The Clause and the Sentence

THE CLAUSE AND THE SENTENCE

The CLAUSE: depending on the kind of verb they contain clauses may be verbless, non-finite and finite.

1. VERBLESS CLAUSE are elliptical clause structures characterised by omission of the verb and functioning as an adverb; it may contain, at times, a participle functioning as an adjective. A participle is fully adjectival if it is/could be preceded by intensifying adverbs (amplifiers –absolutely, completely, deeply, fully, utterly; downtoners – barely, hardly, less, merely, partly, rather, slightly, somewhat) or by focusing adverbs – chiefly, mostly, mainly, particularly, solely, alone):

The trial over, the defendant was set free. (verbless clause functioning as an adverb, adverbial modifier of time)

Although extremely tired, they will go on a trip tomorrow. (verbless clause functioning as an adverb, adverbial modifier of concession).

Both of us took turns taking care of the baby: John in the morning, I in the afternoon. (verbless clause functioning as an adverb, adverbial modifier of time).

2. NON-FINITE CLAUSES: subordinate clauses that contain no finite verbs, only a non- finite verb form.

The trial being over, the defendant was set free.

Although extremely tired, they will go on a trip tomorrow.

Both of us took turns taking care of the baby: John doing his shift in the morning, I looking after in the afternoon.

NON-FINITE CLAUSES are based on a verbal phrase, a group of words consisting on a verbal form (a non-finite verb form) that does not function as the verb of the sentence and all its objects, complements or modifiers. Depending on the type of non-finite verb form they contain, verbal phrases are classified as gerund, participial, and infinitive:

2.1. THE GERUND PHRASE: a group of words that contains a gerund (functioning as a noun) plus its objects, complements and/or modifiers:

Allowing her to leave was a mistake. (non-finite clause, gerund phrase functioning as a noun, subject)

I cannot help falling in love with you. (non-finite clause, gerund phrase, direct object)

They left without saying good-bye. (non-finite clause, gerund phrase, complement of preposition)

1 THE CLAUSE AND THE SENTENCE

2.2. THE PARTICIPIAL PHRASE: a word group that contains a participle plus its objects, complements and/or modifiers. It functions as an adjective premodifying a noun or a noun equivalent:

The quietly sleeping baby was carefully guarded by the baby-sitter. (participial phrase, premodifying the head noun “baby”)

The well-known scientist accepted to give an interview. (participial phrase, premodifying the head noun “scientist”).

PARTICIPIAL PHRASES may operate like relative or adverbial clauses being analysed as non-finite participle clauses. :

- reduced relative clauses postmodifying a noun or a noun equivalent:

The wall facing the balcony will be pulled down. (non-finite –ing participle clause based on a relative clause reduced by omitting the auxiliary “be”: The wall that is facing..., noun complement)

Lies told to protect others are, nevertheless, lies. (non-finite past participle clause based on a relative clause reduced by omitting the relative pronoun and the auxiliary “be”: Lies that are told.., noun complement).

I don’t understand the pupils behaving badly. (non-finite -ing participle clause based on a relative clause reduced by omitting the relative pronoun and changing the main verb into a present participle form: ..The pupils who behave badly, noun complement)

NOTE: RELATIVE CLAUSES can only be reduced if the relative pronoun is directly followed by the verb.

: After having been reduced, a non-defining relative clause can be moved to the front of the sentence.

- reduced adverbial clauses of time, condition, reason and result:

If washed in hot water, the pull-over will shrink. (non-finite past participle clause based on an adverbial clause reduced by omitting the subject and the auxiliary “be”: If it is washed.., adverbial modifier of time)

Being a perfectionist, I always double-check everything. (a non-finite –ing participle clause based on an adverbial clause reduced by omitting the clause

marker “Because” and the subject and changing the main verb into a present participle form: Because I am a perfectionist.., adverbial modifier of reason)

Having been told to leave, she turned round and walked away. (non-finite –ing perfect participle passive clause based on an adverbial clause reduced by omitting the clause marker “As” and the subject and changing the main verb into a present participle form: As she had been told to.., adverbial modifier of reason)

Looking out of the window, he noticed a car in front of his house. (a non-finite – ing participle clause based on an adverbial clause reduced by omitting the clause marker “while”, the subject “he” and the auxiliary “be”, adverbial modifier of time)

She didn’t hear the alarm clock yesterday morning, being late for work.( a non- finite –ing participle clause, adverbial modifier of result.

NOTE: When the clause marker (because, as, after) is omitted, it may be difficult to ascertain the type of adverbial clause that the reduced participle clause originated from:

Being found guilty of involuntary manslaughter, he was sent to prison. (non-finite – ing participle clause, adverbial modifier of time, reduced from After he was found guilty of...or adverbial modifier of reason: Because he was found guilty of... ).

2.3. THE INFINITIVE PHRASE: a word group that contains an infinitive plus its subject, objects, complements and/or modifiers. It functions as a noun, an adjective or an adverb:

To love is to suffer. (infinitive phrase, functioning as a noun, subject; subject complement)

He wants to leave. (infinitive phrase, functioning as a noun, direct object)

INFINITIVE PHRASES may operate as relative clauses, as noun complement clauses, or as adverbial clauses of purpose and result, being analysed as to-infinitive clauses:

- reduced defining clauses: He was the only one to give us a helping hand. (non- finite to-infinitive clause, defining relative)

- reduced noun complement clauses: You should fight for your right to vote. (non-finite to-infinitive clause, noun complement)

His promise to take care of the child was unbelievable. (non-finite to-infinitive clause, noun complement)

- She opened the window to let in the fresh air of the morning. (non-finite to- infinitive clause, adverbial modifier of purpose)

- They have travelled for two days, only to find the village totally destroyed. ( non-finite to-infinitive clause, adverbial modifier of result).

3. FINITE CLAUSES: word groups that contain a subject and a predicate functioning either as an independent unit (independent clauses) or as a dependent unit (subordinate clauses which, according to the part of speech they play within the sentence, a noun, adjective or adverb, can be classified as NOMINAL CLAUSES, RELATIVE CLAUSES or ADVERBIAL CLAUSES).

All independent clauses are finite, while subordinate clauses may be finite, non-finite, or verbless.

3.1. NOMINAL CLAUSES are subordinate clauses functioning as nouns and they are introduced by:

- the relative pronoun “that”: I know that you will soon leave. (nominal clause, direct object)

- relative adverbs: how, why, where, when- How you do it is none of my business. (nominal clause, subject); When he does his homework is his problem. (nominal clause, subject)

- subordinating conjunctions: whether, if- I’d like to know whether he comes with us. (nominal clause, direct object)

3.1.1. NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES are subordinate clauses functioning as nouns and they are introduced by relative pronouns: what, whatever, who, whom, whoever, whomever, whose, which, but do not have an antecedent in the matrix clause:

What he wanted was to be loved by her. (nominal relative clause, subject)

Whatever she touches breaks. (nominal relative clause, subject)

I don’t know who she is. (nominal relative clause, direct object)

They want to find out whom he wants to hire. (nominal relative clause, direct object)

3.2.RELATIVE CLAUSES are subordinate clauses functioning as adjectives. The noun they modify is their antecedent in the matrix clause. They are introduced by: 4 THE CLAUSE AND THE SENTENCE

- relative pronouns: who (nominative), whom (objective), whose (possessive), which, that, what

- relative adverbs: when, where, why

RELATIVE CLAUSES can be defining (restrictive – it brings essential information to the sentence it is part of and if left out the sentence does not make complete sense) or non-defining (non-restrictive- it is separated by comma from the rest of the sentence, cannot be introduced by “that”, and does not bring essential information to the sentence it is part of. If it is omitted, the rest of the sentence would still make perfect sense.)

My friend who lives in New York sends me art albums every year. (defining relative clause: I have got more friends)

My friend, who lives in New York, sends me art albums every year. (non-defining relative clause: I have got only one friend)

The woman who is wearing a yellow sweater is my friend. (defining relative clause.

The woman wearing a yellow sweater is my friend. (non-finite – ing participle clause, defining relative)

The question that I asked earlier has not been answered yet. (defining relative clause)

The question asked earlier has not been answered yet. (non-finite past participle clause, defining relative)

The time when she is to arrive is well known to everyone. (defining relative clause)

The bridge, which had been blown up only three months before, was already in use. (non-defining relative clause)

Bernard Shaw, who wrote many plays, died in 1950.

The student who answered the question is my best friend.

This is the house that our parents built.

(when the relative pronoun in a defining relative clause is in the objective case, it is often omitted, the clause which results being called a CONTACT CLAUSE. The relative pronoun in a non-defining relative clause is never omitted.)

e.g. Yesterday was one of the coldest days (that) I have ever known.

He is the most brilliant man that I have ever met.

Replacing RELATIVE CLAUSES with an infinitive phrase:

a. After “the first”, “the second”, “the last”, “the only”:

The only man to help her was her friend.

He was the first man to set foot on the Moon.

b. After superlatives:

This is the best course to be found at the library.

3.2.1. PREPOSITIONAL RELATIVE CLAUSES are relative clauses that complement a preposition. They can be DEFINING PREPOSITIONAL RELATIVE CLAUSES or NON-DEFINING PREPOSITIONAL RELATIVE CLAUSES.

1. In DEFINING PREPOSITIONAL RELATIVE CLAUSES the preposition can come at the end of the relative clause or before the relative pronouns (which, whom, but never before “that”). When the relative clause contains a prepositional verb, the preposition follows the verb being inseparable):

Is this the writer whom you were telling me about?

Here is the car that I talked you about.

I’ve bought the book for which the Royal family is ready to offer a fortune.

The people that he has to look after are already waiting for him.

(to look after is a prepositional verb, the verb and the preposition express a single idea, there the preposition “after” cannot precede the relative pronoun).

2. In NON-DEFINING PREPOSITIONAL RELATIVE CLAUSES the preposition comes before the relative pronouns “which” , or “whom”:

The manager, with whom we are to meet tomorrow, will surely tell us exactly what we need to know.

The new apartment, in which we plan to move as soon as possible, is situated downtown.

3.3. COORDINATE RELATIVE CLAUSES are non-defining relative clauses used to make comments on the situation expressed in the matrix clause. They have a relationship to the matrix clause that closely resembles coordination, rather than subordination, as in the case of the other relative clauses.

They are usually introduced by “which” and their antecedent is most often the whole of the matrix clause, not just a single word, being thus called Sentence Relative Clauses (Sentential Relative Clauses). More rarely, they can be introduced by “Who” (which refers to a single word).

The headmaster has already explained the situation to John’s parents, who will, presumably, take all the measures necessary to stop things from degenerating any further. (and they well...)

The house seemed to be in good condition, which pleased all of us. (and this pleased all of us)

She got a new job, which surprised us a lot. (and this surprised us a lot)

He spoke tactfully, by which means he succeeded in making everyone agree with his proposal. (and by this means he...)

He invited us to dinner, which was very kind of him.

They say he speaks French, which he doesn’t.

He walks for an hour each morning, which would bore me.

Things then improved, which surprised me.

3.4. SENTENTIAL RELATIVE CLAUSES refer back to the predicate: He walks for an hour every day, which I don’t. / He watches TV every evening, which would bore me.

3.5. SEQUENCE OF TENSES refers to the relationship established between the tense-form of the verb in the main clause and the tense-form of the verbs in the subordinate clauses dominated by the main clause. In relative clauses, the tense is not affected by the verb in the main clause, because the relative is dominated by a pronoun/noun:

e.g. The day before yesterday, I met the man that lives next door. (any tense required by the logical meaning; but: He told me he would move house soon) as well as in comparative clauses because we can compare a past with a present: Last year he worked more that he works this year.

4. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES are subordinate clauses functioning as adverbs. They are introduced by relative adverbs (when, where) and subordinating conjunctions. They may be:

4.1. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME introduced by: after, as, as long as, by the time, no sooner, once, since, till, when, whenever, while, etc

She started crying as soon as he left the room.

While you are washing the dishes, I’ll prepare a cocktail.

I lost a lot of weight when I was ill.

He will move to a new flat when he gets a promotion.

4.2. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF PLACE are introduced by: where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere, etc.

You may go wherever you want.

I sent those people where they belong.

The dog follows me wherever I go.

4.3. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF MANNER are introduced by: as, as if, as though, how, the way, in the way that, the same way, in the same way, etc.

He looked at me as if my words had really hurt him.

I will act exactly as I was instructed.

Type this again in the way I showed you.

She was acting so stupid as though she wanted deliberately to make me angry. 8 THE CLAUSE AND THE SENTENCE

4.4. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF PURPOSE are introduced by: in order that, so that, for fear that, lest, etc.

He told me the truth so that I shouldn’t find it out from the others.

I took many driving lessons so that I might pass my driving test.

We carved their names on the stone in order that future generations might/should remember them.

He studies hard so that he will/may pass the exam.

Come closer so as I can see you better.

He took my shoes so that I couldn’t leave the house.

They wrote the notices in several languages so that the foreign tourists could understand them.

He wrote his diary in French so that his parents wouldn’t be able to read it.

Negative purpose clauses can be replaced by infinitive phrases:

1. Prevent + noun/pronoun + gerund: He dyed his beard to prevent us recognizing him.

2. Avoid + gerund: He dyed his beard to avoid being recognized.

She kept looking back lest someone should follow her.

(“lest”, “in case” and “for fear” have negative meanings and are followed by “should + infinitive” irrespective of the tense of the main verb):

He left early lest he should miss the train.

He doesn’t dare to leave the house in case he should be recognized.

They left early for fear they should meet him.

Other examples of CLAUSES OF PURPOSE

e.g. He sent his son in the garden to bring some flowers (the purpose refers to the personal object) BUT He sent his son in the garden so as to have some peace. (the purpose refers to the subject, thus ‘so as’ is used);

e.g. They left the door open to hear the baby (the purpose refers to the subject) BUT They left the door open for me to hear the baby (the purpose refers to a personal object – ‘me’.

- IN CASE/ FOR FEAR and LEST have a negative meaning and are followed by ‘should + infinitive’: They left early lest he should miss the train. / He doesn’t dare to leave the house in case/ for fear he should be recognized.

- Sequence of tenses in purpose clauses: if the main clause has a PRESENT/PRESENT PERFECT/FUTURE/IMPERATIVE tense-form, the subordinate has WILL/MAY + infinitive

4.5. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF REASON are introduced by: as, because, for, considering that, seeing that, since, for the reason that, now that, etc.

He left because he had some things to do.

Since you never do the right thing, I’ll keep on scolding you.

We camped there because it was too dark to go on.

He stole not because he wanted the money but because he liked stealing.

She was angry for she didn’t know French.

(a for-clause does not tell us why a certain action was performed, it merely presents a piece of additional information: The days were short, for it was now December.)

4.6. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF RESULT are introduced by: such...that, with the result that, so that, etc.

The problem was so difficult that I couldn’t solve it.

He told me the truth, so that I shouldn’t find it out from the others.

It was such a hot day that nobody wanted to go out.

The snow felt so fast that our footprints were covered up in a few minutes.

The difference between a Both result clauses and a purpose clauses express result, but in the Result clause the result is achieved while in the Purpose clause the result is yet to be achieved:

We paid him immediately so that he left pleased. (result)

We paid him immediately so that he would leave pleased. (purpose)

The result clause introduced by “so” is separated by comma: I took no notice of him, so he flew into a rage. 10 THE CLAUSE AND THE SENTENCE

4.7. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONDITION are introduced by: if, even if, in case, suppose, supposing, provided that, providing, unless, etc.

If you want this, come and get it.

In case you see John, tell him to be there early.

She will forgive you, provided you tell her the whole truth.

If you work well, I double your pay.

There are three kinds of conditional sentences expressing:

1. Real condition: He’ll get to the station in time if he gets a taxi.

2. Improbable condition: If I knew his address, I’d give you to you.

3. Impossible condition: If he had driven more carefully, he wouldn’t have had that horrible accident.

A. To express a REAL CONDITION we use the combination: Main clause (any indicative tense required by the meaning) + IF-clause (any indicative clause except THE FUTURE):

If you left your books at school, you’ll find them tomorrow. (past/future)

If you liked the postcards, why didn’t you buy some. (past/past)

I’ll give him the book if I meet him tomorrow. (future/present for future)

If you don’t like your job, why don’t you change? (present/present)

We may use THE IMPERATIVE in the main clause: If you see him, tell him to write to me.

Placed at the beginning, the imperative may replace the If-clause in order to request, comment, or threaten. When the replaced If-clause is in the affirmative, it will be connected to the main clause by AND) : Finish your work and you may go.

If you fail to pay they’ll cut off the electricity. Fail to pay and they’ll cut off the electricity.

When the If-clause is in the negative, the conjunction will be OR: If you don’t stop borrowing money, you’ll be in trouble. / Stop borrowing money or you’ll be in trouble.

The use of The Subjunctive 1 present in If-clauses instead of the normal present tense is mainly confined to formal and legal contexts:

If any vehicle be found parked on these premises, it will be towed away at the expense of the vehicle’s owner.

We can use MODALS in If-clauses of real condition:

 WILL/WON’T used as a modal (be willing) not as the mark of the future:

If you will look after my luggage I’ll buy the tickets. (if you are willing..)

If he will listen to me, I’ll give him some useful advice. (if he is willing..)

If he won’t come, we’ll ask someone else. (if he refuses..)

WILL can be replaced by a simple present, but the modal shade is lost: If you look after my luggage.. /If he listens to me...

 SHOULD is used in If-clauses to point out that the action, though possible, is not likely to happen:

If anyone should call while I’m out, tell him to wait.

If this machine should at any time fail to give complete satisfaction, please post the enclosed card.

In this case, SHOULD is often placed at the beginning and IF is omitted: Should anyone call...

IF+negative verb in a real condition can be replaced by UNLESS+affirmative verb (a greater focus on the condition as an exception, ONLY IF..NOT) :

If you don’t leave at once, I’ll call the police

Unless you leave at once, I’ll call the police.

When there is a stronger idea of restriction and limitation, IF can be replaced by PROVIDED/PROVIDING THAT, SO LONG AS, ON CONDITION, ON THE CONDITION THAT: She may go, as long as he goes with her.

You can camp in my field, provided you promise to leave no mess.

IF can be replaced by SUPPOSING/SUPPOSE and ASSUMING:

Supposing we’re late, what can we do?

Assuming that the film starts at eight, shouldn’t we be leaving now?

Other conditional subordinators: GIVEN (that), IN CASE, IN THE EVENT THAT, JUST SO (that):

He doesn’t mind inconveniencing others just so he’s comfortable.

In case you want me, I’ll be in my office till lunchtime.

IF ONLY + Present tense or modal WILL expresses hope:

If only he comes in time.

If only he will listen to me.

B. The IMPROBABLE IF-clause may be used instead of the REAL IF-clause:

If you go there by train, you’ll get there earlier. (reasonably possible)

If you went by train, you would get there earlier. (more tentative)

Even if you paid me, I still wouldn’t do it.

To express improbable condition, we use the combination: Main clause (Present conditional- Should/Would + Short Infinitive) + IF-clause (Subjunctive 2 present identical to the Simple past tense indicative):

I would give you his address if I knew it.

If I were you, I would leave immediately.

WERE can be placed first for emphasis and IF omitted: Were I to go there, I would leave immediately.

WOULD can be used in IF-clauses with a modal value:

If you would kindly wait a moment, I’ll ask the manager to speak to you.

If you would let me have an answer by return, I should be very grateful.

WOULD LIKE/WOULD CARE can also be used as equivalents of WANT and WISH:

If you would like to come, I’ll get a ticket for you.

IF ONLY+WOULD can express regret about a present action: If only he would drive more slowly, we should feel much safer.

C. To express IMPOSSIBLE CONDITION, we can use the combination: Main clause (Past conditional- Should/Would + Perfect Infinitive), If-Clause (Past Subjunctive- the form is identical with the Past Perfect indicative):

If I had known about your arrival, I should have met you at the airport.

I should have helped you, if I had been able to.

We could have saved his life, if we had had a car.

We can omit IF and place the auxiliary HAD in front of the subject: Had I known you were in town, I should have tried to get in touch with you. (IF-clause is normally placed first)

BUT FOR can replace “If it had not been for”:

If it hadn’t been for the storm, we should have arrives earlier.

But for the storm, we should have arrived earlier.

PERIPHERAL USES OF CONDITIONAL CLAUSES:

1. Indirect IF-clauses (the condition is not related to the situation in the main clause): She’s far too considerate, if I may say so.

She and I are good friends if you understand me.

The If-clause may express the condition under which the speaker makes the utterance: If you’re going my way, I need a lift back.

The If-clause may be a conventional expression of politeness or a metalinguistic comment:

If you don’t mind my saying so, ....

If I may be quite frank with you, I don’t approve of any concessions of ignorance.

His style is florid, if that’s the right word.

She is resigning, if you know what I mean.

Other examples include:

If I may put it so;

if that’s the word for it;

if I may phrase it figuratively;

if you like;

if that’s the correct term;

if you see what I mean;

I saw Carol last night, if Carol is her name. (expressing uncertainty about the extralinguistic knowledge.)

The war was started by the other side, if you remember your history lessons.

Other examples include:

if I’am correct;

if we can believe the experts;

in case you don’t know;

if you know what I’m referring to;

if I understand you correctly;

in case you don’t remember;

if you’ve not forgotten already;

2. Rhetorical conditional clauses make strong assertions:

a. if the statement in the main clause is absurd, the meaning of the conditional clause is false

If they’re Irish, I’m the Pope.

If you believe that, you’ll believe anything.

b. if the statement in the main clause is true, the meaning of the conditional clause is also true:

He’s ninety if he’s a day.

4.8. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF COMPARISON are introduced by: as/than, like, the more...the more, the less...the less, the sooner...the better, etc.

He is not as honest as you think.

He is much more intelligent than I expected.

He runs faster than I do.

I can run as fast as he can.

This is not so easy as I thought it would be.

When As/Than is preceded by a short infinitive, it is followed by an infinitive without to. e.g. I’d rather go to the cinema than wait here.

4.9. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONCESSION are introduced by: although, though, as much as, even if, even though, however + adjective/adverb, whatever, whichever, whoever, whereas, no matter, etc.

Although I like him, I won’t go out with him.

Cry as much as you like, I’ll take no notice whatsoever.

Let him be the most handsome man in the world, I would still refuse to go out with him, I am a married woman.

However frightened you might be, you must remain outwardly calm.

Though it was late, we stayed to finish the work.

Concessive clauses can be replaced by –ing participle phrases or past participle ones:

While not wanting to seem obstinate, I insisted on a definite reply.

Though well over seventy, he can walk faster than I can.

Not wanting to give offence, I said nothing.

Other examples of CLAUSES OF CONCESSION: Though he was a genius/ or/ Genius though he was, he was quite unassuming.

While he has a lot of friends, he is nevertheless often lonely.

Even though you don’t like it, you should learn better.

Though well over eighty, he can still walk fast.

- expressed by several prepositional phrases: despite, inspite of, irrespective of, regardless of, notwithstanding the fact that.

5. COMMENT CLAUSES are most frequently used in speech and they may be classified as follows: 16 THE CLAUSE AND THE SENTENCE

1. FINITE COMMENT CLAUSES are pattered like independent clauses, but from a communicative point of view are subordinated to the independent clauses.

He is a fellow, I guess.

We could do what he suggested, I suppose.

I was terribly disappointed, you see.

2. NON-FINITE COMMENT CLAUSES are adverbial in nature:

He was, roughly speaking, thrown out of the room.

To put it mildly, she was rather upset.

All things considered, we had no other option.

EXERCISES ON SUBORDINATE CLAUSES:

II. Identify the subordinate clause mentioning its type and its function:

1. He got the thing which he wanted. (defining relative clause)

2. He got what he wanted. (nominal relative clause, direct object)

3. I can’t imagine what induced him to do such a thing. (nominal relative clause, direct object)

4. What you say is important. (nominal relative clause, subject)

5. I was interested in what he was saying. (nominal relative clause, complement of preposition)

6. My hope was that he would say nothing about it. (nominal clause, subject complement)

7. I know I’ve been rather naive. (nominal clause, direct object)

8. He arrived at the decision that she was innocent. (nominal clause, noun complement)

9. She was disturbed by the fear he would come after her. (nominal clause, noun complement)

10. He knew that I would succeed. (nominal clause, direct object)

11. It was obvious that she will never see him again. (nominal clause, delayed subject)

12. I immediately noticed that he didn’t even look at me. (nominal clause, direct object)

13. I doubt whether the idea that anything was wrong had ever occurred to him. (nominal clause, direct object, nominal clause, noun complement.)

14. I wondered what was keeping him. (nominal relative clause, direct object)

15. I realised that I was not alone. (nominal clause, direct object)

16. You will have some sensation of what it is like to float in space. (nominal relative clause, complement of preposition)

17. It depends on the fact that many things are essential. (nominal clause, noun complement.)

III. Complete the following sentences with the required adverbial clauses:

I completely disregarded his instructions, .....

a. Adverbial clause of time: as soon as he had left.

b. Adverbial clause of concession: although he had threatened me.

c. Adverbial clause of reason: since I hadn’t time for them.

d. Adverbial clause of purpose: in order to finish the task more quickly.

e. Adverbial clause of result: so that I got lost in the big city.

FURTHER PRACTICE (Mihai Zdrenghea, Anca Greere, A Practical English Grammar (with exercises), Cluj, Clusium, 1997)

TRANSLATION P.474 / SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

1. Mi s-a plâns cã nu-i creste nimic în grãdinã pentru cã nu este nici un pic de soare din cauza copacilor. 2. Când l-am întâlnit mi-a spus cã este la Londra de o lunã, dar a fost asa de ocupat cã încã n-a vizitat nimic. 3. I-am spus cã ne-am mutat într-un apartament nou dar nu ne place nici pe departe cum ne plãcea în cel vechi. 4. Mi-a spus cã nu avusese timp sã citeascã cartea, dar o va face cu sigurantã sãptãmâna viitoare. 5. Toatã ziua fãcuse asa cum îi spusese lui Thomas cã va face. 6. Credeam cã nu va termina la timp si ne-am oferit s-o ajutãm. 7. La ora de chimie ni s-a spus cã sarea constã din natriu si clor. 8. Credeam cã reparase deja frigiderul, dar mi-a spus cã are nevoie de a piesã de schimb si îl va repara a doua zi. 18 THE CLAUSE AND THE SENTENCE

9. Ieri am terminat de citit cartea pe care o citeste sora mea acum. 10. Mary mi-a spus cã s-a dus cu o zi înainte cu sotul ei sã vadã o casã pe care se gândea sã o cumpere. E o casã frumoasã, dar sotul ei s-a împotrivit cumpãrãrii pentru cã e vis-a-vis de cimitir. 11. Mi-a spus cã-i pare rãu de ce-a fãcut si îsi va cere scuze. 12. L-am întrebat dacã a înteles ce i-am explicat. 13. Fratele meu mi-a spus cã pot lua masina pentru cã el n-are nevoie de ea pâna a doua zi. 14. Ghidul ne-a spus cã muzeul este deschis în fiecare zi de la 9.00 15. Anul trecut am cãlãtorit mai mult decât cãlãtoresc anul acesta. 16. Sunt surprins. Nu am crezut cã mã vei întelege atât de bine. 17. Mi-a spus cã nimeni nu cunostea adevãrul cum îl cunostea el deoarece îl aflase chiar de la victimã. 18. Aflasem cã va fi organizat un nou examen si m-am hotãrât sã încerc din nou. 19. M-a întrebat furios unde-i pusesem papucii si de ce nu-i las acolo unde îi aruncã el. 20. Când am întrebat-o câti ani are si unde a mai lucrat mi-a spus cã are nouãsprezece ani si fusese înainte angajatã la o firmã importantã si sefii au considerat-o foarte capabilã.

EXERCISE P.476 / SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Change the sentences to begin with an imperative:

1. If you ask me nicely, I’ll go to the party with you. 2. If you don’t stop crying, I’ll tell mother what you’ve done. 3. If you work late tonight, I’ll double your pay. 4. If you don’t hurry, we’ll all be late. 5. I f you don’t take a taxi, you’ll miss your train. 6. If you crash my car, I’ll hate you forever.

EXERCISE P.478 / SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense: 1. If he (be) late we’ll go without him. 2. If I see him I (give) him a lift. 3. If you eat all that you (be) ill. 4. If the police catch him they (arrest) him. 5. If you read in bad light you (ruin) your eyes. 6. I (lend) you my car if you promise to take care of it. 7. If he (not start) at once he’ll be late for the train. 8. Unless you work very hard you (not be) successful. 9. If you heat ice it (turn) to water. 10. Unless I have a quiet room I (not be able) to do any work.

1. Voi spãla paharele în apã fierbinte. Nu, nu face asta. Dacã le vei pune în apã fierbinte se vor sparge. 2. Dacã îl vei întâlni pe Jerry la facultate, spune-i sã-mi telefoneze. 3. Dacã astepti o clipã, vin si eu cu tine. 4. Are doar saisprezece ani, si vrea sã renunte la scoalã la sfârsitul semestrului. Dacã va face asta, o sã-i parã rãu mai târziu. 5. Dacã voi primi permis de lucru, voi mai sta un an aici. 6. Câinele nu te va ataca dacã vei sta linistit. 7. Dacã tot faci remarci nepotrivite, nu-i de mirare cã lumea te ocoleste. 8. Dacã cumva aceste mãsuri nu vor restabili ordinea, vom impune mãsuri si mai severe. 9. Dacã nu mã crezi, întrebã-l pe tatãl tãu. 10. Dacã voi fi acceptat la colegiu, voi începe studiile în toamnã. 19 THE CLAUSE AND THE SENTENCE

11. Dacã nu îl gãsesti la birou, încearcã mai târziu acasã. 12. Dacã nu îti vei îndrepta purtarea, vei suporta consecintele. 13. Te voi astepta dacã îmi promiti cã nu vei întârzia din nou. 14. Nu merg la teatru dacã nu vii si tu cu mine. 15. Nu vei reusi niciodatã dacã nu vei avea mai multã încredere în tine.

EXERCISE P.480 / SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form:

1. If I knew his address I (give) it to you. 2. If he knew that it was dangerous he (not come). 3. If I (have) a degree I could get a job easily. 4. If I (win) a big prize in a lottery I’d give up my job. 5. If I (know) French I could tell you what this means. 6. If I thought that I’d be any use I (offer) to help. 7. I (not go) there if I were you. 8. I’d ask him to dinner more often if he (be) more amusing. 9. If you saw somebody drowning, what you (do)? 10. If he worked more slowly he (not make) so many mistakes.

1. Dacã am munci toatã noaptea am putea termina la timp. Dar sã-ti spun cinstit n-am chef sã lucrez toatã noaptea. 2. Stã la Hotelul “Savoy” la Londra. E asa bogat? Dacã n-ar fi bogat, cu sigurantã cã n-ar sta la “Savoy”. 3. De-am avea o luminã. E asa deprimant sã astepti în întuneric. 4. Dacã n-ar fi asa timidã, ar putea sã se afirme mai mult. 5. Dacã am avea chibrite am putea face focul. 6. Dacã i-as sti adresa i-as putea scrie. 7. N-as vinde acest tablou pentru tot aurul din lume. Este mostenire de la bunicul meu. 8. Ce-ai face dacã te-ai întâlni cu o stafie? 9. Dacã mi-ar spune ce necazuri are, poate as putea face ceva sã o ajut. 10. Dacã as fi în locul tãu, n-as spune nimic despre asta. 11. Nu ti-as fi scris dacã nu trebuia sã te anunt de accidentul lui. 12. Dacã tatãl meu ar fi aici, el ar sti sã-ti arate cum trebuie reparatã masina.Eu nu stiu, dacã as putea, te-as ajuta. 13. Dacã ai scrie scrisoarea, as duce-o eu la postã. 14. Ar fi foarte bine dacã ar putea veni si John.

EXERCISE P.482 / SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form:

1. If you had arrived ten minutes earlier you (get) a seat. 2. I shouldn’t have believed it if I (not see) it with my own eyes. 3. If he had asked, you (accept)? 4. If I (know) that you were coming I’d have met you at the station. 5. If I had known what a bad driver you were I (not come) with you. 6. If he had known that the river was dangerous he (not try) to swim across it. 7. If I (be) ready when he called he would have taken me with him. 8. If she had listened to my directions she (not turn) the wrong street. 20 THE CLAUSE AND THE SENTENCE

9. If you (read) the instructions carefully you wouldn’t have answered the wrong questions. 10. If the pilot (make) one mistake the ship would have run around.

EXERCISE P.484 / SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Rewrite the sentences using the conjunctions in brackets:

1. If you look after him, I (let) you keep my dog till the weekend. (provided that) 2. I (lend) you my blouse if you let me have it back for the party. (on condition that) 3. If you (not tell) anyone else, I’ll tell you what he said. (so long as) 4. If I (have) money to spear, I still wouldn’t buy that silly-looking dress. (even if) 5. If it (be) a holiday on Monday, we can drive to the seaside. (assuming.)

TRANSLATION P.488 / SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 1. Am plecat devreme ca sã prind trenul. 2. Editorul mi-a trimis manuscrisul ca sã-l citesc si sã fac comentarii pe seama lui. 3. Dã volumul mai încet ca sã nu-l trezesti pe copil. 4. Au plecat drevreme ca sã nu-l întâlneascã pe Tom. 5. Au evacuat clãdirea ca sã poate stinge incendiul. 6. Am aprins focul ca sã fie cald în casã pe când se întorc copiii. 7. Au pus un afis ca sã stim cã biblioteca se închide mai devreme în ziua aceea. 8. Ei si-au riscat viata ca sã-i salveze de la înec. 9. Du cu grijã vaza aceea ca sã nu o spargi. 10. Pune mâncarea în frigider ca sã nu o mãnânce pisica. 11. Vorbeste mai tare ca sã te audã toatã lumea din salã. 12. Am notat numãrul de telefon ca sã nu-l uit. 13. Spune-le sã se grãbeascã ca sã nu piardã începutul ceremoniei. 14. Am mers încet ca sã poatã copilul sã se tinã de mine.

1. Aveau un câine asa de fioros încât nimeni nu îndrãznea sã se apropie de casa lor. 2. Sunt asa de sãraci încât au nevoie de ajutorul nostru tot timpul 3. Era asa de multã lume cã nu vedeam scena. 4. Atât a fost de îngrozitoare furtuna încât a smuls acoperisuri. 5. Ce am fãcut, ca sã mã insulti? 6. Este asa un profesor bun încât sala lui de curs e întotdeauna plinã. 7. Nu m-a întrebat nimeni ce vreau, asa cã am plecat fãrã sã spun nimic. 8. Atât de mult voiau casa aceea încât au fost de acord sã plãteascã mai mult decât ne-am asteptat. 9. Au învãtat foarte mult asa cã examenul a fost usor pentru ei.

1. Nu s-au înscris goluri desi a fost un joc alert. 2. Desi nu vreau sã fac gãlãgie, trebuie sã protestez la indiferenta lor. 3. Oricât sunt de bogati oamenii, ei întotdeauna par dornici sã facã mai multi bani. 4. A luat masina, desi i-am spus sã n-o ia. 5. Avertizati de pericolele din junglã, ei totusi au insistat sã plece în cãlãtoria în Africa. 6. Copil cum era, tot a fost ales conducãtorul expeditiei. 7. Sãrac cum era, tot a dat ceva bani. 8. Desi nu-i plãcea sã cãlãtoreascã, a acceptat sã ne însoteascã la Londra. 9. E posibil, chiar dacã-i foarte greu. 10. E hotãrât sã se cãsãtoreascã, chiar dacã nu-si gãseste slujbã.

1. Nimic altceva nu va rãmâne, doar amintirea bunãtãtii lui. 2. Eu îi apreciez , dar prietenul meu îi dispretuieste profund. 3. Ei îi plãcea sã meargã la teatru în timp ce el prefera fotbalul. 3. Avionul poate întârzia 2 ore, în care caz nu are rost sã asteptãm. 4. Nimic altceva nu-i plãcea mai mult decât sã se plimbe. 5. Vorbitorul a asigurat pe cei prezenti cã vor câstiga alegerile, notã optimistã în care s-a terminat întâlnirea. 6. Copilul poate cã pretinde numai cã e bolnav ca sã nu meargã la scoalã, posibilitate pe care nu o putem ignora. 7. Mary si Tom s-au certat la nici douã sãptãmâni dupã cãsãtoria lor, lucru pe care eu nu-l voi întelege niciodatã. 8. Eu sunt pentru a începe imediat ei însã cred cã e bine sã mai amânãm. 9. Le-a spus cã nu mai pot pleca, lucru care i-a mâhnit foarte tare. 10. Toatã lumea a plecat, ceea ce ne face sã credem cã nu va mai avea loc nici o întâlnire.

1. Deoarece nu mai aveam bani, n-am cumpãrat tot ce doream. 2. N-are rost sã ne ceri sfatul pentru cã tot nu tii cont de el. 3. Nu am plecat cu masina pentru cã drumul era acoperit cu gheatã. 4. De ce n-ai oprit la stop? N-am oprit pentru cã nu l-am vãzut de pom. 5. Era furios pentru cã l-a trezit asa devreme. 6. Era destul de rãcoare pentru cã era de-acum searã. 7. S-a apucat de mâncat cu lãcomie fiindcã nu mâncase nimic de dimineatã. 8. Când l-am vãzut cã vrea sã înoate în râu m-am speriat pentru cã acolo curentul era foarte periculos. 9. I-a vorbit în francezã. Ea s-a supãrat pentru cã nu stia franceza. 10. El a plecat în grabã nu pentru cã era supãrat ci pentru cã era foarte târziu.

1. Stie gãti curcanul ca mama mea. 2. Te rog fã exact cum ti-am spus. 3. Când am sosit acolo, situatia era exact cum mi-am imaginat-o. 4. Tom era fascinat de Elisabeth, asa cum o molie e atrasã de luminã. 5. Aratã de parcã s-ar însãnãtosi. 6. Mã trateaza de parcã as fi un strãin. 7. Vorbeste de parcã ar avea prune în gurã. 8. Proprietarul de acum al castelului este un avid colectionar de tablouri, asa cum erau si strãmosii lui. 9. El nu munceste asa de mult ca mine. 10. A descoperit cã e mai usor sã gãteascã el decât sã încerce sã o învete pe sotia lui.

REVISION P.495 / SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Translate into English:

1. E într-o continuã agonie mintalã, dacã pot sã spun asa. 2. Am sãrit gardul pentru cã soneria nu functiona. 3. Credeam cã e supãrat pentru cã nu s-a oprit sã discute cu noi. Nu s-a oprit pentru cã era foarte grãbit. 22 THE CLAUSE AND THE SENTENCE

4. Dacã as fi stiut cã esti în spital, poti fi sigur cã te-as fi vizitat. 5. Ar trebui sã mergem sã cupãram un ziar înainte sã se închidã. 6. Va trebui sã rezolvi problema asta, chiar dacã-ti place sau nu. 7. Dacã are dreptate sau nu, tot trebuie sã-l ajuti. 8. Nu voi termina niciodatã proiectul dacã nu mã vei ajuta si tu. 9. Esti o povarã pentru noi, dacã nu te deranjeazã cã spun asta. 10. Nu voi stii dacã am reusit pânã nu voi primi rezultatele. 11. Mama nu-l lãsa sã se apropie de râu de teamã sã nu cadã în el. 12. Chiar dacã nu-ti place de el poti totusi sã fii politicos. 13. Rãbdãtor cum era, tot n-avea de gând sã astepte trei ore. 14. A încercat sã mã mintã din nou, lucru care m-a deranjat tare. 16. Dacã mã rogi frumos ti-l repar eu.