Cities of Vesuvius Terms and Concepts

Anthropologist A person who specialises in the science that deals with the origins, physical and cultural development, biological characteristics, and social customs and beliefs of humankind. Custodianship Someone who has custody(care); keeper; guardian. They can be a person, country or organisation. Disarticulated To make or become disjointed In situ Situated in the original, natural or existing place or position Repatriation To return to one’s own country

Important contributors to Pompeii & Herculaneum’s excavation of Bodies

Dr Sara Bisel A physical anthropologist and classical archaeologist who played a prominent role in early scientific research at Herculaneum, pioneering work in the chemical and physical analysis of skeletons yielded new insights into the nutrition and health of ancient populations. Giuseppe Fiorelli (1860 – 1875) He was an Italian archaeologist who established the meticulous method of studying archaeological sites layer by layer. He also hit upon the innovation of pumping plaster into the cavities left by the victims' bodies in the hardened lava, thereby producing casts of the corpses' clothing and features Dr. Estelle Lazer An archaeologist whose research has been on the skeletal remains found at Pompeii. Amedeo Maiuri (1924 – 1961) Neapolitan archaeologist famous for his revolutionary excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum. Famously excavated the ‘House of the Surgeon’

Roman Society – Pompeii & Herculaneum:

2 Cities of Vesuvius Ethical Remains: To display or not to display?

Archaeology is no different to other scientific fields in having a responsibility to apply ethical principles to the recovery, analysis and display of artefacts. Two continuing contentious issues are the study and display of human remains. Are skeletal remains just like other artefacts after a period of time? Who has custodianship and, therefore, responsibility for human bones? How far can scientific specialists go to analyse human remains? These issues are relevant to the study of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Here you can look at the issues and the appropriateness of some solutions. The aspects of ethical issues for investigation are:

 the study of human remains  the display of human remains.

In the nineteenth and for most of the twentieth century, it was accepted practice in scientific circles to collect and study human remains.

Museums and other collections had extensive collections, and displays of bodies and skeletons in various states of preservation were relatively common.

The keeping of skeletal material for scientific study has come under scrutiny, often from indigenous groups seeking repatriation of the bones of their ancestors.

3 Cities of Vesuvius Theatre of the Dead

During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries it was common practice for the excavators of Pompeii and Herculaneum to put on displays for visiting nobility and the general public. Human remains were presented as being in situ, and were sometimes manipulated or arranged to create a theatrical effect. Specific areas would be salted with artefacts, such as coins and statues, then ‘excavated’ from the volcanic deposits. Skeletons were also used as props on these theatrical displays.

House of Menander: Creating drama from bones

Amedeo Maiuri adopted a similar approach in the House of Menander, which he excavated from 1926 to 1927.

Location Room 19 Corridor L (Other side of west wall of Room 19) Two adult skeletons 10, mostly adult, skeletons Female juvenile skeleton Buried in Levels 2.5m above ground Hoe and a pick near the bodies Appear to have collapsed on top of each other Holes in the southern and western Bodies were so intertwined it was hard to walls of Room 19. distinguish individuals A large cylindrical bronze lantern in association with the bodies.

He stated that the skeletons from Room 19 were later removed and replaced with those found in corridor L.

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Dr. Estelle Lazer examined the skeletons now in Room 19 and observed the following:

 3 male skeletons

 1 female skeleton

 At least 3 individuals under the age of 5

She also found that a number of the skeletons, and even the skulls, had been ‘constructed’. One skeleton had two left thigh bones, and skull number 5 had been creatively formed from pieces from several different skulls, slabs of wet ash and a vertebra. It was probably done after Maiuri’s time.

Most popular books on Pompeii presume that all bodies now located in Room 19 were originally discovered there.

This is an excellent example of a conscious attempt by some archaeologists to create a dramatic scene that would appeal to visitors. POMPEII GIUSEPPE FIORELLI & THE PLASTER CASTS The Italian archaeologist Fiorelli’s systematic excavation at Pompeii helped to preserve much of the ancient city as nearly intact as possible and contributed significantly to modern archaeological methods. The special and dramatic feature of Fiorelli’s excavations was his technique of making plaster casts of the dead.

STEP ONE:

An interesting aspect of the human remains at Pompeii is that when the lava, ashes and pumice cooled in the aftermath of the eruption, they solidified around the bodies.

5 Cities of Vesuvius STEP TWO:

Over time, the flesh and clothing decayed, leaving cavities in the solidified lava that bore the imprint and the shape of every detail.

STEP THREE:

Fiorelli pumped liquid plaster into the cavities and left it to set;

STEP FOUR:

Then he chipped the lava away to reveal an accurate plaster cast of the body caught in the moment of death.

Today, archaeologists are continuing to excavate the remains of more victims and they are preserved using the techniques developed by Fiorelli. Instead of plaster however, they are using epoxy resin. HERCULANEUM

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DR SARA BISEL & THE BONES

In June 1982, Dr Sara Bisel, an archaeologist and an anthropologist received an urgent request from National Geographic to help with the study of bones excavated at Herculaneum.

Workers who had been digging a ditch on the beachfront at Herculaneum had uncovered ancient skeletons in what had once been boatsheds.

It had been previously thought that the people at Herculaneum had escaped as no bodies like those at Pompeii had been found and only 30 skeletons had ever been discovered.

Dr. Bisel task was to help excavate the skeletons, then to preserve, reconstruct and study them. Altogether there were:

 139 skeletons in the Chambers

o 42 skeletons in one & a horse

o 25 People huddled together in a different chamber

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Dr. Bisel gives names to some of the skeletons that she examined:

Portia

A woman estimated to be approximately 40 years old and 155cm tall.

The Ring Lady

A woman, also in her forties, and wearing rings, earrings, and two golden bracelets.

The Soldier

A male, 173cm tall, with his sword in his belt, carpenter’s tools and three gold coins in his money belt.

The Fisherman

Approximately 16 years old, with muscular shoulders from rowing and worn teeth from holding his fishing net in his teeth while he repaired it.

8 Cities of Vesuvius Ethics

Anyone dealing with archaeological human remains should consider the ethics associated with study & display.

That particular issue is the study of human remains from archaeological contexts. There is no correct answer when it comes to determining what should be done. We can only determine what the best course of action is on a case by case basis.

A global Perspective

We cannot look at these issues in isolation. In order to understand the ethical considerations that relate to the human remains from Pompeii and Herculaneum, it is necessary to look at the issues relating to human remains on a more global perspective.

Tradition until the mid 20th Century

Tradition of collecting, studying and displaying human remains, often without consent, that continued in Western society well into the 20th Century.

9 Cities of Vesuvius Racial Supremacy

Studies of skeletons in the past were often made to prove theories of racial supremacy.

Tradition in the latter half of the 20th Century

Increase in pressure by various groups of people around the world to have remains returned, often for reburial. E.G Indigenous Australian communities want the remains of their ancestors returned for reburial in their country.

Guidelines and Codes of Ethics

These help scholars to address the difficult issues associated with the ethics of dealing with human remains.

Who created them: Various professional Associations of Archaeologists

Individual Universities

 Mostly involve considerations of indigenous people.

 Shift in attitude over the last 20 years.

 Much more interest in dealing with the remains of other cultures in a more sensitive manner.

 There is a flow on effect from the need to address the wishes of traditional communities.

 Resulted in the development of guidelines for dealing with European remains and cemeteries.

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Give me your opinion

1. Should human remains be displayed to the general public?

2. How do human remains help us understand the past?

3. Could this understanding be achieved in any other way?

4. Is there any difference between displaying plaster casts of human bodies and skeletons?

5. What is the difference between displaying the remains of people from Pompeii and Herculaneum and displaying the remains of more recent victims of disasters such as the Haiti Earthquake?

11 Cities of Vesuvius Human Remains – Pompeii & Herculaneum

Since the commencement of excavation of the Vesuvian site in the 18th Century, human remains have been viewed, firstly as objects for display and secondly as resources for research.

Pompeii Herculaneum

Bodies discovered from first excavations in 1748 Bodies discovered 1982 onwards Attitudes to human rights remains still had NOT Attitudes to human rights developed developed Actual forms of bodies in Pompeii are preserved Only skeletons preserved Remains were used to illustrate the gruesome Remains were used research manner in which the victims were killed

Pompeii

Unique type of preservation has made the individual victims more accessible to visitors to Pompeii, and the casts of people have been one of the main attractions to this site since the 19th Century.

Skeletons and casts have been displayed in Pompeii, wither in the houses in which they were found or in other protected buildings. Some human remains have been displayed in museums and most recently in travelling exhibitions.

Herculaneum

The discoveries in boathouse and on the beachfront raised a number of issues regarding research and display.

Sara Bisel was worried about what to do once the skeletons had been exposed.

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Evidence

Casts have been made from a number of bones found at the beachfront in Herculaneum.

Think about it....

We might question why we would treat a dead body from a modern catastrophe, such as the Haiti Earthquake differently from some of the bodies at from Pompeii and Herculaneum. We would not expect to see the remains of these people on display or view photographs of their dead bodies. Even if there was a scientific interest in the cause of these deaths during a volcanic eruption, it would currently be considered unethical to permit public viewing of any kind.

 Why then is it acceptable to allow the display and photography of the dead from Pompeii and Herculaneum?

 How might you justify this practice on educational or scientific grounds?

 Does this issue only concern respect for the dead or does it also encompass distress to living groups or individuals who claim some cultural or genetic association with the deceased, that is, the stakeholders?

 Is the elapse of considerable time also an important factor in our attitude to the dead?

13 Cities of Vesuvius Display of human remains

In the 19th and 20th Centuries, the collection of skulls and other remains of indigenous peoples was justified by reference to the needs of scientific study. However, in recent years, museums in various countries have been under pressure for the return of human remains to the communities to which these skeletons belonged. Some people like indigenous Australians, consider that it is unacceptable to display the remains of ancestors to the public.

Our heightened awareness has led to reassessment of how we treat the remains of dead people from other countries. For example, there has been much discussion in recent years about whether the remains of ancient peoples who have been removed from tombs, should be displayed, as they were clearly meant to spend eternity in their resting places.

This same consideration is given to the remains of ancient European people.

An Important Note!

Not all cultures consider the display of human remains to be offensive.

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Recent Cases – Human Remains

As population grows, more space is required. Cemeteries must be occasionally relocated to meet the needs of industry and growing populations. Indeed, in some highly populated countries, cemeteries are considered only temporary.

These two cemeteries were relocated as population expanded.

Sometimes the need to move cemeteries can highlight problems between different groups within a community. A good example is seen in the case of the African American slave cemetery, dating to the colonial period in New York. The cemetery was discovered during the construction of a federal office tower in Lower Manhattan in 1991. The cemetery had been closed in 1794 and the modern African

15 Cities of Vesuvius American population did not wish to have their ancestors moved. Eventually 400 skeletons were excavated and studied. Though a number of people were initially opposed to the excavation of the bones, the study provided an opportunity to learn more about the lives of enslaved African Americans in the 18th Century. It was considered important for this study to be conducted by African American scholars. The bodies were re-interred in 2003.

16 Cities of Vesuvius Town Hall dig yields secrets Wendy Frew Urban Affairs Editor January 15, 2008 IT'S not quite CSI but an archaeological excavation under way at Sydney Town Hall could solve some of the mysteries that lie beneath one of the city's most important buildings. After a preliminary investigation in August, archaeologists have begun excavating what is left of one of Sydney's first cemeteries, as part of a restoration of the Town Hall. A team headed by Dr Mary Casey and Tony Lowe has found human remains, including a leg bone, in two of seven graves they expect to hold bone fragments. If the bones are in good condition, testing could reveal the sex, approximate age and possibly ethnicity of these early Sydneysiders. Tests might even be able to reveal details of the lives they led. "For example, if any of the dead were convicts who had done hard labour you might be able to see the stress in their bones," Dr Casey said. "It is a really important site and it would be our preference to leave it there but we need to keep using the Town Hall." The excavation will create space for plant and equipment required for the building to meet modern fire safety standards. The public will be allowed to view the diggings during an open day on January 22. Dr Casey said the preliminary investigation had identified 53 potential grave sites but most were expected to be empty. Anything found will be recorded. "In 39 of the graves there was some evidence of coffins but in the majority of cases the lids had been removed, suggesting the graves have already been exhumed," she said. "Any bone fragments found in these graves could possibly be the result of an incomplete exhumation process conducted during the 1880s, when the hall was built." The principal cemetery for Sydney town from 1793 to 1820 was bounded by George, Druitt, Bathurst and Kent streets. Government records show about 2000 bodies - including those of convicts, soldiers and free settlers - were interred there. This story was found at: http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2008/01/14/1200159363460.html

Back to Pompeii & Herculaneum

17 Cities of Vesuvius In Pompeii and Herculaneum, there is still much work that needs to be done on the human remains. One argument for continued access rests on the need for the replication of scientific studies and the possibility of future advances in technology that will enable the extraction of new information from these bones.

18 Cities of Vesuvius Considerations...

Is it disrespectful to display human remains at Pompeii and Herculaneum, or in a museum?

Is it less disrespectful to have the casts of the human victims on display?

Should the skeletons be given a proper burial?

What sort of burial; Christian etc?

Where would they be buried?

Are they being treated as nothing more than curiosities?

Is it no longer an issue because they have been dead for such a long time?

Should the casts and skeletons of animals be on display?

Should bones be seen solely as artefacts that provide valuable information?

What is the most appropriate way to store and display human remains?

Should archaeologists have the freedom to pursue knowledge and scientific enquiry without political pressures and legal constraints?

Who should have custodianship over human remains?

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