the future—is an idea that is popular in many Eastern societies. Indian philosophy includes the belief that through study, meditation, yoga, or a combination of the three, it is possible to transcend worldly cares and the suffering that life brings. Eastern philosophy differs from Western philosophy in that it respects the interdependency and unity of human beings and nature; it is concerned with interpersonal knowledge, peace and harmony, and the nature of society. Confucianism and Taoism are two major strands of Far Eastern philosophy. Li and Taoism are two important concepts in Far Eastern philosophy. Li means behaving with courtesy and ceremony; Taoism means “the way” and being one with nature. The demographics in classrooms in the United States are becoming increasingly like a global village. Teachers are teaching students from all parts of the world. Understanding the philosophies that direct the social and cultural behavior of students can be a vital key to successful teaching. The political and philosophical writings of Francis Bacon and John Locke affected the thinking of the English colonists in America. Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were especially influenced by Locke’s discussion of inalienable rights of citizens and the connection of an educated citizenry to a government run by the people for the people. These philosophical ideas became the foundation of the educational system of the United States. Over the decades, six educational philosophies have influenced the U.S. educational landscape: perennialism, essentialism, experimentalism (pragmatism), reconstructionism, existentialism, and postmodernism. Perennialism is a belief in absolute truths and standards. The Great Books, classical literature, traditional history, and biographies make up a good deal of the curriculum. Lectures dominate as an instructional practice, and essay exams are a way of assessing student learning. Essentialism is the belief that the primary purpose of school is to preserve the basic elements of human culture and transmit them to the young. Essentialists become very vocal after a perceived national crisis, such as when the Russians sent Sputnik into space in 1957 or when there is a downturn in the national economy caused by greater technological efficiency on the part of other countries. Essentialists argue that schools should stress the basics and eliminate curriculum frills. The teacher is the dominant actor in the classroom, and the textbook is the chief instructional tool. Essentialism in the United States started in the 1930s as a reaction against the pragmatism and reconstructionism that were popular at the time. Experimentalist philosophy teaches students to analyze and critique, and to make decisions based on their analysis. Charles Pierce is considered the father of pragmatism, which is considered an American philosophy. A teacher who adheres to the experimenatalist philosophy will organize the curriculum according to students’ interests, and “learning by doing” through discovery and experimentation will be the focus of the instruction. The classroom will be a community, with classroom management and discipline adhering to democratic principles. Individual and class projects and discussion make up a good deal of the instructional methods, and assessment is based upon student projects. Social reconstructionism is an educational philosophy in which the school, including teachers and students, are encouraged to change society for the betterment of those who are marginalized. Social reconstructionists believe that students should be prepared to build a more just social order, one that better meets the needs of all people, thereby achieving greater democratic effectiveness. Current events and social problems make up a good deal of the curriculum, and the basics are taught through students’ working on problems facing them or their communities. It may seem that scholars of color and women are contributors to the reconstructiontist philosophy more than to other philosophies. This is perhaps so, because scholars of color and women are more likely to argue for changes in the status quo, especially changes related to race, class, gender, disability, and sexual orientation. Existentialists believe that philosophy should be a passionate encounter with the problems of life and the inevitability of death. In an existentialist classroom, students play a major role in determining what they will study. Learners may pursue knowledge at their own pace and in ways that best meet their needs. Teachers see their role as providing a caring classroom that stimulates individual learning styles. Postmodernism has it roots in the 1950s world of art. Postmodernism argues that multiple interpretations of events and issues should be presented to students, the curriculum should include locally based narratives of everyday life and events, and knowledge should be presented as partial. The role of the teacher is to expose students to multiple communities of knowledge. The themes of postmodernism include notions of constructed truth, language, reason, science and technology, human nature and self, power and oppression, and creativity and aesthetics. Postmodernists argue that how we think about race and gender, for example is socially constructed and has roots in power relationships. The twin themes of this book are power and education that is multicultural and social reconstructionist. We use these themes to evoke ideas that come from different philosophical movements, including social reconstructionism and postmodernism. We use them to inform our choices in this book and to explain the multiple perspectives and power relationships that are embedded within schooling practices. The importance of developing a philosophy of education early in teacher training is that it frames how you think and learn about teaching. It can be used to assess the fit between your own teaching beliefs and those of a particular school and its staff. The following four questions provide a framework for teacher candidates to develop their philosophies of education: (1) What is the nature of the learner? (2) What is the nature of subject matter? (3) What is the nature of the learning process? (4) What behaviors (disposition and attitude) should teachers exhibit in order to carry out their philosophical position?