JOHN F. KENNEDY SCHOOL OF GOVERNMENT, HARVARD UNIVERSITY SPRING 2006
STM-102: Policies, Programs, and Practices – Managing the Development Process
Instructor Michael Woolcock, PhD Senior Social Scientist, Development Research Group, The World Bank Lecturer in Public Policy, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University Office Littauer 238 Office Hours Friday 4-6pm, or by arrangement on Friday morning Contact Cambridge: 617-495-0911
When it shall be said in any country in the world, ‘My poor are happy; neither ignorance nor distress is to be found among them; my jails are empty of prisoners, my streets of beggars; the aged are not in want, the taxes are not oppressive’—when these things can be said, then may that country boast of its constitution and its government.
Thomas Paine, The Rights of Man
[T]he most dangerous moment for a bad government is usually that when it enters upon the work of reform. Nothing short of great political genius can save a sovereign who undertakes to relieve his subjects after a long period of oppression. The evils which were endured with patience so long as they were inevitable seem intolerable as soon as a hope can be entertained of escaping from them. The abuses which are removed seem to lay bare those which remain, and to render the sense of them more acute; the evil has decreased, it is true, but the perception of the evil is more keen...
Alexis de Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the French Revolution
It is not, after all, standing outside the social order in some excited state of self-regard that makes a political leader numinous but a deep, intimate involvement—affirming or abhorring, defensive or destructive—in the master fictions by which that order lives.
Clifford Geertz, Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretative Anthropology
The single most common source of leadership failure…in politics, community life, business or the nonprofit sector…is that people, especially those in positions of authority, treat adaptive challenges STM-102 Spring 2006
like technical problems.
Ronald Heifetz and Marty Linsky, Leadership on the Line Over and above the overt purpose of my work—the analysis of development and the advice on policy —I came to see it as having the latent, hidden, but overriding common intent to celebrate, to “sing” the epic adventure of development—its challenge, drama, and grandeur.
Albert Hirschman, Preface to Development Projects Observed
I. Description
Responding effectively to both crises and opportunities in development entails crafting coherent and supportable strategies, the key elements of which can be construed as technocratic (smart ‘policies’), bureaucratic (standardized ‘programs’), and idiosyncratic (context-specific ‘practices’)—hence the title of this class. The optimal form and combination of these elements is likely to change over time and across sectors, with correspondingly different skills-sets, resources, and political dynamics needing to be carefully managed, especially in response to imperatives to produce, expand, and replicate ‘successful’ examples. Focusing specifically on development strategies that seek to incorporate social institutions (kinship systems, informal networks, community organizations) to improve risk management, local conflict mediation, and service delivery in poor communities, this course explores the conceptual, empirical, and practical foundations on which to think about designing, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating such strategies. A strong emphasis is placed on (and assessment is geared towards) developing the ability to: (a) procure, integrate, analyze, and interpret data from different sources and levels of quality; (b) communicate with diverse audiences (scholars, practitioners, and the general public); and (c) understand how coalitions of actors and political forces shape the nature and extent of support for (and/or resistance to) reform within organizations, and in front-line operations.
II. Objectives
Upon completion of this course, students should be able to:
Appreciate the importance of different types of decision-making and problem-solving skills for improving development effectiveness Analyze how social institutions shape risk management (survival and mobility), conflict mediation, and service delivery strategies in poor communities Articulate a range of options for assessing the efficacy of social development projects Identify ways in which development theory, research and policy from different disciplinary and sectoral perspectives can be coherently and usefully integrated Incorporate evidence from primary, secondary and web-based sources, and clearly communicate their ideas to different types of audiences Apply different perspectives to the design, implementation, and evaluation of development policies, programs, projects, and practices.
III. Format
STM-102 is a three-hour graduate-level survey course; it is a required class for MPA/ID1s, though a selected number of additional students (approximately 20) from across the Kennedy School will also be admitted. I will give a summary lecture for the first 80 minutes on the topic of the week, which will be followed, after a short break, by an hour-long presentation and class discussion led by a small group of students. Their task will be to apply the general lessons emerging from the readings and class discussion
2 STM-102 Spring 2006 to a particular development project in a low-income country, with a focus on how these lessons have influenced (or not) the design, implementation, and evaluation of a specific development project focusing on social institutions. Remaining class time will be spent reflecting on the issues raised by the lecture, readings, and student presentation, and their implications for development theory and practice. On two occasions during the semester we will also have guest lecturers speak on specific topics. STM-102 shares some similarities with, but is not the same as, its predecessor and companion class, PED-308: Social Institutions and Economic Development (not offered in 2005-06).
IV. Expectations of Students
As a graduate class in development theory, research, and practice, STM-102 assumes students bring a capacity to wrestle with abstract ideas, to marshal evidence from a variety of sources, and to apply these ideas and evidence to concrete and (often) complex policy problems in the developing world. It has no formal prerequisites, but students are expected to be conversant with the major theories, issues, and policy debates in international development (at a level comparable to that outlined in PED-101). Particular emphasis will be placed on integrating different methodological and theoretical perspectives from across the social sciences. Accordingly, students trained in a particular discipline (e.g., economics) are expected to be willing to be open to the insights and vocabulary of alternative approaches. Students are expected to attend class each week (learning from each other, and harnessing our diverse backgrounds, is a key feature of the Kennedy School environment), to arrive on time, to have completed the weekly readings, to stay for the duration of the session, and to have cell phones and internet connections turned off. Students should inform the instructor and one of the CAs if they know in advance that they will be absent.
Readings will be drawn from the works of scholars, policymakers and practitioners, and students will be assessed on their capacity to respond to and communicate with the different audiences each represents. To this end, final grades will be awarded on the basis of the quality of three papers (one each for academic, applied, and general readers), a group presentation, and attendance and participation.
V. Grading
1. Class Attendance and Participation (15%) 2. Group Presentation (20%) Three essays, one for each type of audience: 3. Short Paper for a general, academic, or policy audience (15%) 4. Medium Paper for a general, academic, or policy audience (20%) 5. Long Paper for a general, academic, or policy audience (30%)
Students are to select the audience for items 3, 4, and 5 according to their interests and aspirations, though one from each category must be completed over the course of the semester. Separate handouts will be provided outlining details of requirements and suggested topics for each paper.
Students—especially those for whom English is not their primary language—are strongly encouraged to use the CAs to help with the structure and content of their essays. I consider clear writing to be a vital professional skill, and will grade your papers accordingly. You should also work closely with the CAs to design the content and sequencing of material for your student presentation (see separate handout). The distribution of final grades will be awarded in accordance with the Dean’s guidelines.
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Length and Due Dates
Short Paper: 1000 words, due Week 6 (Thursday March 9, 1pm), worth 15% Medium Paper: 2000 words, due Week 10 (Thursday April 13, 1pm), worth 20% Long Paper: 3000 words, due Week 14 (Friday May 12, 1pm), worth 30%
VI. Books to Purchase
Pitman, George, Osvaldo Feinstein and Gregory Ingram (eds.) (2005) Evaluating Development Effectiveness New Brunwick, NJ: Transaction Publishers (ISBN#: 0765808102) Scott, James (1998) Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed New Haven: Yale University Press (ISBN#: 0300078153)
VII. Syllabus
All readings are ‘required’, but are arranged by order of (my sense of their) importance.
PART A: INTRODUCTION
Week 1 (February 3): The Fog of Development—Engaging Complex Social and Political Transitions
Problems and solutions, giving and receiving, theory and practice Solutions as a function of how the problem is defined On becoming a Detective, Translator, and Diplomat Evaluating development: bridging the spirit of Copenhagen and Shanghai (May 2004) The virtues, limits, and vices of Big Plans Course philosophy, pedagogy, expectations, assessment, and management
Scott, James (1998) Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 1-7 (Introduction) Woolcock, Michael (2006) “Higher education, policy schools, and international development studies: what should Masters degree students be taught?” Journal of International Development (forthcoming). See course website. Rajan, Raghuram (2004) “Assume anarchy? Why an orthodox economic model might not be the best guide for policy” Finance and Development September: 56-57. Available at: http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2004/09/pdf/straight.pdf Mallaby, Sebastian (2004) “The arts of development” Washington Post, May 24. To be distributed to class. Sachs, Jeffrey and John McArthur (2005) “The Millennium Project: a plan for meeting the Millennium Development Goals” The Lancet January 12. Available at: http://image.thelancet.com/extras/04art12121web.pdf Easterly, William (forthcoming) “Reliving the 50s: the big push, poverty traps, and take-offs in economic development” Journal of Economic Perspectives. Pre-publication version
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available at: http://www.nyu.edu/fas/institute/dri/Easterly/File/reliving%20the%2050s%20big %20push.pdf Leijonhufvud, Axel (1973) “Life among the Econ” Western Economic Journal 3: 327-37 (to be emailed to class)
Second half of class Outline and expectations of student presentations; an example from Spring 2005.
PART B: MAPPING THE TERRAIN – A PRIMER ON THEORY, EVIDENCE, AND POLICY RESPONSES
Week 2 (February 10): ‘The Epic Adventure of Development’—Whose Stories Prevail? Why?
Development’s quest for Solutions: an unhappy intellectual history Object gaps, ideas gaps, institutional gaps, coordination gaps ‘Getting to Denmark’: the solution, the quick fixes, the current menu Interim steps: facilitating ‘self-discovered’ paths from here to there in development The characteristics and comparative advantage of sociological perspectives
Pritchett, Lant and Michael Woolcock (2004) “Solutions when the solution is the problem: arraying the disarray in development” World Development 32(2): 191-212 (HOLLIS) Romer, Paul (1993) “Idea gaps and object gaps in economic development” Journal of Monetary Economics 32(3): 543-573 (HOLLIS) Woolcock, Michael (1998) “Social capital and economic development: toward a theoretical synthesis and policy framework” Theory and Society 27(2): 151-208 (HOLLIS) Stiglitz, Joseph (1998) “Toward a new paradigm for development: strategies, policies and processes.” Prebisch Lecture, UNCTAD, Geneva, 19 October. Available online at: http://www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/extme/prebisch98.pdf Kothari, Uma (2006) “From colonial administration to development studies: a post-colonial critique of the history of development studies” in Uma Kothari (ed.) A Radical History of Development Studies: Individuals, Institutions and Ideologies London: Zed Books, pp. 47-66. To be posted on class website. Kraay, Aart (forthcoming) “When is growth pro-poor? Cross-country evidence” Journal of Development Economics. Available as Policy Research Working Paper No. 3225, Washington, DC: World Bank. http://wdsbeta.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2004/06/04/000 009486_20040604152023/Rendered/PDF/wps3225growth.pdf Ferguson, James (1994) The Anti-Politics Machine: ‘Development’, Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press (Chapter 1: Introduction), pp. 3-21
Second half of class
Practicum: (a) Understanding and building political support for technically sound policy/project proposals; small group analysis of stakeholders: their interests, resources, and priorities. A version of this exercise will be part of your group presentations of concrete development projects
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in subsequent weeks. (b) An overview will also be provided on requirements and expectations regarding written assignments. Grindle, Merilee (2003) “Matrices for understanding the role of political, economic, and social actors in shaping the policy process” Mimeo, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University. (To be posted on class website)
Week 3 (February 17): The Businesses of Development
The development process as the businesses of Compassion (preventing, responding to needless suffering), Revolution (managing difficult political, economic and social transitions) and Neo-Modernism (building formal, accessible, accountable, context-specific institutions) Toward an intellectually sound, politically supportable, and administratively implementable multi-disciplinary framework: the emerging but unwitting consensus on ‘institutions’ The development process as one of… Capital Accumulation? Growth? Freedom? Equity? Capacity Building? Transitions Management? Self-Discovery?
Sen, Amartya (2001) “What is Development About?”, in Gerald Meir and Joseph Stiglitz (eds.) Frontiers of Development Economics: The Future in Perspective. Washington, DC: The World Bank, pp. 506-13 Bates, Robert (2000) Violence and Prosperity: The Political Economy of Development New York: Norton (Chapter 1: Introduction), pp. 17-29 Evans, Peter (2005) “Challenges of the institutional turn: new interdisciplinary opportunities in development theory”, in Victor Nee and Richard Swedberg (eds.) Economic Sociology of Capitalist Institutions Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 90-118. Available at: http://sociology.berkeley.edu/faculty/evans/evans_pdf/Institutional%20Turn %20Article_galley_proof_09Evans_12JAN05-8.pdf Fukuyama, Francis (2006) “Development and the limits of institutional design” Paper presented at the Annual Bank Conference on Development Economics, St Petersburg. To be posted on the class website. Rodrik, Dani (forthcoming) “Goodbye Washington Consensus; Hello Washington Confusion?” A review, to be published in the Journal of Economic Literature, of the World Bank’s (2005) “Economic growth in the 1990s: lessons from a decade of reforms.” Rodrik’s review will be posted on the class website (a pre-publication summary of the Bank report he is reviewing is available at http://mandela.inwent.org/ef/consensus/prem.pdf ) Easterly, William (2005) “How to assess the needs for aid? The answer: Don’t ask.” Paper presented at the third AFD/EUFD Conference, Paris, on ‘Financing Development: What are the Challenges in Expanding Aid Flows?’ To be posted on the class website. Kanbur, Ravi (2002) “Economics, social science, and development” World Development 30(3): 477-86 (HOLLIS)
Week 4 (February 24): The Processes of Development – Managing Policies, Programs, and Practices
Discretion and transaction intensity in decision-making The virtues and limits of ‘technical’ vs. ‘adaptive’ decision-making Harnessing the power of ten smart technocrats, a thousand faithful functionaries, and a hundred integrated teams
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Democratizing development: of the people, by the people, for the people ‘Policy’ as process, as negotiated product
World Bank (2003) World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-18 (Overview). Available online at: http://wdsbeta.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2003/10/07/000 090341_20031007150121/additional/310436360_20050005035700.pdf Wilson, James Q. (1989) Bureaucracy: What Government Agencies Do and Why They Do It New York: Basic Books, pp. 154-75 (Chapter 9: Compliance) Scott, James (1998) Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 309-41 (Chapter 9: Thin Simplifications and Practical Knowledge) (Class text). Please read other chapters too… Lipsky, Michael (1980) Street-Level Bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services New York: Russell Sage Foundation (First and last chapters) Heifetz, Ronald (1994) Leadership Without Easy Answers Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 69-100 (Chapter 4: Mobilizing Adaptive Work) Power, Samantha (2001) “Bystanders to genocide” The Atlantic Monthly 288(2): 84-108. Available at: http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/power.htm (Optional: see also, in a different context, David Halberstam [1973] The Best and the Brightest New York: Random House)
Week 5 (March 3): The Assessment of Development 1: Is it Working Here? How Do We Know? Is Bigger Better? Will it Work There?
The (different) perspectives of researchers, administrators, and practitioners For researchers: separating selection, treatment, and context effects; for administrators: assuring rules are followed, resources are disbursed; for practitioners: feedback, validation of efforts Why serious evaluations are so rarely done in development If it works “here”, how do know it will work “there”? If it works “small”, can we assume that “bigger will be better”?
Ingram, Gregory (2005) “Overview” in Pitman, Feinstein and Ingram (eds.), pp. xiii-xx (Class text) Ravallion, Martin (2001) “The mystery of the vanishing benefits: an introduction to evaluation” World Bank Economic Review 15: 115-140. Available online at: http://wber.oupjournals.org/cgi/reprint/15/1/115.pdf Ezemenari, Kene, Anders Rudqvist, and Kalanidhi Subbarao (2001) “Impact evaluation: concepts and methods”, in Osvaldo Feinstein and Robert Picciotto (eds.) Evaluation and Poverty Reduction New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, pp. 65-75. Pre-publication version available at: http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/paper_pobreza/082.pdf Duflo, Esther and Michael Kremer (2005) “Use of randomization in the evaluation of development effectiveness” in Pitman, Feinstein and Ingram (eds.), pp. 205-31 (Class text). (Optional: see also the response to this paper by Martin Ravallion, and the companion chapter by Angus Deaton.)
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Pritchett, Lant (2002) “It pays to be ignorant: a simple political economy of rigorous program evaluation” Policy Reform 5(4): 251-269 (HOLLIS) World Bank (2004) Monitoring and Evaluation: Some Tools, Methods and Approaches Washington, DC: World Bank, Operations Evaluation Department. Available at: http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/oed/oeddoclib.nsf/24cc3bb1f94ae11c85256808006a0046/a5ef bb5d776b67d285256b1e0079c9a3/$FILE/MandE_tools_methods_approaches.pdf Binswanger, Hans and Swaminathan Aiyar (2003) “Scaling up Community Drive Development: theoretical underpinnings and project design implications” Policy Research Working Paper No. 3039, Washington, DC: The World Bank. Available at: http://econ.worldbank.org/files/26012_wps3039.pdf
Optional: For two contending approaches to assessing development interventions, see—
Summary papers from the ‘Copenhagen Consensus’ conference (May 2004), available at: http://www.copenhagenconsensus.com/Default.asp?ID=415 Summary papers from the ‘Scaling Up Poverty Reduction’ conference, Shanghai (May 2004). Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/reducingpoverty/Cases- SearchThematic.html#cdd
PART C: PROBLEMS AND (POSSIBLE) SOLUTIONS
Week 6 (March 10): Problems and Solutions 1: Traps – Breaking Poverty and Inequality Traps
How poverty perpetuates itself (because unhappy things tend to be correlated and self- reinforcing). New (non-technocratic) approaches to finding ways to break cycles of disadvantage. Social, political and legal inequality ‘traps’, and their historical origins.
World Bank (2005) World Development Report 2006: Equity and Development (Chapter 1: Introduction; and Chapter 6: Equity, institutions, and the development process). New York: Oxford University Press. Chapter 1 available at: http://wdsbeta.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2005/09/20/00011 2742_20050920110826/additional/841401968_200508263001759.pdf ; Chapter 6 available at: http://wdsbeta.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2005/09/20/00011 2742_20050920110826/additional/841401968_200508263001337.pdf Tilly, Charles (2006) “Poverty and the politics of exclusion.” Background paper prepared for the World Bank’s ‘Moving out of Poverty’ study. To be posted on the class website. Kabeer, Naila (2004) “Snakes, ladders, and traps: changing lives and livelihoods in rural Bangladesh, 1994-2001” Chronic Poverty Research Centre Working Paper No. 50. University of Manchester. Available online at: http://www.chronicpoverty.org/pdfs/50Kabeer.pdf Chirayath, Leila, Caroline Sage and Michael Woolcock (2005) “Customary law and policy reform: engaging with the plurality of justice systems”. Background paper for the World Development Report 2006. Available online at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2006/Resources/477383- 1118673432908/Customary_Law_and_Policy_Reform.pdf
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Hoff, Karla and Arijit Sen (2006) “The kin system as a poverty trap?” in Samuel Bowles, Steven Durlauf and Karla Hoff (eds.) Poverty Traps Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Pre-publication draft available at: http://wdsbeta.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2005/05/03/0000 12009_20050503101120/Rendered/PDF/wps3575.pdf Hulme, David and Andrew Shepherd (2005) “Conceptualizing chronic poverty” World Development 31(3): 403-424 (HOLLIS) Optional: More technically-minded students may be interested in Benabou, Roland (2000) “Unequal societies: income distribution and the social contract” American Economic Review 90(1): 96-129. Available online at: http://www.econ.nyu.edu/user/debraj/Courses/Readings/BenabouAER.pdf
Week 7 (March 17): Problems and Solutions 2: Risks – Enhancing Risk Management Strategies
In the face of broader institutional failures, what strategies do poor people employ to “get by” and “get ahead”? How important are social and cultural institutions to shaping the content and efficacy of these strategies? What role can external agents play in facilitating the efficacy of these strategies?
World Bank (2000) World Development Report 2000/2001: Attacking Poverty New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 135-59 (Chapter 8: Helping Poor People Manage Risk). Available online at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPOVERTY/Resources/WDR/English-Full-Text- Report/ch8.pdf Fafchamps, Marcel and Bart Minten (2002) “Returns to social network capital among traders” Oxford Economic Papers 54(2): 173-206. Available online at: http://oep.oupjournals.org/cgi/reprint/54/2/173.pdf Morduch, Jonathan (forthcoming) “Micro-insurance: the next revolution?”, in Abhijit Banerjee, Roland Benabou, and Dilip Mookherjee (eds.) What Have We Learned About Poverty? New York: Oxford University Press. Pre-publication draft available at: http://www.nyu.edu/fas/institute/dri/DRIWP12.pdf Massey, Douglas and Karin Espinosa (1997) “What's driving Mexico-U.S. migration? A theoretical, empirical, and policy analysis” American Journal of Sociology 102(4): 939-991 (HOLLIS) Luo, Tar-Der (1997) “The significance of networks in the initiation of small businesses in Taiwan” Sociological Forum 12(2): 297-317 (HOLLIS) Besley, Timothy (1995) “Nonmarket institutions for credit and risk sharing in low-income countries” Journal of Economic Perspectives 9(3): 115-27 (HOLLIS) Dercon, Stefan (2002) “Income risk, coping strategies, and safety nets” World Bank Research Observer 17(2): 141-166 (HOLLIS)
1 For an impressive example of how to turn formal academic research into an essay accessible to general readers, see also Massey, Douglas (1998) “March of folly: US immigration policy after NAFTA” The American Prospect 37: 22-33. Available online at: http://www.prospect.org/archives/37/37massfs.html
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Wilson, Scott (1997) “The cash nexus and social networks: mutual aid and gifts in contemporary Shanghai villages” The China Journal 37: 91-112 (HOLLIS)
Week 8 (March 24): Problems and Solutions 3: Order – Collective Action, Conflict, Rules Systems. How is social order maintained? How can external agents best facilitate it? Putnam, Robert (1993) “The prosperous community: social capital and public life” The American Prospect 4(13). Available online at: http://www.prospect.org/print- friendly/print/V4/13/putnam-r.html Ellickson, Robert (1998) "Law and Economics Discovers Social Norms" Journal of Legal Studies, 27(June): 537-52. Available at: http://www.jstor.org.ezp1.harvard.edu/view/00472530/ap020059/02a00020/0 Ostrom, Elinor (2000) “Collective action and the evolution of social norms” Journal of Economic Perspectives 14(3): 137-58 Available at: http://www.uni- leipzig.de/~sozio/mitarbeiter/m12/content/dokumente/175/Ostrom_2000_CollActionEvolut.pdf Wade, Robert (1987) “The management of common property resources: finding a cooperative solution” World Bank Research Observer 2(2): 219-234 (HOLLIS) Guggenheim, Scott (2006) “The Kecamatan Development Project, Indonesia”, in Anthony Bebbington, Michael Woolcock, Scott Guggenheim, and Elizabeth Olson (eds.) The Search for Empowerment: Social Capital as Idea and Practice at the World Bank Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press. (To be posted on class website.) Barron, Patrick, Claire Q. Smith and Michael Woolcock (2004) “Understanding local level conflict pathways in developing countries: theory, evidence, and implications from Indonesia” Working Paper No. 19, Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Unit, The World Bank. Available at: http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/sdvext.nsf/67ByDocName/UnderstandingLocalLevelC onflictinDevelopingCountriesTheoryEvidenceandImplicationsfromIndonesia/ $FILE/WP19_Web.pdf Rao, Vijayendra (2005) “Symbolic public goods and the coordination of collective action: a comparison of local development in India and Indonesia” Policy Research Working Paper No. 3685, Washington, DC: The World Bank. Available online at: http://wdsbeta.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2005/08/10/000 016406_20050810133720/Rendered/PDF/wps3685.pdf
Week 9 (April 7): Problems & Solutions 4: Change – Transitions and Transformations, Great and Small
The very word ‘development’ implies a transition from one institutional state to another, but how can such political, economic, and social transitions be better understood? Why are transitions so often actively resisted (when the ‘benefits’ appear clear)? How can development organizations be changed when their mission and/or tasks require it? How can coalitions—between state, business, and civil society actors—be forged to manage transitions more equitably and effectively?
Polanyi, Karl (1944) The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time Boston: Beacon Press. This excellent review essay by Anne Mayhew (2001)
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http://www.eh.net/bookreviews/library/polanyi.shtml is perhaps the fastest way to get the essence of one of the 20th century’s great books. Moore, Barrington (1965) The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy Boston: Beacon Press (Chapter VII: The Democratic Route to Modern Society), pp. 413-32 Wolfe, Eric (1969) Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century. New York: Harper & Row (Conclusion), pp. 276-303 Bunce, Valerie (1999) “The political economy of postsocialism” Slavic Review 58(4): 756- 93 (HOLLIS) Bebbington, Anthony, Scott Guggenheim, Elizabeth Olson, and Michael Woolcock (2004) “Exploring social capital debates at the World Bank” Journal of Development Studies 40(5): 33-64 (HOLLIS) Evans, Peter (2004) “Development as institutional change: the pitfalls of monocropping and potentials of deliberation” Studies in Comparative International Development 38(4): 30-52 (HOLLIS) Berry, Sara (1993) No Condition is Permanent: The Social Dynamics of Agrarian Change in Sub-Saharan Africa Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press (Chapter TBA) Cliffe, Sarah, Scott Guggenheim, and Markus Kostner (2003) “Community-driven reconstruction as an instrument in war-to-peace transitions” Working Paper No. 7, Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Unit, The World Bank. Available online at: http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/sdvext.nsf/67ByDocName/Community- drivenReconstructionasanInstrumentinWar-to-PeaceTransitions/ $FILE/WP+No+7+aug21.pdf
Week 10 (April 14): Problems and Solutions 5: Fairness – Leveling Playing Fields, Enhancing Opportunity
What can be done to make negotiations between ‘rich’ and ‘poor’ people more equitable? What does it mean to ‘empower’ the poor and to enhance their voice in policymaking? From substitute to complement in state-society relations.
Morris, Cynthia Taft (1995) “How fast and why did early capitalism benefit the majority?” Journal of Economic History 55(2): 211-26 (HOLLIS) Gibson, Christopher and Michael Woolcock (2005) “Empowerment and local level conflict mediation in Indonesia: a comparative analysis of concepts, measures, and project efficacy” Policy Research Working Paper No. 3713. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Available online at: http://www- wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/09/08/000016406_2005090 8104436/Rendered/PDF/wps3713.pdf Appadurai, Arjun (2004) “The capacity to aspire: culture and the terms of recognition”, in Vijayendra Rao and Michael Walton (eds.) Culture and Public Action Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, pp. 59-84 Ray, Debraj (2003) “Aspirations, poverty and economic change”. Mimeo, Department of Economics, New York University. Available online at: http://www.econ.nyu.edu/user/debraj/Papers/povasp01.pdf
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Fox, Jonathan (1996) “How does civil society thicken? The political construction of social capital in Mexico” World Development 24(6): 1089-103 (HOLLIS) Heller, Patrick (2001) “Moving the state: the politics of democratic decentralization in Kerala, South Africa, and Porto Alegre” Politics and Society 29(1): 131-63 (HOLLIS) Tendler, Judith (1997) Good Government in the Tropics Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 135-66 (Chapter 6: Civil Servants and Civil Society, Governments Central and Local) Gibson, James (2001) “Social networks, civil society, and the prospects for consolidating Russia’s democratic tradition” American Political Science Review 45(1): 51-69 (HOLLIS) Bebbington, Anthony (1997) “Social capital and rural intensification: local organizations and islands of sustainability in the rural Andes” The Geographical Journal 163(2): 189-97 (HOLLIS)
Weeks 11 (April 21): Problems and Solutions 6: Coordination – Getting Things Done, Making Things Happen (Guest lecture: Dennis Whittle, Global Giving. See www.GlobalGiving.com)
Seemingly routine organizational problems conspire to ensure that basic service delivery consistently fails to reach, or be accessible by, the poor. What can be done to improve the quality and quantity of health, education, water, financial, insurance, and legal services in poor communities?
World Bank (2003) World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for the Poor New York: Oxford University Press (Chapter 1). Available at: http://wdsbeta.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2003/10/07/000 090341_20031007150121/additional/310436360_20050005034925.pdf Johnson, Steven (2001) Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software New York: Simon & Schuster (Introduction), pp. 11-23 The January 2005 exchange on Slate.com between James Surowiecki (author of The Wisdom of Crowds) and Malcolm Gladwell (The Tipping Point and Blink). Read all three days, starting at: http://www.slate.com/id/2111894/entry/2112064/ Duggan, William (2003) The Art of What Works: How Success Really Happens New York: McGraw Hill (Chapter 1: Introduction) Carothers, Thomas (2004) “Promoting the rule of law abroad: the problem of knowledge”, in Critical Mission: Essays in Democracy Promotion Washington, DC: Carnagie Foundation. Pre-publication draft available at: http://www.ceip.org/files/pdf/wp34.pdf Jha, Saumitra, Vijayendra Rao, and Michael Woolcock (forthcoming) “Governance in the gullies: democratic responsiveness and community leadership in Delhi’s slums” World Development Mimeo copy available at: http://www.cultureandpublicaction.org/bijupdf/GovernanceintheGullies.pdf Jopra, Jarat and Tanja Hohe (2004) “Participatory intervention” Global Governance 10: 289-305 (HOLLIS)
PART D: ASSESSING COMPLEX PROJECTS AND COMPLEX PROCESSES
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Week 12 (April 28): The Assessment of Development 2: The Specific Challenges of Participatory Projects
The distinctive features of participatory approaches and corresponding evaluation challenges The strengths, limits, and ethics of randomization Understanding rival views of ‘causal inference’; integrating qual and quan methods Mansuri, Ghazala and Vijayendra Rao (2004) “Community-Based and -Driven Development: A Critical Review” World Bank Research Observer 19(1): 1-39 (HOLLIS) Whiteside, Katherine, Michael Woolcock and Xavier Briggs (2005) “Assessing social development projects: integrating the art of practice and the science of evaluation” The World Bank, mimeo. (Latest version to be emailed to class.) Stewart, Francis (2005) “Evaluating evaluation in a world of multiple goals, interests and models” in Pitman, Feinstein and Ingram, pp. 3-31 (Class text) Gugerty, Mary Kay and Michael Kremer (2002) “The impact of development assistance on social capital: evidence from Kenya” in Christiaan Grootaert and Thierry van Bastelaer (eds.) The Role of Social Capital in Development: An Empirical Assessment New York: Cambridge University Press. Available online as NBER Working Paper No. 7896, http://papers.nber.org/papers/w7896.pdf Mosse, David (2005) Cultivating Development: An Ethnography of Aid Policy and Practice Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, pp. 1-20 (Chapter 1: Introduction – The Ethnography of Policy and Practice) Ray, Isha (2004) “Cooperative conversations: outcomes and processes in economics and anthropology” Mimeo. Energy and Resources Group, University of California, Berkeley (to be emailed to class) Brinkerhoff, Jennifer (2002) “Assessing and improving partnership relationships and outcomes: a proposed framework” Evaluation and Program Planning 25: 215-31 (HOLLIS) Rao, Vijayendra and Michael Woolcock (2003) “Integrating qualitative and quantitative approaches in program evaluation” in Francois J. Bourguignon and Luiz Pereira da Silva (eds.) The Impact of Economic Policies on Poverty and Income Distribution (New York: Oxford University Press), pp. 165-90. Available online at: http://www.cultureandpublicaction.org/bijupdf/ch08.pdf
Week 13 (May 5): Re-imagining Development: Integrating Stories, Theories, Evidence, Practices
Translators, diplomats, and detectives revisited: toward informed dialogue, negotiation and a teamwork approach to problem solving in development theory, research, and practice. Kanbur, Ravi (2001) “Economic policy, distribution, and poverty: the nature of disagreements” World Development 29(6): 1083-94 (HOLLIS) Klitgaard, Robert (1990) Tropical Gangsters: One Man’s Experience of Development and Decadence in Deepest Africa New York: Basic Books, pp. 1-13 (Chapter 1: Giving and Receiving) Scott, James (1998) Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 342-57 (Chapter 10: Conclusion)
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Course review and evaluation
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Supplementary Bibliography
Useful background references to know about, and to read at some point in your career: Abramovitz, Moses (1986) “Catching up, forging ahead, and falling behind” Journal of Economic History 46(2): 385-406 Acemoglu, Daron and James Robinson (2005) The Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy New York: Cambridge University Press Adelman, Irma and Cynthia Taft Morris (1968) Society, Politics, and Economic Development: A Quantitative Approach Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press Amsden, Alice (2001) The Rise of ‘The Rest’: Challenges to the West from Late-Industrializing Economies New York: Oxford University Press Anderson, Mary (1999) Do No Harm: How Aid Can Support Peace—or War Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner Aron, Janine (2000) “Growth and institutions: a review of the evidence” World Bank Research Observer 15(1): 99-135 Baker, Judy (2000) Evaluating the Impact of Development Projects on Poverty: A Handbook for Practitioners Washington, DC: The World Bank Ball, Richard (2001) “Individualism, collectivism, and economic development” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 573: 57-84 Bardhan, Pranab (1993) “The economics of development and the development of economics” Journal of Economic Perspectives 7(2): 129-42 Bayley, C. A. (2004) The Birth of the Modern World. New York: Polity Press Bebbington, Anthony (1997) “Social capital and rural intensification: local organizations and islands of sustainability in the rural Andes” The Geographical Journal 163(2): 189-97 Bebbington, Anthony (1999) “Capitals and capabilities: a framework for analyzing peasant viability, rural livelihoods and poverty” World Development 27(12): 2021-44 Becker, Gary (1974) “A theory of social interactions” Journal of Political Economy 82(6): 1063-93 Bowles, Samuel (1991) “What markets can and cannot do” Challenge July-August: 11-16 Brock, Karen and Rosemary McGee (eds.) (2002) Knowing Poverty: Critical Reflections on Participatory Research and Policy London: Earthscan Brown, L. David and Darcy Ashman (1996) “Participation, social capital, and intersectoral problem solving: African and Asian cases” World Development 24(6): 1467-79 Bunce, Valerie (2001) Subversive Institutions New York: Cambridge University Press Canadian Journal of Policy Research (2001) Special issue on social capital. Available online in French and English at: http://www.isuma.net/v02n01/index.htm Chambers, Robert (1997) Whose Reality Counts? Putting the First Last London: Intermediate Technology Publications Collier, Paul and Jan Willem Gunning (1999b) “Explaining African economic performance” Journal of Economic Literature 37(March): 64-111 Cooke, Bill and Uma Kothari (eds.) (2000) Participation: The New Tyranny? London: Zed Books de Soto, Hernando (2000) The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else New York: Basic Books Diamond, Jarred (1997) Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies New York: Norton Dordick, Gwendolyn (1997) Something Left to Lose: Personal Relations and Survival among New York’s Homeless Philadelphia: Temple University Press Dreze, Jean and Amartya Sen (1998) India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity New York: Oxford University Press, 2nd ed. Durlauf, Steven and H. Peyton Young (eds.) (2001) Social Dynamics Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Easterly, William (1999) “Life during growth” Journal of Economic Growth 4: 239-76
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Easterly, William (2001a) “The middle class consensus and economic development” Journal of Economic Growth 6(4): 317-35 Easterly, William (2001b) The Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists’ Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics Cambridge: MIT Press Easterly, William and Ross Levine (1997) “Africa’s growth tragedy: policies and ethnic divisions” Quarterly Journal of Economics 62: 1203-50 Elster, Jon (1989) “Social norms and economic theory” Journal of Economic Perspectives 3: 99-117 Esman, Milton and Norman Uphoff (1984) Local Organizations: Intermediaries in Rural Development Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press Ensminger, Jean (1996) Making a Market: The Institutional Transformation of an African Society New York: Cambridge University Press Fafchamps, Marcel (1992) “Solidarity networks in pre-industrial societies: rational peasants with a moral economy” Economic Development and Cultural Change 41(1): 147-74 Fafchamps, Marcel (2004) Market Institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Fairbanks, Michael and Stace Lindsay (1997) Plowing the Sea: Exploring the Hidden Sources of Wealth in the Developing World Boston: Harvard Business School Press (chapter TBA) Fisher, Julie (1998) Nongovernments: NGOs and the Political Development of the Third World West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press Fogel, Robert (2004) The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700-2100: Europe, America, and the Third World New York: Cambridge University Press Fukuyama, Francis (1995) Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity New York: Free Press Fukuyama, Francis (2004) State-Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty-First Century Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press Geertz, Clifford (1978) “The bazaar economy: information and search in peasant marketing” American Economic Review 68(2): 28-32 Gittell, Ross and Avis Vidal (1998) Community Organizing: Building Social Capital as a Development Strategy Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Greenhalgh, Susan (1988) “Families and networks in Taiwan’s economic development” in Edwin Winckler and Susan Greenhalgh (eds.) Contending Approaches to the Political Economy of Taiwan New York: M.E. Sharpe Greif, Avner (forthcoming) On Institutions and Culture: Historical and Comparative Institutional Analysis of States and Markets New York: Cambridge University Press Grindle, Merile (1997) “Divergent cultures? When public organizations perform well in developing countries” World Development 25(4): 481-495 Heller, Patrick (1999) The Labor of Development Ithaca: Cornell University Press Hirschman, Albert (1958) The Strategy of Economic Development New Haven Yale University Press Hirschman, Albert (1963) Journeys Toward Progress: Studies of Economic Policymaking in Latin America New York: Twentieth Century Fund Hirschman, Albert (1967) Development Projects Observed Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Hirschman, Albert (1984) Getting Ahead Collectively: Grassroots Experiences in Latin America New York: Pergamon Hoff, Karla and Joseph Stiglitz (2001) “Modern economic theory and development”, in Gerald Meir and Joseph Stiglitz (eds.) Frontiers of Development Economics New York: Oxford University Press Isham, Jonathan (2002) “The effects of social capital on fertilizer adoption: evidence from rural Tanzania” Journal of African Economies 11(1): 39-60 Isham, Jonathan, Deepa Narayan and Lant Pritchett (1995) “Does participation improve performance? Establishing causality with subjective data” World Bank Economic Review 9(2): 175-200 Journal of Development Economics (1999) Special issue on the economics of peer lending and microfinance. October.
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Kaufmann, Daniel, Aart Kraay, and Massimo Mastruzzi (2003) “Governance matters III: governance indicators for 1996-2002” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 3106, Washington, DC: The World Bank Keck, Margaret and Kathryn Sikkink (1998) Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press Kraay, Aart (forthcoming) “When is growth pro-poor? Evidence from a panel of countries” Journal of Development Economics Krishna, Anirudh, Norman Uphoff, and Milton Esman (1997) Reasons for Hope: Instructive Experiences in Rural Development West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press Knack, Steve and Philip Keefer (1995) “Institutions and economic performance: cross-country tests using alternative institutional measures” Economics and Politics 7(3): 207-27 Knack, Steve and Keefer, Philip (1997) “Does social capital have an economic pay off? A cross-country investigation” Quarterly Journal of Economics 112: 1251-88 Kranton, Rachel (1996) “Reciprocal exchange: a self-sustaining system” American Economic Review 86(4): 830-51 Khwaja, Asim (2002) “Can good projects work in bad communities? Collective action in public good provision” Harvard University, Kennedy School of Government. Available online at: http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~.akhwaja.academic.ksg/papers/BaltJune02.pdf Kumar, Sanjay and Stuart Corbridge (2002) “Programmed to fail? Development projects and the politics of participation” Journal of Development Studies 39(2): 73-103 Ledeneva, Alena (1998) Russia’s Economy of Favors: Blat, Networking and Informal Exchange New York: Cambridge University Press Lee, Kai N. (1993) Compass and Gyroscope: Integrating Science and Politics for the Environment Washington, DC: Island Press Lin, Justin Yifu and Jeffrey Nugent (1995) “Institutions and economic development” Chapter 38 of Jere Behrman and T.N. Srinivasan (eds.) Handbook of Development Economics, Volume III Amsterdam: Elsevier Lindauer, David and Lant Pritchett (2002) “What’s the big idea? The third generation of policies for economic growth” Economia 3(1): 1-39 (HOLLIS) Mahoney, James (2001) The Legacies of Liberalism: Path Dependence and Political Regimes in Central America Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press Maluccio, John, Lawrence Haddad and J. May (2000) “Social capital and household welfare in South Africa, 1993-98” Journal of Development Studies 36(6): 54-81 Markoff, John and Veronica Montecinos (1993) “The ubiquitous rise of economists” Journal of Public Policy 13(1): 37-68 Menjivar, Cecilia (2000) Fragmented Ties: Salvadoran Immigrant Networks in America Berkeley, CA: University of California Press Molinas, Jose (1998) “The impact of inequality, gender, external assistance and social capital on local- level cooperation” World Development 26(3): 413-31 Moore, Mick (1997) “Societies, polities and capitalists in developing countries: a literature survey” Journal of Development Studies 33(3): 287-363 Murdoch, Jonathan (2000) “Networks—a new paradigm of rural development?” Journal of Rural Studies 16: 407-19 Narayan, Deepa and Lant Pritchett (1999) “Cents and sociability: household income and social capital in rural Tanzania” Economic Development and Cultural Change 47(4): 871-97 North, Douglass (1990) Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance New York: Cambridge University Press North, Douglass (2005) Understanding the Process of Economic Change Princeton, NJ Princeton University Press Nugent, Jeffrey (1993) “Between state, markets, and households: a neo-institutional analysis of local organizations and institutions” World Development 21(4): 623-32
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O’Brien, David, Edward Hassinger, Ralph Brown, and James Pinkerton (1991) “The social networks of leaders in more and less viable rural communities” Rural Sociology 56(4): 699-716 Olson, Mancur (1982) The Rise and Decline of Nations: Economic Growth, Stagflation, and Social Rigidities New Haven: Yale University Press Olson, Mancur (2000) Power and Prosperity: Outgrowing Communist and Capitalist Dictatorships New York: Basic Books Ostrom, Elinor (1990) Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action New York: Cambridge University Press Ostrom, Elinor (1996) “Crossing the great divide: co-production, synergy, and development” World Development 24(6): 1073-1087 Ostrom, Elinor (2004) “The working parts of rules and how they may evolve over time” Working Paper #0404, Max Planck Institute for Research into Economic Systems, Jena, Germany. Available at: https://papers.mpiew-jena.mpg.de/evo/discussionpapers/2004-04.pdf Ostrom, Elinor (2005) Understanding Institutional Diversity Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Piven, Francis Fox and Richard Cloward (1977) Poor People’s Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail New York: Vintage Books Platteau, Jean-Philippe (2000) Institutions, Social Norms, and Economic Development The Netherlands: Harwood Academic Publishers Platteau, Jean-Philippe and Abraham, Anita (2003) “Participatory development in the presence of endogenous community imperfections” Journal of Development Studies 39(2): 104-36 Polanyi, Karl (1943) The Great Transformation Boston: Beacon Press Popkin, Samuel (1979) The Rational Peasant: The Political Economy of Rural Society in Vietnam Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press Portes, Alejandro (1998) “Social capital: its origins and applications in contemporary sociology” Annual Review of Sociology 24: 1-24 Posner, Richard (1998) “Creating a legal framework for economic development” The World Bank Research Observer 13(1): 1-11 Pritchett, Lant (1997) “Divergence: big time” Journal of Economic Perspectives 11(3): 3-17 Putnam, Robert (1993) Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (On social capital in the US, see Putnam’s API-420 course.) Rakodi, Carole and Tony Lloyd (eds.) (2002) Urban Livelihoods: A People-Centred Approach to Reducing Poverty London: Earthscan Rao, Vijayendra (2001) “Celebrations as social investments: festivals, unit price variation and social status in rural India” Journal of Development Studies 38(1): 71-97 (HOLLIS) Rao, Vijayendra and Michael Walton (eds.) (2004) Culture and Public Action Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press Rawlings, Laura, Lynne Sherburne-Benz, and Julie van Domelen (2004) Evaluating Social Funds: A Cross-Country Study of Community Investments Washington, DC: The World Bank, pp. 1-20 (Introduction, and Overview of Social Funds). Download the relevant pages from: http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/HDNet/hddocs.nsf/65538a343139acab85256cb70055e6ed/6e68972ca29cb6e685256ddb005 97a0c/$FILE/Evaluating%20Social%20Funds.pdf Robb, Caroline (2004) Can the Poor Influence Policy? Participatory Poverty Assessments in the Developing World (2nd ed., revised) Washington, DC: The World Bank and IMF Rodrik, Dani (2000) “Institutions for high-quality growth: what they are and how to acquire them” Studies in Comparative International Development. Available on-line at: http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~.drodrik.academic.ksg/institutions.PDF Rodrik, Dani (ed.) (2003) The Prospects for Prosperity Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Schafft, Kai and David Brown (2000) “Social capital and grassroots development: the case of Roma self- governance in Hungary” Social Problems 47(2): 201-219 Scott, James (1976) The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in South-East Asia New Haven: Yale University Press
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Scott, James (1985) Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance New Haven: Yale University Press Sen, Amartya (1999) Development as Freedom New York: Knopf Scheper-Hughes, Nancy (1993) Death Without Weeping: The Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil Berkeley: University of California Press Singerman, Diane (1995) Avenues of Participation: Family, Politics, and Networks in Urban Quarters of Cairo Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Stack, Carol (1974) All our Kin New York: Basic Books Stark, David and Laslo Bryszt (1998) Post-Socialist Pathways: Transforming Politics and Property in East Central Europe New York: Cambridge University Press Tilly, Charles (1998) Durable Inequalities Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Uphoff, Norman (1992) Learning from Gal Oya: Possibilities for Participatory Development and Post- Newtonian Social Science Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press Uvin, Peter (2002) “The Development/Peacebuilding Nexus: A Typology and History of Changing Paradigms” Journal of Peacebuilding and Development 1(1): 5-24 Uvin, Peter, Pankaj Jain and L. David Brown (2000) “Think large and act small: toward a new paradigm for NGO scaling up” World Development 28(8): 1409-19 van Dijk, Meine Pieter and Roberta Rabellotti (1997) Enterprise Clusters and Networks in Developing Countries London: Frank Cass Vaugh, Roger and Terry Buss (1998) Communicating Social Science Research to Policymakers Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications Wade, Robert (1988) Village Republics: Economic Conditions for Collective Action in South India New York: Cambridge University Press Weiss, Carol (1998) Evaluation (2nd ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Williamson, Oliver E. (2000) “The new institutional economics: taking stock, looking ahead” Journal of Economic Literature 38(September): 595-613 Wilson, William Julius (1987) The Truly Disadvantages: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy Chicago: University of Chicago Press Wilson, William Julius (1996) When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor New York: Knopf Wolfensohn, James (1999) “The Comprehensive Development Framework” Available online at: http://www.worldbank.org/cdf/cdf.pdf Woolcock, Michael and Deepa Narayan (2000) “Social capital: implications for development theory, research, and policy” World Bank Research Observer 15(2): 225-49 World Bank (2000b) “Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers: Internal Guidance Note” Washington, DC: World Bank Operations Policy and Strategy. Available online at: http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/strategies/intguid.pdf World Bank (2001) Engendering Development: Through Gender Equity in Rights, Resources, and Voice New York: Oxford University Press
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