Mrs Cameron S Guide To

MRS CAMERON’S GUIDE TO: TEXT TYPES

 A Functional View of Language

 Explanation of Text Types

 An Approach to the Study of Texts

 Focusing on Texts

 An approach to Shared Reading

 Strategy for Writing Text Types

 Glossary of Grammatical Terms

 Recommended References A FUNCTIONAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE

A functional view of language:

 enables us to talk about language (it is a metalanguage)  looks at how language functions in different ways to make meaning  sees language as a resource for making meaning in specific contexts to specific audiences for particular purpose  emphasises the text as a whole and how texts are pattemed enables us to explore various patterns within the text recognises that these patterns vary in particular ways according to the context.

Traditional Grammar is one way of describing language. It provides us with formal terms to identify parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives).

Functional Grammar focuses on how words and groupings of words work together to make meaning in a text – terms like participants (nouns, noun groups), processes (verbs, verb groups), circumstances (usually phrases of time, place, reason), etc. attempt to identify these various functions.

Page E-2 TEXT TYPES

Literary Texts Factual Texts

Narrative Discussion Drama Explanation Poetry Exposition Report Procedure Recount

Note: In First Steps, ‘Discussion’ is listed in the Oral Continuum only. Also, First Steps does not specifically address Poetry and Drama as Text Types.

Text Forms

Literary Texts Factual Texts

Aboriginal dreaming stories Advertisements Ballads Announcements Cautionary tales Conversation Fables Current affairs programs Parables Debates Fairy tales Directions Fantasy Documentaries Folktales Editorials Historical narratives Essays Improvisions Constructions Legends Instruction manuals Limericks Interviews Lyrics Lectures/Presentations Mimes Letters Myths Newspaper articles Odes Public speaking Playscripts Recipes Radio drama Reference articles Science Fiction School reports Sonnets

Page E-3 Narrative

Purpose To relate a story that is imaginery or factual; sometimes to teach a lesson or explain phenomena.

Structure

Orientation Sets the scene, time and/or characters of the story. (Who, what, when, where.)

Complication Problem arises which initiates a chain of events.

Sequence of Events Consequences of complication are explored through time-sequenced events.

Resolution Complication resolved and tension dissipates.

Coda (Optional) The moral, lesson, or literary ending.

Grammar

 Specific characters with defined identities. They can be people, animals or things that are important to the story;

 Uses detailed noun groups to create images in reader’s mind;

 Often uses time connectives to sequence events throughout the story;

 Verbs focus on action, feelings, thought and speech;

 Usually written in past tense (this may change during dialogue);

 Written in first or third person.

Page E-4 Text Type: Narrative

Structure Grammar (Examples) A Russian Legend Specific nouns

Orientation The Golden Palace supposedly contained everything a Introduces the child could desire, and all children sought to do setting something good so that they might obtain the key to the palace.

Complication Child wants One child brushed her hair and cleaned her shoes, but the key but the gatekeeper turned her away with the admonition to does not know do something good for somebody else. how to get it She went out in search of that someone and found a Sequence of beggar into whose hand she poured all the precious Detailed noun events groups The child trying coins she had saved. Having completed her mission, different ways she rushed back to the golden palace. But again she to get the key was turned away. The gatekeeper noticed her Thought disappointment and encouraged her to try again. verb

Upon returning to the town the little girl saw an old Time woman carrying a heavy bundle up a steep hill. She ran connectives to the lady, took the bundle, and raced up the hill. Depositing the bundle at the top, she dashed down the Repeat event hill, headed for the castle. and demanded the key. But Third Person again the Gatekeeper turned her away. This time she was thoroughly disappointed, and, though told to try again, she completely gave up. “I don’t want the key anyway,” she muttered to herself.

On the way home she heard a whimpering in the Action verbs Action which bushes. Trailing the cry to its source, she found a dog leads to caught in an animal trap. She tried her utmost to release Speech verb resolution the dog, and her hands were bleeding before she finally succeeded. Then she tore off strips of her dress to make bandages and wound them around the dog’s bruised Past tense paw. Resolution The child Suddenly the gatekeeper from the Golden Palace Tense received the appeared before her and offered her the key. “But,” she changes key during speech protested, “I don’t deserve the key. I didn’t help the dog for the key. I forgot all about the key.” Coda The moral of The old gatekeeper fondly said, “You forgot yourself, the story dear child. The key is for those who forget themselves.”

Extract from Sakae Kubo: Calculated Goodness

Page E-5 First Person

Purpose

To depict visual and auditory actions and interactions of characters.

Structure

Drama scripts are often a combination of various text types. They include directions and procedural aspects as well as direct speech.

Grammar

Drama draws on a variety of grammatical patterns.

Page E-6 Text Type: Drama

Structure Grammar (Examples) The Playground

Characters Information Peter A quiet boy and Mary’s friend about Specific nouns characters Paul The class tell tale Mary The school bully and Peter’s friend Mrs Green Teacher on playground duty

Setting Timeless present tense The scene is set in a school playground at recess time. There is a lot of colourful sports equipment Noun groups being used and the teacher on duty is walking Explanation on around supervising the students while thinking about how to set the the next lesson. stage Thought verbs ( Peter and Mary are playing with a hoop and some skipping ropes when Paul walks over) Procedural text to give instruction Paul: (pointing to Peter tied to the pole) Um ah I’m dobbing.(turns and begins to run to the teacher)

Mary: Wait, it’s only a game. Come back and play with us. (She chases after Paul, drags him back Action verbs and ties him to the pole) Dialogue Peter: (In a soft voice) I think you had better untie him or there’ll be trouble. (Points to the teacher walking across the playground)

Mrs Green: Mary, what are you doing?

Mary: We are playing indians Mrs Green. (Smiles sweetly)

Mrs Green: (Absently) Well don’t play to rough then. (She walks away)

Paul: Mrs Green, Mrs Green wait!! (The teacher keeps walking away). Help! I want to... (Mary stuffs a sock into Paul’s mouth).

Page E-7 Poetry

Purpose

Poetry is for description, criticism, argument or praise

Structure

Conveying sound and imagery are the main aims of poetry. Each type of poem is individually structured

Grammar

Each poetic text form has its own characteristic grammatical pattern. Repetition, synonyms and antonyms are often the basis for textual cohesion

Page E-8 Text Type: Poetry

Structure Text Form Grammar (Examples) Acrostic

Beautiful Inspirational Can be one Books word or a The initial letters Lovely phrase each in each line form Everlasting line a word

Ballads

There was once a boy named David Who tended father’s sheep. He use to play the harp and sing But never would he sleep.

Until one day his father asked For him to take some lunch To his brothers who were at war With the Philistine bunch.

Goliath came onto the scene- He was an enormous man. No Israelite would go and fight, So David raised his hand. Usually tell a story about a The most hero. ‘If none of you will go and fight, common verse They are often May I go out and try? found in set to music I have my sling, my faith, my God, Ballads is the We can’t let this pass by!’ Quatrain or four-line So David with his one small sling stanza Went out and met the giant, Rhyming On his way he picked up stones patterns can On God he was reliant. be varied

One small stone went in the sling Around and round it spun, The stone went sailing through the air, Goliath’s down! We’ve won!

So when you have an enormous task And the problems are all new, Just ask the Lord to be with you, And He will guide you through.

Page E-9 Catalogue Poems

Green is the grass Does not Green is some glass necessarily Creates a list to have to rhyme Green on the trees provide a collage of images about Green on my knees Each line does a particular idea Green is so cool not Green is a jewel necessarily have to start with the theme

Cinquain 1 word to state subject Pathfinders exciting, challenging 2 word description full of fun Five line poem to campouts are the best 3 word present an image great! description

4 word comment

1 word comment

Concrete Poetry

it that is we Visual images why always and layout like to qu es ti on

Diamante

Caterpillar 1 word to name first soft, white subject A five line poem crawling, creeping, eating 2 adjectives 3 -ing words feet, cocoon, colours, wings 2 nouns related to flitting, flying, fluttering first subject then two vivid, beautiful nouns to introduce butterfly second subject 3 -ing words 2 adjectives

Page E-10 1 word to name second subject

Dylan Thomas Portrait

Have you ever seen a cloud? Intricate noun A question Fluffy-white, floating-gently, sparkling-crystal, raindrops group of four followed by a pairs of descriptive line adjectives (or a single noun at the end)

Ezra Pound Couplet

A class full of infants Two lines. The A box of playful kittens second line a contrasting image to expand the first

Fire comes from its mouth 5 syllables Japanese poem Its stomach grumbles and groans with three lines Volcano erupts 7 syllables that describes some aspect of 5 syllables nature

Limerick

There once was a girl from Barcoo, Who could not decide what to do. Lines 1,2 and She first was a nurse, 5 rhyme (3 five line poem strong beats) And then drove a hearse, which tells about something funny And finally tried teaching too. Lines 3 and 4 rhyme (2 strong beats) Epics

An epic is a long poem that describes deeds and events and that usually tell a story.

An ode is a reflective poem of praise or satire.

Page E-11 Sonnets

Sonnets are lyric poems with 14 lines. They have a structured rhythmic pattern and usually rhyme.

Lyrics and Songs

Lyrics and songs are short poems that express feelings or emotions usually with a regular rhythmic pattern.

Discussion

Purpose

To present contrasting views on an issue

Structure

Statement of Position This is the basic position that is being discussed. Background information and overview often included.

Argument Arguments for and against the basic position are written in a logical sequence with supporting evidence. The arguments for are usually presented first.

Summary This can be recommendations, a summative evaluation of the arguments, personal conclusions, or open choice for the audience.

Grammar

 Uses generalised nouns.

 Uses intricate noun groups

 Uses a variety of verbs ( action, speech and mental).

 Uses causal connectives that indicate reasoning (therefore, so, firstly).

 Uses varying degrees of modality ( perhaps, should, must).

Page E-12 Page E-13 Text Type: Discussion

Structure Grammar (Examples)

School Lunches Generalised Statement Many people believe that yoghurt is good in school nouns of Position lunches. Mental verbs A healthy lunch is most important for growing children. Yoghurt is nutritious as well as delicious and kids love it. Intricate noun Arguments The Australian culture has developed a race of groups for sandwich-eaters at lunch time and it is time that this concept was changed. Carrot sticks, fresh fruit, salad Action verbs and yoghurt should be included lunch time treats.

In many families both parents are working and yoghurt is a good and easy selection for the children’s lunches.

However, there can be many problems with yoghurt in school lunches. Contrasting connective Many times the yoghurt stays in the school bag during 40 degree temperatures when the owner could have put Arguments it in the school fridge. against Then there are the times that the yoghurt has had an accident and it is all over the homework, the show and Medium tell, and the jumper. Sometimes the broken yoghurt is modality not noticed until it is lunch time and the students have to ask the teacher for help. So by this time the yoghurt has set to a sticky consistency and the smell is not nice.

In conclusion, yoghurt is a good food for the students Causal Summary but there is definitely a great risk in school bags. connectives

High modality

Page E-14 Explanation

Purpose: To explain how and why things occur.

Structure

Definition Defines the phenomenon.

Operation Uses a series of logical statements which outline how or why something works.

Application (Optional) Gives application for the phenomenon.

Conclusion Concluding statement or summary.

Grammar

• Generalised non-human nouns

• Use of technical terms

• Occasional intricate noun groups

• Uses timeless present tense

• Mainly uses action verbs

• Occasionally uses passive voice

• Uses time connectives to indicate sequence

• Cause and effect (consequently, because of this, then...)

Page E-15 Text Type: Explanation

How do Grasses Pollinate? Non-human nouns or noun Pollination describes the process whereby grass seeds groups Definition germinate. Timeless present tense

Pollination for grasses begins with tiny flowers, usually Intricate noun about five millimetres long, which have no petals or groups sepals. A grass flower opens only once for about an hour or so. Some grasses open early in the morning. Operations Others, like wheat and oats, open in the afternoon. On a Time dry, sunny day when the temperature is right, these tiny connectives flowers split open and spout out pollen. Action verbs After the male part of the plant discharges the pollen, the female pistil pushes up to receive the pollen floating Technical terms around in the air from other plants. When exactly the right pollen grain arrives at the tip end of a pistil ready to receive it, the material adheres to the sticky stigma.

Like a tiny plant suddenly coming to life, it begins to Cause and grow. Soon a long tube has grown down inside the pistil effect until it reaches the ovules then an egg, or seed is produced with the characteristics of the two plants.

Passive voice Conclusion E and J Lantry (1976)Stop Look and Listen. Review and Herald: Washington.

Page E-16 Exposition (Argument and Persuasion)

Purpose

To present logical, well ordered statements or arguments from a particular viewpoint.

Structure

Statement of Position This is the basic position that is being discussed. Background information and overview often included.

Argument Arguments for the basic position are written in a logical sequence with supporting evidence.

Summary This can be a re-statement of the issue, a summative evaluation of the arguments or personal conclusions.

Grammar

 Uses generalised nouns.

 Uses a variety of verbs ( action, linking, speech and mental).

 Mainly uses timeless present tense.

 Uses nominalisation (actions changed to things) to make argument sound objective.

 Uses technical terms related to the issue.

 Uses causal connectives that indicate reasoning (therefore, so, firstly).

 Frequent use of passive voice.

 Uses high modality to stress point of view (will, must, always).

NOTE: First Steps includes arguments both for and against in the exposition text type.

Page E-17 Text Type: Exposition

Danger Pay

Kindergarten teachers should definitely get an extra Generalised wage allowance: Danger money! There are three main nouns Statement of Position dangers that the kindergarten teachers must face. First, at the beginning of the school day, a mother drags her screaming daughter into the classroom and shouts, ‘Here, you take over. I can’t do a thing with her!’ She is not dressed in uniform and she has not had breakfast. Action verb The mother then shoves clothes and food at the teacher and runs out the door. The result is a sudden panic attack. Saying verbs

Secondly the teacher may come to school feeling fit and Linking verbs healthy but then just after recess, during quiet time, someone decides to share his breakfast with the floor. All the other students race for the door. The Mental verbs Argument kindergarten teacher must use crowd control tactics, keep the class in order, clean up the mess, deodorise the room and resume teaching, leaving the teacher with a panic attack and an upset stomach.

Finally, there is water on the knee. After lunch when it is Nominalisation show and tell time, one student somehow silently sits on the teacher’s knee. The unsuspecting teacher begins to notice the first warm trickle. Then it is too late! The deed is done, the teacher has a panic attack, an upset stomach and a wet patch on the knee. Causal Because of these issues, kindergarten teachers must connectives receive danger money. If they do not receive this money, then there will be a major shortage of kindergarten teachers in the future, which will cause far reaching implications for our society. High modality

Summary

Timeless present tense

Page E-18 Report

Purpose

To organise and record information about a whole class of things.

Structure

Opening Statement Often a definition or a general statement on the topic.

Facts Sequenced facts that build a description of the topic.

Summary (Optional)

Grammar

 Uses nouns to describe a whole class of things.

 Uses some action verbs when describing behaviour.

 Uses linking verbs (is, are, have)

 Uses timeless present tense

 Uses factual descriptive language

 Uses technical terms

 Uses paragraphs with topic information

 Uses pronouns

Page E-19 Text Type: Report

Structure Grammar (Examples) Hummingbirds

There are about 400 different kinds of hummingbirds Opening that live in the Western Hemisphere at all altitudes and Technical Statement climates from forest to high mountains to deserts. They terms range in size from the tiny Cuban Hummingbird only General nouns 2cm long to the largest variety, a native of the Andes measuring twenty centimetres.

The hummingbird is like a glittering fragment of rainbow. Few birds are so brilliant and able to flash iridescent Linking verbs colours with such intensity and beauty. As the bird turns its body, what at first appeared black flashes shows brilliant metallic hues.

Facts Almost everything about a hummingbird denotes speed. Paragraphs with topic The hummingbird’s wings beat seventy-five times a information second. They are the only birds that can hover indefinitely, fly backwards, forwards or sideways. Timeless Bathing quickly on the wing, they dash under a small present tense waterfall, plunge into clear pools, or flutter through dewy leaves. Their tiny nest, a work of art beautifully camouflaged, is often built in a single day. Though built Factual in plain sight, it is often invisible. descriptive language Usually twins hatch from pea-sized eggs. These naked, blind babies must receive food every few minutes at first. The mother inserts her long bill into the wide-open mouths, literally pumping food into the young ones. Action verbs As you see the blur of the hummingbirds as they dart Summary from flower to flower take time to remember the One who created them.

E and J Lantry (1976)Stop Look and Listen. Review and Herald: Washington.

Pronouns

Page E-20 Procedure

Purpose

To instruct someone how to make or do something

Structure

Goals This section states what is to be done

Materials Lists the materials needed to reach the goal

Methods Sequential steps needed to be taken to reach the goal

Evaluation (Optional) How successful was the procedure in reaching the goal

Grammar

 Uses generalised nouns

 Mainly action verbs

 Timeless tense

 Uses imperative mood (Do this!, Do that! )

 Time connectives

 The reader is referred to in a general way

Page E-21 Text Type: Procedure

Quick Chocolate Cake

Goal To make a quick chocolate cake you will need: General reference to reader  1 3/4 cups of self raising flour  1 1/4 cups of sugar  1/4 cup of cocoa Materials  1/4 teaspoon of salt  1/2 teaspoon of Carb Soda Generalised  125 gms of butter nouns  1 cup of milk  2 eggs

 Sift together flour, sugar, cocoa, salt and carb soda.  Next melt butter and add it to dry mix.  Then add milk Imperative mood  Beat mixture for 1 minute Method  Add the eggs Time  Beat mixture for 2 minutes connectives  Pour into a greased cake tin and bake for 1/2 an hour on 200 C Action verbs Timeless tense

Page E-22 Recount

Purpose

To tell what happened in time sequence

Structure

Orientation This provides background information

Events The events are placed in chronological order

Concluding comments These may include personal comments

Grammar

 Uses specific nouns and first person pronouns

 Uses action verbs

 Usually written in past tense

 Uses time connectives to sequence events

 Uses time and place phrases (Yesterday, before lunch, at school)

Page E-23 Text Type: Recount

Structure Grammar (Examples) Letter

Daring Station RD 1003 North Road Alice Springs NT 0954

Dear Sir and classmates, Orientation This has been the best holiday that I have ever had. The day after school finished Mum and Dad packed the car and we headed off to the Northern Territory. It took Action verbs about twenty-eight hours to drive here and on the way we helped a hitch-hiker, rescued a flying fox and Events changed six tyres (my Dad did not like that part!). Specific nouns

When we arrived at the station, Mrs Daring gave me a Past tense horse of my own for the holidays. I explored all over the station and then when night came I was given the loft to sleep in.

During the first night I saw four satellites, two comets, and three planets. Time connectives The next three days were spent mustering the cattle and we had to sleep in tents. In that time I had to save Dad Time phrase twice as he kept falling off his horse. Place phrase In the last week I went crocodile wrestling and saw 16 platypus in the river. 1st person pronouns Looking forward to seeing you all again,

Concluding Love Statements Jacquie.

Page E-24 AN APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF TEXTS

The Language System

Texts convey the meaning they do because of certain distinctive features. These features relate and work together systematically within the text to achieve their purpose. One way to make sense of this function is to recognise what some define as the language system. The following notes explain briefly what makes up this language system and the relationship between them. This explanation provides a basis for the notes on the following pages.

The Language System

Semantic Level Grammatical Level

Meanings Words and Structure

Graphological/ Phonological Level

Letters, sounds & visual features

Explanation:

Semantic Level

How ideas, information, issues, opinions, etc are organised within the text, eg. the ordering of ideas, time sequence, cohesion patterns and text structures, visual features such as illustrations, etc.

Grammatical Level

How structural patterns function within texts for particular purpose, eg. sentences and clauses, words and word groups - participants/nouns/noun groups, - processes/verbs/verb groups,

Page E-25 - circumstances/phrases, reference chains, modality, mood.

Graphological/Phonological Level

The function of letters and speech sounds, punctuation, layout and visual images.

Page E-26 FOCUSING ON TEXTS

Text Structure and Presentation

1. Introduce a range of texts over time. Draw attention to their purpose, and their similarities and differences.

Ask questions like:

What is the text about? What text type is this? How do you know? (Look at its features.) What other texts like this have you read? (Encourage students to compare texts.) What makes them similar?... different?) What is it trying to achieve? (Find heading, pictures.) Who might write a text like this? Who might read a text like this? (Talk about audience.) Why? Do you think it achieves that purpose? What is effective about it?

2. When planning and setting tasks:

Be specific about the purpose of the task.

Who is the audience? What text type is appropriate?

Provide sample texts as models. (Draw attention to the way the text is organised.) Support students with reference models showing structure and subheadings.

Inferring Context from Text

Text and Context

In order to understand the purpose of any particular text, that is, how it works, we need to consider its cultural context, and the specific situation in which it was produced.

Context influences the grammatical patterns found in the text. As the context changes, so will the grammatical patterns change. Three major factors influence the language choices:

What the text is about (the field); Who is involved in the interaction (the tenor); The channel of communication (the mode).

Field — What the text is about; subject matter or the content.

Fields can include such areas as 'assisting hungry people in developing countries, 'describing features of a trip', 'the way our government works, 'different types of mammals', etc. In language, are concerned about developing different fields of

Page E-27 knowledge. It can be about things that are part of our everyday life, or abstract, scientific and technical areas.

Each field has its own characteristic way of constructing knowledge through language. Students need to be familiar with the language needed to construct and understand these different fields.

Tenor — Who is involved in the interaction?

We make different language choices according to whom we are interacting with. Obviously we would speak differently to one of our best friends than we would to someone whom we don't know and who has some authority over us.

The tenor can be described in terms of the roles assumed by the people in the situation at the time ('teacher', 'student', 'principals', 'director', 'friend', 'acquaintance', 'mother', 'daughter', 'husband', 'wife', and so on) and the relationships between those involved in the interaction (hostile, familiar, affectionate, neutral, etc.). In particular, we need to consider such aspects as power status, authority, expertise, degree of familiarity, feelings and the like.

Mode — The channel of communication.

The language patterns of a spoken text are significantly different from the language patterns of a written text. But it is not a simple matter of 'spoken' and 'written', because there are many types of spoken texts and many kinds of written texts.

The mode can be described in terms of a continuum ('the mode continuum') ranging from those texts which are closest to spontaneous oral interaction (e.g. language accompanying some activity) through to language which is considered, crafted and carefully edited and organised, where there has been the opportunity to distance oneself from the activity and to reflect upon it.

Implications for Teaching

As teachers, we are constantly constructing contexts for learning for our students. If we are aware of key features of the contexts we construct and how these influence the sort of language being used (and hence the sort of learning going on through language), we are in a better position to make decisions in our programming. Such decisions might include the following:

What purpose do l want the students to be able to achieve through writing in this unit? What type of text best achieves this purpose? How would such a text be structured? What field of knowledge am I trying to develop? How can I help the students to move from their everyday, familiar understandings of the world to more systematised, generalised, technical and abstract understandings?

Page E-28 What language patterns might be involved in shifting from commonsense fields to educational fields?

What range of roles do lwant my students to be able to take up? Where necessary, how can I help them to operate not only on a personal, informal level, but when necessary in a more formal, objective manner? What interpersonal language skills will students need to gain control over so that they can operate confidently in a wide range of contexts?

How can I move the students along the mode continuum from exploratory oral interaction where they are coming to an understanding of the field and purpose, through to final draft written texts where they are pulling together their knowledge of the field and organising it coherently? Do I need to give them the opportunity for an 'oral rehearsal' before they write their texts, as a 'bridge' between the oral and written?) What knowledge about written language will the students need in order to make the transition from the oral mode to the written mode? Using a Text

Does this book contribute toward the field being developed in this unit? What particularly effective or significant vocabulary might l highlight? Can we identify any major patterns or relationships in the text? What new terms might need clarifying?

How does the author involve the reader?. Can I take advantage of this? Am I allowing the students to participate in an active way? Am I allowing them to identify various characteristics of the text?

What is the purpose of this piece of writing? Would this book provide a good model for the students' writing in this mode? Am I sharing a variety of written modes and demonstrating how they achieve their different purposes through language? How can I guide the students to identify the overall structure of the text, and the language characteristic of the various stages? How are the pictures contributing to the text? How does the text rely on diagrams, illustrations, etc?

Planning a Unit of Work

What knowledge or fields will l want to help the students develop? What new concepts? (ultimately new language) What relationships or patterns might it be useful to make explicit?

Page E-29 What sort of logic or reasoning might be involved? If have ESL children, will the field involve unfamiliar cultural references? Is there any way I can integrate the cultural background of the ESL children into the field?

What sorts of roles might the students adopt during the learning process? What sorts of roles might the teacher adopt during the learning process? Do the relationships within the classroom allow the students to adopt different roles? What is the power relationship within the classroom? Is it based on negotiation, mutual respect, responsibility? Are the students encouraged to express their knowledge and ask questions? Are they given enough opportunity to talk? To demonstrate their developing expertise? What sort of roles and relationships do the students need to use in their written language? What sorts of questions might the teacher ask? Are the activities or learning experiences structured so that the students progress from an exploratory, tentative tenor through to a position of confidence and control of knowledge?

How do the different modes of language play different roles in the learning process? What purposes do the different modes serve? Does the unit of work take the children from 'language accompanying action' through to 'reflection'?

Monitoring Student Work

Is the student using the most appropriate or effective vocabulary for that particular field? Does he or she need to be introduced to more specific terms?

Is the student adopting the most appropriate tenor for the reader involved?

Is the text structured according to its purpose? Is the reference internal to the text? Is the student learning to distance himself or herself through writing? Is the student using external reference, making assumptions about shared knowledge and experiences, or relying too heavily on illustrations e.g. shared book.

Monitoring My Own Language In the Classroom

Page E-30 Field

Am l introducting the students to new words or technical terms? In a meaningful way? Am I helping the students to order their experience through various patterns of language?

Am I asking a variety of question-types? Am I encouraging the students to ask a variety of questions? Am I allowing them to take responsibility for their learning? Am I encouraging them to voice opinions, express judgements, make decisions, etc.?

Am I encouraging the use of a variety of modes and media? Am I stressing the interplay between speaking-writing-reading?

Page E-31 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF A ‘BIG BOOK’ IN SHARED READING

Book used as an example: ‘Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge’ by Mem Fox, Illustrated by Julie Vivas (Omnibus Books)

Semantic and Contextual Information (NP: 2.5, 2.6)

Making sense of the text

 Talk about the title, author, illustrator, features of the illustrations.  Look at the artwork to determine possible clues  Using the cover, determine what Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge might be about.  Focus on field knowledge and concepts that need to be understood to make sense of text. e.g. old people’s home, memory, memories.  Ask questions e.g. Who is in this story? Is there anybody else? Look at the expression on the people’s faces. What do you think could happen? What places do you think we will see? Who will read this story? What makes you say that?  Reconstruct text using sentences from a page.  Identify main events. List on cardboard strips. Arrange strips in order.  Hot seat activity e.g. the various characters  Draw one of the characters. List known facts about this character as provided in the text e.g. Miss Nancy, old lady, ninety-six years of age, lost memory, lost a brother at war, etc.

Purpose and Audience

 Ask, ‘Why do you think the chair on the last page is empty?’  Ask, ‘Does this story teach us anything?’ (To entertain children but in so doing, to stimulate sensitivity and respect for others.)

Using Prior Knowledge

 Activate knowledge of the field — e.g. Discuss student’s own experience of old people, possibly relatives. Discuss personal memories

 Concepts — Linking with own experience of old people/relatives. Some may have visited an old people’s home.

 Language Experience — Language associated with narratives e.g. There once was a small boy. Discuss personal interpretations of words used in different situations e.g. memories, precious, remembered, medal, war.

Linguistic Structure and Grammar of Narrative Text (NP: 2.5, 2.7)

Page E-32  Identify thematic repetition - ‘What’s a memory?’ he asked. ‘Something that makes you - , my - , something that makes you - .’  Identify noun/noun group (participants) Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge, Mrs Jordan, organ, Mr Tippett, cricket, Miss Mitchell, wooden stick, etc.  Identify adjectives (modifiers) in noun groups  Identify reference chains (Noun/pronoun links)  Identify verbs/verb groups (processes) (action/ material) Played, listened, walked, told, heard, lost, etc. (mental) thought, remembered; (verbal) said, asked; (state of being or having) was, had, wasn’t  Ask questions about place and manner - phrases/circumstances with a wooden stick, with sadness (how); in a basket, next to the shells, to Miss Nancy’s (where), etc.  Look for words that link ideas (connectives) (addition) and, and what’s more (contrast) but (time) suddenly (causal) because.  Identify statements and questions.  Identify simple narrative structure as an example of narrative text.  Develop a story map.

Punctuation

 Mask punctuation marks. Students provide missing symbol.  Find examples in text of full stops, question marks, exclamation marks, commas, etc.

Visual Features of Words and Concepts About Print (NP: 2.5, 2.7)

Spaces and Directionality

 Pointing to text by teacher/child, emphasising left to right and words one-by-one.  Stop and ask for the next word in text.  Use marker to emphasise direction/line being read (beneath or above)

Capitals

 Why are capitals used? Discuss. Find other examples in this text and other familiar texts.

Sight Vocabulary

 Create word banks of high frequency words with removable cards for use in own writing.

Sound/Symbol Relationships

Page E-33 Letter Knowledge

 Create words using ‘th’ (voiced and voiceless); hard and soft ‘g’.

Hearing Sounds in Words

 Find which begin or end with the same sound; in familiar texts (read aloud).  Play games which emphasise listening for sounds, e.g. ‘I Spy’  Try tongue twisters emphasising beginning sounds.

Separating Sounds in Sequence

 Clap/tap the syllables or phonemes in words... how many? e.g. some/thing..(2), mem/or/y .. (3), re/mem/ber/ed..(4), etc.

Making Generalisations

 Find other words in familiar text which have similar letter patterns. e.g. something, mother.

Letters Represent Multiple Sounds

 Identify all words with ‘g’. What sound does it make?  Make word banks of words with hard g or soft g.  Locate these in familiar texts, environment, own writing.

Blending

 Say words from text slowly...stretching e.g. mm - eee - mm - oorr - yy then sliding sounds together.

Page E-34 STRATEGY FOR WRITING TEXT TYPES

The following sequence of activities may be followed as a guide to the writing of each of the text types.

A. PREPARATION — BUILDING A KNOWLEDGE OF THE FIELD

 Decide which text type best suits the context, audience and purpose of the writing task.  Consult useful resources.  Engage children in activities to familiarise them with the subject matter.

B. MODELLING THE TEXT TYPE

 Discuss the purpose of the text type in society.  Refer to reference samples of the text type.  Review the structure and features of the selected text type.  Discuss the function of each stage.

C. JOINT CONSTRUCTION OF A TEXT

 Pool information gained  Develop lists of information with the children relevant to the topic.  Set out the information in a useful form (e.g. lists, tables, flowcharts, etc.) for children to access.  Teacher act as a facilitator and guide for children as they contribute information and ideas to the collaborative construction of the planned text.  Teacher write the text on the board or overhead transparency as it is developed.  Class assesses the text in relation to on of the models used earlier.

D. INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTION

 Children research and write drafts of a similar text on a related topic.  Refer periodically to the model .

E. CONFERENCING

 Children share their drafts with peers and the teacher to gain comments and suggestions.

F. EDITING AND PUBLICATION

 Edit and refine texts.  Publish and share texts.

Page E-35 GRAMMATICAL TERMS

Term Definition Example

Active voice The grammatical subject is performing the Jim climbed the tree action.

Adjective (Modifier) Adds to the image of the noun. The red flower

Adverb (Modifier) Adds to the meaning of the verb. I walked slowly

Antonym Words that are opposite in meaning. big - little

Apostrophe Can be used to indicate ownership, or to replace Heather’s shoes missing letters don’t, can’t

Circumstance Phrases or word groups that tell how, where, He walked to the car when or why an action is happening

Classifiers Words in the noun group that classify the noun Steam train, football match (usually other nouns or adjectives)

Clause A group of words that contain a unit of The child ran to the fence and information. It must have a verb group. slid under it.

Colon A punctuation mark (:) which is used to The bag contained a number of introduce a list of items or an explanation which items: some clothing, toiletries, completes the sentence. a few books and some gifts.

Comma Can be used to separate parts of a sentence I ran, waited, and kept going. when it is important to meaning. Can be used to One, two, three! Off we go! separate words eg. in lists

Commands (Imperative mood) A demand. Ends with an Go away! exclamation mark.

Conjunctions See connectives

Connectives Additive connective - And, also Used when adding information Temporal connective - When, after Used when linking phrases through time Contrastive Connective - Link words by comparison On the other hand, likewise Causal Connectives - words linking cause and effect Because, unless

Dash A punctuation mark used to show a pause. We went to the recent pet show Increasingly used in place of a comma, colon — a squarking, noisy affair! and semi-colon.

Determiners Words in the noun group that specify, query, or Specify (this, that, those) indicate ownership. Query (who, whose, which, what) Ownership ( my, our, their)

Direct speech Words that indicate actual words spoken. Bob said, ‘It is hot.’

Page E-36 Field The particular topic or subject that the text is about.

Idiom Words that are peculiar to a culture. ‘All the cracks had gathered to the fray.’

Indirect speech Words that have reportedly been said — not the I heard Bob said that it was hot. exact words. Verbs in past tense.

Lexical chain Chains of nouns and verbs that relate directly to one another.

Metaphors A statement that describes something by using A mighty fortress is our God. another idea not literally applicable to it.

Mode Whether a text is spoken, written or visual media.

Modality A way for expressing the writer’s level of assertiveness toward the subject: High Modality Always, must, never Low modality Maybe, sometimes

Modifier See adjectives and adverbs.

Mood See Statement (Declarative mood) I am going Question (Interrogative mood) Are you going? Command (Imperative mood) Go now!

Nominalisation When an action is turned into a thing. The barking dog is noisy. The bark of the dog is loud.

Noun or noun group (Participant) A word or word group that Table, Jim, Australia represents a person, place, thing or idea. The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.

Participants (see noun)

Passive voice The subject is the goal or focus of the action. The tree was climbed by me.

Prepositional Phrases A group of words beginning with a preposition near the pool but without a verb.

Prefix An addition in front of the base word. judge becomes misjudge

Process (see verb)

Pronoun Stands in place of a noun. The dog was barking. It was very noisy.

Questions (Interrogative mood) A sentence that asks a Will it rain today? question. Always ends with a question mark.

Quotation marks Marks (‘ ‘) to indicate direct speech, titles of ‘What a nice day’, said Bill. articles, poems or songs and to emphasise a ‘Mulga Bill’ by A B Paterson word for a particular reason. He was a special ‘helper’.

Reference chains The words which link references to particular The frog jumped out of the nouns through the text pond. He was sick of it.

Semantics The area of the language system that focuses

Page E-37 on meanings in the text.

Sentence A unit of language that contains one or more The runaway horse cleared the clauses. It contains at least one verb or verb fence with a mighty bound. group.

Similes Likens a thing or person to something else. It He was like a hungry lion. begins with ‘like’ or ‘As — as” She was as cool as a cucumber.

Statement (Declarative mood - providing information) I am going to Queensland for A sentence that states something. my holidays.

Suffix An add-on to the end of a base word. Judge becomes judgment

Synonym Words that have similar meaning. Cool, chilly, brisk

Tenor Refers to who is speaking to whom in a particular context. Takes into account roles, relationships, status, age and level of formality.

Tense Past I went to school

Present I am going to school

Timeless present I go to school

Future I will go to school

Verbs (Process) Words dealing with action, speech, and thoughts

Action verbs Jump, run, skip

Speech verbs She shouted, He said

Relational verbs She is here. We are all students.

Thought verbs I believe I will.

Verb group A group of words connected with the verb We will soon be celebrating Ann’s birthday.

Page E-38 REFERENCES

Note: The list of references related to contemporary English is extensive. This is only a selective list of highly recommended resources from within this range. They are included because of their direct usefulness for teachers. In most cases the following materials are available on loan from the SPD Curriculum Unit.

Bremner, S (1995), Teaching Grammar Through Everyday Language Activities, Pen 99, Primary English Teaching Association (PETA).  An article on how to use grammar throughout language activities

Collerson, J (1990), Grammar Part 1, Pen 77, PETA.  A practical introduction to grammar

Collerson, J (1990), Grammar Part 2, Pen 77, PETA.  A practical introduction to grammar

Cusworth, R (1994), What is a Functional Language Model? Pen 95, PETA.  An excellent introduction to functional language.

Derewianka, B (1990), Exploring How Texts Work , PETA.  The language and structure of text types are examined in detail. Examples are given throughout the book.

Derewianka, B (1991), Exploring How Texts Work : The Video, PETA.  A resource kit with video, assessment activities and work sheets. Excellent for those teachers who are serious about teaching functional English.

Dillon, F and Cahill, M (1991), Key into Literacy, Longman Cheshire.  Gives suggested ways of teaching text types and lists resources and ideas that can readily be used in the classroom.

DSP Centre Marketing, Earthworms, Teaching Factual Writing in the Early Years of School, Erskinville, NSW.  A stimulating video that demonstrates a year 2 classroom teacher using the functional language approach while teaching about earthworms.

Education Department of Western Australia (1994), First Steps Literacy Program, Addison-Wesley Longman Australia: Melbourne. Writing Developmental Continuum and Resource Book Reading Developmental Continuum and Resource Book Oral Language Developmental Continuum and Resource Book Spelling Developmental Continuum and Resource Book Parents as Partners

Era Publications. These publications represent the full range of specific text types. Most are published in both big and small book format. Titles and order form available from Lioncrest Pty Ltd, PO Box 522, Roseville, NSW. 2069.

PETA (Primary English Teaching Association) publications, Laura Street, Newtown NSW 2042

Swan, S (1995), Thinking Books, Pen 101, PETA.  An excellent paper on helping children reflect on their learning.

Walker, Kate (1991), Step By Step Stories, Kate Walker Ink, New South Wales.  A wonderful guide to narrative writing in the infant grades

Wing Jan, Lesley (1991), Write Ways, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.  An excellent overview of text type writing and assessing. Page E-39