Gender in the Pacific Island States

Gender in the Pacific Island states Literature review and annotated bibliography

Adriana Keating Gender Equality Thematic Group

Background “The population of the Pacific Islands states ranges from around 2,000 in Niue to almost six million in Papua New Guinea (PNG). Most of the population of the Pacific region live in the four largest countries: PNG, Solomon Islands, Fiji and Vanuatu. Around 49 per cent of the total population of the Pacific Islands is aged under 20, and girls comprise around 48 per cent of that age group.

Culturally and linguistically, the region can be divided into three areas, Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia. The three sub-regions, while differing from each other in many ways, have certain socio-cultural similarities. One similarity is that all of the Pacific societies traditionally have a communal socio-economic base, traditionally characterized by reciprocity and sharing. Traditional culture is centred around the extended family and, in many cases, Christian churches.

While in the past the majority of Pacific populations depended on subsistence economies, and cash was a luxury rather than a necessity, today new lifestyle aspirations and, in some cases, population growth, have increased dependence on cash, and have led to rapid socio-economic change.

The three sub-regions of the Pacific, Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia, differ somewhat in the role and place of girls and women in society. These differences account for variations in the well-being and opportunities of the girl child across the region.

Traditionally, all Pacific societies were ranked by social rather than economic status. Within Melanesia, societies were ranked by gender and in these countries (PNG, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and parts of Fiji) there is far greater gender inequality than in the countries of the other Pacific sub-regions. In general, this meant that men controlled resources and made decisions while girls and women performed most of the productive as well as all the household labour.

The low status of girls in some Melanesian societies was apparent in traditions such as arranged marriages and “bride price”. Girls were – and in many areas still are – regarded as a valuable resource to be traded between groups of men as brides in exchange for payments, which nowadays include cash. These traditions persist in PNG, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu in spite of significant socio-cultural changes in other areas of life.

In Polynesia, and some parts of Micronesia, social inequality was not based as much on gender as on inherited chiefly status. Accordingly, a girl child born into a very high ranking family would be seen as socially superior to a man or boy of a low ranking

of 30 family, although not to a man or boy of their own rank. However, social changes are today undermining the high status this gave to some girls and women.” (Ali, 2006)

“In Pacific Island countries children generally have the lowest status in society. Given the lack of gender equality in most countries of the Pacific, and particularly in Melanesian societies, the girl child is typically at the very bottom of the social hierarchy.

In accordance with her place in the social hierarchy, the Pacific girl child is socialized to a sense of inferiority. The socialization process of most Pacific countries has the result that girls often do not develop the notion of having a choice or an opinion, and, in countries where girls are of particularly low status in society, they are taught to never question male authority.

In many Pacific Island societies, “culture” is frequently invoked as justification for discrimination against, and even violent and abusive treatment of, women and girls. However, the “customs” and “traditions” that are invoked are often distorted versions of the original, which have been modified to suit the needs of the males in the family.” (Ali, 2006)

Violence against women Violence perpetrated against women is arguably the worst manifestation of gender inequality in the Pacific. Violence against women is endemic is many part of the Pacific, and is concentrated around two themes – domestic violence and violence during and following civil conflict situations.

Domestic violence in much of the Pacific is considered a private issue (SPC, 2005). When women cannot find support among other family or community members, they cannot even count on the police. As Allen & Hakena (2006) point out “police have a reputation for being dismissive of women’s needs and of themselves violating women’s rights in their personal and professional capacities. The attitude towards sex workers is particularly difficult…”.

Leslie & Boso (2003) and AusAID (2003a) identify a pattern of violence against women during and following ethnic conflict. In conflict zones in the Pacific such as Solomon Islands, Bougainville and Fiji, women were made specific targets of violence. Rape and sexual violence were used as weapons of war in the context of retribution or simply ethnic hatred. The profound and far reaching consequences of this violence for the women who suffered it, their families and communities are devastating.

“The nature of domestic violence and the lack of available research and statistics make it difficult to measure in economic terms - particularly “costs” of ongoing fear, anxiety, humiliation, low self esteem, lack of confidence and inter-generational transmission. Children and young people are known to be profoundly affected, both as witnesses and as victims of violence.

of 30 Economic costs include those borne by the government in terms of treatment, prevention and monitoring; those borne by the individual victim in terms of medical expenses, transportation, legal action and income loss from absence from work; and those borne by the community in terms of productivity loss to the market and reduction of income. These all fall significantly to the public as taxpayers, and weight relatively heavily on those with lower levels of income.” (UNIFEM & SPC, 2003)

Without addressing this devastating epidemic development initiatives will continue to produce sub-optimal results. The disempowering effect that violence has on people is immense; disempowered women are less able take their place as innovative economic agents, they are less able to demand health care and education for their children, and they less able to be involved in the local and national decisions that effect their lives.

Arguably the biggest constraint to addressing violence against women is the prevailing attitude that it is a private issue. This attitude constrains individual women’s ability to share their experiences and change their situation; when they do go to the police, this attitude constrains their access to justice. Furthermore it constrains the ability of women’s and church groups to make the issue public and advocate for change. Finally it constrains national bodies (parliamentary, judiciary) from institutionalising just outcomes for women. The attitudes of men, women and important institutions such churches must change in order to address endemic violence.

Finally, while gender inequality in educational opportunities and outcomes remain, girls are less able to grow into independent women less vulnerable to violence. UNIFEM & SPC’s (2003) study of domestic violence in Samoa found that women with only primary education were more likely to be abused than those with secondary education or higher.

Decision-making Aswani & Weiant (2004), MacDonald & Rowland (2002), Scheyvens (1997) and many others identify the crucial role women play in the success of a development project. Yet Donald et al’s study (2002) of women and Vanuatu’s national parliament identifies a cultural opposition to women in decision-making, often stated openly by prominent men, as the major impediment to women entering formal politics.

The legitimisation of indigenous legal systems is seen by some as holding potential for dealing with many of the governance issues constraining development in the Pacific. White (2006) argues that the formalisation of indigenous governance systems in Melanesia has much potential for benefiting women in terms of decision-making capacity and access to justice. However he warns that the discourse of ‘tradition’ may work to exclude women from political influence.

The importance of hearing women’s voices in post-conflict and peace building negotiations has been recognised around the world. Nowhere is this potential more obvious than in the Pacific. Initiatives by grassroots women’s organisations in high conflict situations have proved extraordinarily successful at brokering peace. Despite this

of 30 recognition, women have been dismally excluded from formal peace negotiations much to their detriment (AusAIUD, 2003a; Dinnen & Thompson, 2004; Paina, 2000).

Phillpot’s (2002) comparison between provinces in PNG finds a positive correlation between provincial development and the number of women in local politics. This agrees with Dollar et al’s (1999) wider study into women and corruption that finds a negative correlation between the number of women in parliaments and levels of corruption. Despite the global recognition of the importance of women at all levels of decision making, gender mainstreaming remains an ad hoc activity. Many women in the Pacific do not know that their parliamentary vote is anonymous, and that she is not obliged to vote the way her husband tells her.

Industry assistance projects aiming to increase production that do not involve women in the decision-making process are likely to adversely affect women. This can be seen in the promotion of trade liberalisation of sugar cane in Fiji (Carswell, 2003), fisheries in Palau (SPC, 1999) and mining projects in PNG (MacDonald & Rowland, 2002). Projects that aim to increase productivity through incentive schemes or infrastructure are essential to development. The authors listed here explore the wealth of experience that illuminates the fact that without including women in the decision-making process, such projects may not only not reach their potential or fail, but can adversely affect women.

The binding constraints to achieving gender equality in decision-making are many and varied. These include an attitude that women are not capable of making decisions, or that it is culturally inappropriate for them to do so. Discrimination against girls in education attainment further restricts their ability to engage with the decision making process. Finally there is a perception within much of the Pacific that women are in fact apolitical. Despite the lack of women holding parliamentary seats throughout the Pacific, McLeod (2002) and Sepoe (2002) argue that they are in fact engaged in national and local politics at the grassroots level. This contradicts the image of Pacific women as apolitical.

Education Boys systemically outnumber girls at all levels of education throughout the Pacific. This inequality increases with age. When girls are in school, they attend less; girls drop out earlier than boys. Girls are not encouraged to pursue further education if they complete high school, instead they are obligated to start work to contribute to the family’s income.

Access to education affects rural people around the world and in the Pacific the issue of access is striking. Often students have to travel for hours in canoes to get to school, a dangerous exercise especially for girls in a time of conflict. When boarding facilities do exist, they may not have separate facilities (such as sleeping areas and bathrooms) for girls, which makes their attendance near impossible (see Geissinger, 1997).

Using data from over 100 countries, Dollar & Gatti (1999) find that gender bias in the allocation of educational resources is far from an efficient or rational economic choice. Gender inequality in education exists instead because of socio-cultural preference. Using extensive macroeconomic data Dollar & Gatti (1999) show empirically that the level of

of 30 gender inequality relates to the extent and rapidity of economic growth. Countries that invest more in girls education grow quicker than countries that invest less.

Klasen (1999) embeds male bias in education within the paradigm of returns to human capital investment in a very useful way. He argues that, assuming equal innate abilities between boys and girls, an educational bias towards one group is an inefficient allocation of (educational) resources. This bias reduces the returns to human capital investment and thus lowers economic growth. Furthermore, less educated women are less able to engage with the modern marketplace; they do not fulfill their capacity for innovation, nor their potential as cash-wage earners. Such bias may also lower investment because the returns to investment are lower in a country with a lower stock of human capital. An increase in the female-male ratio of growth in schooling from 0.5 to 1.0 would raise the annual growth rate by about 0.4%. (Klasen, 1999).

Gibson (1999) uses national household survey data from PNG to show that an extra year of education for a woman reduces the risk that her child will be stunted by more than three times the effect that an extra year of a father’s education. This is after effects such as household expenditure and price of commodities have been taken into account. Here we see a specific example of how under investment in girls education is having direct and indirect social and productivity costs in a Pacific country.

Various studies have found that high fertility rates are negatively correlated with economic growth. This is significant for our analysis because female education levels are negatively correlated with fertility rates. However, absolute levels of female education are not the only variable in play here - in fact female- male educational ratios are also negatively correlated with fertility rates (Klasen, 1999). A woman's education level directly affects her employment opportunities and increases her choices in terms of how to spend her time. The opportunity costs of a woman's time change with her education level, and as a woman's time becomes more economically valuable because she can now earn a wage, fertility drops.

A woman’s education level and her child’s health are intrinsically linked. This is because a more educated woman knows more about health, nutrition and hygiene and uses that knowledge to the benefit of her children. Female education levels are also negatively correlated with child mortality. (Klasen, 1999)

Less obvious is the relationship between a woman's educational level, employment options and her bargaining power, and how this relates to child mortality. As a woman's educational level and employment opportunities increase she has more bargaining power in the household. Gibson’s (1999) study into child stunting in PNG supports this theory. He found that an extra year of education for a woman reduces the risk that her child will be stunted by more than three times the effect that an extra year of a father’s education has. This supports wider household models that suggest that women are more inclined to spend time and money on children’s health and education than men.

of 30 The plethora of the economic and social costs of gender inequality in education listed above have specific reference to the Pacific. Throughout the Pacific boys outnumber girls in educational attainment, and there is even Pacific-specific evidence of the costs being incurred by this (see Gibson, 1999; Gibson & Rozelle, 2004). All development activities rely on the human capital contained within a country’s most valuable resource – its people. Less educated women cannot take their place as innovative economic agents; less educated women cannot use their knowledge and skills to build better governance structures; less educated women and their families suffer poorer health; the children of less educated women have less education themselves, thus continuing the cycle of poverty and disempowerment.

Land rights The loss of customary land rights under Western legal systems is a concern for many women in the Pacific (Griffen, 2006). Often under customary law women had equal or different rights with men to land and natural resources. When these rights are stripped away through colonisation many women lose status, bargaining power and a source of economic independence. This issue is particularly important not only for gender equality but when considering the promotion of commercial agricultural and natural resource enterprises.

In much of the Pacific the majority of the agricultural work is done by women (see for example ADB, 1998; AusAID, 2006b). Development initiatives throughout the world have suffered because assumptions regarding rights to natural resources were wrongly based on Western norms. Without a recognition of the particular rights systems that operate in different parts of the Pacific gender inequalities will continue to be exacerbated and women will continue to miss out on the benefits of development initiatives.

Research such as MacIntyre (2003), Scheyvens (1997) and AusAID (2006b) show that in many parts of the Pacific women possess roles and knowledge in regards to natural resources that have been largely unnoticed. Without a gendered understanding of people’s relationship with natural resources, projects to improve agricultural productivity, infrastructure etc may not only fail but could worsen inequalities.

However as MacIntyre (2003) points out, simply giving women a seat at the decision- making table may often not be enough. MacIntyre shows that despite the best intentioned actions by a mining company to ensure that women’s views were heard during the development and operation of a gold mine in PNG, the women’s group set up to represent women’s views was constrained by wider gender inequalities. Here again we see the deep interconnectedness of the issues fueling and resulting from gender inequalities in the Pacific.

Health and HIV The health status of women in the Pacific is a major impediment to economic growth, development and poverty reduction (AusAID, 2003b; Avalos, 1995; Germain & Woods, 2005; House, 2000a). Women are suffering from lack of access to health services and social discourses that prevent them from seeking health services where they do exist.

of 30 AusAID (2005) and many others have found that gender inequality in the Pacific, particularly in PNG, is leading to gender-based sexual violence and young women having no control over their sexuality. This is leaving them extremely vulnerable to HIV infection. Furthermore, women are bearing the burden of caring for people ill due to HIV/AIDS.

Despite the well-recognised social embeddedness of HIV epidemics throughout the world, policy makers continue to treat them largely as health issues. Without recognition of the gendered nature of HIV epidemics and a reduction in gender inequality, HIV/AIDS will not be effectively addressed in the Pacific (see for example Seeley & Butcher, 2006).

AusAID (2002) identified the diversion of resources from production and education to dealing with the consequences of a HIV/AIDS epidemic will have a strong negative impact on Papua New Guinea’s economic growth. Considering the gendered nature of the HIV epidemic in PNG, the only way the economic consequences of HIV will be mitigated is if gender inequality is reduced. Not only will resources be directly diverted from development, but the experience of HIV throughout the world shows the reductions in productivity that occur when people are sick, caring for the sick, or caring for the dependents of those who are sick or have died.

AusAID (2002) estimates that under the baseline scenario (no action to prevent the spread of HIV), HIV will potentially cause a reduction in annual GDP growth of PNG reaching 1.3 per cent in 2025. Under the medium response, by 2025 the reduction in annual GDP growth rate is estimated at about 1 per cent and about 0.6 per cent for the high response.

The experience of the feminization of HIV throughout the world coupled with the globally low status of women in the Pacific mean that a gendered approach to a HIV epidemic is essential. AusAID (2002) and UNESCAP (2005) show how gender inequality is fueling and being reinforced by the spread of HIV in the PNG.

Lepani (2005) argues that ignoring the culturally specific nature of sexual activity in the Pacific is leading to ineffective HIV awareness campaigns. An understanding of the way different groups negotiate discussion of sexual relationships is key to this.

Gender equality in the Pacific – what it would look like and how it could be achieved

This section has been left to last, rather than incorporated into the sub-themes because of the highly integrated nature of the manifestations of gender inequality in the Pacific. For example, to address women’s particular vulnerability to HIV/AIDS issues of legal reform, decision-making, violence against women and education must also be addressed. Women’s economic empowerment, and hence enhanced economic growth, development and poverty reduction, will come when these issues are addressed.

Gender equality can only be achieved when it permeates every level and facet of life – individual, family, civil society, State institutions and local, regional and national

of 30 political institutions. Accordingly gender equity initiatives need to target the totality of society from every direction.

Education Gender equity in educational access and outcomes is a means and an end of gender equality. Education does not just mean formal schooling, although this is very important, but extends to building awareness around various issues, vocational training and adult literacy programs.

As discussed above, gender discrimination in access and outcomes in formal primary education is a major impediment to development in the Pacific. Addressing this issue is complex and multifaceted, and requires the motivation and cooperation of many stakeholders – political leaders, government, community leaders, church leaders and parents.

Lack of access to primary and secondary education due to remoteness and/or poverty is an issue that faces both girls and boys in the Pacific. Where children are able to travel to boarding schools facilities often exclude girls. Achieving gender quality, and indeed any development outcome, will require this issue to be addressed. Some of the aspects of this issue include the need for:

 more primary and secondary schools in remote areas  more teachers, particularly female teachers  school environments that value their female students  better teacher training, especially in the different needs of girls and boys  facilities that do not exclude girls ie. separate bathrooms and dormitories  research and statistics on girls in schools, and  gender balance in scholarships

With better educational outcomes girls will be less vulnerable to violence and contracting HIV. They will be better able to negotiate the legal system and their rights as citizens. Educated young women can more easily become involved in decision-making in their community and nation. They will be better able to gain access to productive resources, claim their rights to land, access financial credit, and start businesses.

Law and Justice reform The compliance with agreements such as CEDAW is mixed throughout the Pacific. There is a strong need for legislative reform in many Pacific countries to enshrine gender equality under the law. Reviews of legislation (such as Farran, 2000; Newton, 2000; Stewart, 2006; UNIFEM 2007) have all found legislation that is discriminatory on the basis of gender. They found that laws relating to domestic violence, family law, workplace rights, inheritance, burden of proof in sex crimes, and prostitution just to name a few often take a patriarchal and heterosexist view.

As Farran (2000) states in her analysis of ni-Vanuatu law

of 30 “Most of the examples of discrimination found in the legislation were against women, although not all. Some of this could be quite easily changed by minor drafting amendments, or by cross-reference to the Interpretation Act which provides that ‘words and expressions importing the masculine gender shall include the feminine and vice versa’”

However as she also points out, much of the legal discrimination against women is in the areas of family law, personal status and sexual behaviour and is thus controversial and difficult to reform.

While reforming legislation so that it does not discriminate on the basis of gender is important, it is only one part of the law and justice reform required in many parts of the Pacific. As Loveridge & Kotvojs (2004) and Newton (2000) point out, the response of police to gender-based crime, particularly sexual assault and domestic violence, is a major impediment to women’s access to justice. Changing the attitudes of police is a long and difficult process, because police are individuals informed by the dominate cultural discourse of their setting.

Judiciary reform is also an important issue facing the Pacific. As noted above, the use of traditional (village) court systems to give judicial access individuals, particularly women, who would otherwise not have access is a living experiment in some parts of the Pacific. Debate rages (Garap, 1999; Goddard, 2004) about whether the village court system in Papua New Guinea is in fact promoting or oppressing women’s rights. Such systems hold a lot of potential for many of the justice issues currently faced in the Pacific, and if further development of village court systems is to take place it will only promote the rights of women (and children) if it is explicitly gender sensitive.

Legal literacy projects in the Pacific hold much potential for improving demand for better governance. Women in particular lack legal literacy and as such as disempowered as citizen and decision-makers. Education on areas such as civil rights and CEDAW could be very useful.

Finally the importance of women in peace building negotiations and post-conflict reconstruction has been simultaneously heralded and then ignored. As many conflicts continue in the Pacific, gender sensitive responses would go far to reducing the extra vulnerability and burden placed on women during and post-conflict, and help reduce the likelihood of such conflict reoccurring.

Decision-making Gender equity in decision-making from the community to the national level is a key factor to achieving gender equality. While having women in positions of power will not necessarily mean that women’s concerns are heard or acted upon, it remains an important step.

Initiatives to increase the number of women in decision-making can take many forms. Quotas for female parliamentarians is one obvious affirmative action move, and has been

of 30 quite successful in East Timor. Other possibilities include supporting women candidates and identifying and encouraging potential women leaders. More broadly women need more knowledge about their rights and responsibilities as citizens.

Strengthening of national machineries for women is a key issue facing many women working towards gender mainstreaming in the Pacific. While many governments have a Ministry for Women or similar these are often under staffed and under resourced to perform the policy and legislative advice required to even begin to address gender inequality (SPC, 2005).

Women’s leadership is particularly needed in the areas of health. Women’s health in much of the Pacific is suffering because of a systemic neglect of the health needs of women and the gendered nature of many health issues (see for example ADB, 2005; AusAID, 2003b; Avalos, 1995; House, 2000a; Lukere, 2002; Nath, 2006).

Gender sensitive budgeting also holds potential in the Pacific for addressing some of the issues that require government commitment and resources (SPC, 2005). Sharp (2004) in her comprehensive review of gender budgeting and its manifestations in the Pacific show that it could be a very useful tool for promoting gender equality, economic efficiency and productivity.

Changing attitudes The changing of dominate attitudes about gender roles is the essential means and end of all work to end gender inequality and discrimination. It is arguably the most difficult and the most important aspect. A recognition of the importance of the attitudes of women, men, girls and boys is partly what has driven the progression of thought on gender inequality in development from the ‘women in development’ discourse, to the ‘gender and development’ discourse and now to ‘gender mainstreaming’.

A key recognition is the importance of engaging with men, boys and the masculine identities that they negotiate throughout their lives (Laverack & Gould, 2005; MacIntyre, 2000). Laverack & Gould (2005) evaluated men’s awareness programs in Fiji and found that while they were ad hoc and needed expansion, were quite effective at transforming attitudes.

The potential of women’s church groups for raising the profile of the concerns of their members and working to change attitudes regarding gender is another such avenue for social transformation in the Pacific (AusAID, 2005b). However, Douglas (2003) warns that placing too many expectations on such groups will in fact increase the burden born by women. Furthermore, Jalal (2000) argues that women’s organisations are prone, like any organization, to polarize on ethnic or racial lines if these issues become prominent more broadly.

Changing the attitudes of development practitioners is also essential to addressing gender inequality. The discussion above is littered with examples of how gender blind development projects can not only exclude women but actually increase gender

of 30 inequality. The ADB’s (2006) country gender assessment of PNG found that its own projects have contributed to gender inequality. It aargues for a gendered perspective to be included at all levels and all stages of the project, from design, to implementation and reporting. Also suggests projects that specifically promote gender equality. Similarly, Aswani & Weiant (2004) and Scheyvens (1997) find that gender must be integrated into development projects at all stages, particularly in the very early concept phase. SPC’s (1999) study of fisheries infrastructure in Palau shows how projects that may not appear to need to integrate gender can be quite detrimental if they do not.

of 30 Annotated Bibliography

1. ADB (1998) Country Briefing Paper Women in Tonga, http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/Country_Briefing_Papers/Women_in_Tong a/default.asp?p=gender Outlines the importance of the subsistence sector and women’s importance to this sector. Points out that while women have traditionally been socially advantaged the influences of Christianity and a globalising economy are making times harder for women. Identifies the importance of a gender-sensitive perspective in addressing all of Tonga’s development challenges. 2. ADB (2001) ‘Microfinance’ in Financial Sector Development in the Pacific Developing Member Countries: The Regional, chapter 6. http://www.microfinance- pasifika.org/Documents/Publications/ADB_regional_FS_review_re_MF.pdf 3. ADB (2003) Technical Assistance to Papua New Guinea for Preparing the Gender and Population Project, http://www.adb.org/Documents/TARs/PNG/r14_02.pdf Outlines an ADB technical assistance program to PNG in relation to increasing the status of women in society, understanding the links between women’s status and rapid population growth, and improving PNG’s capacity to produce timely, accurate and useful population data. 4. ADB (2004) Swimming Against the Tide? An Assessment of the Private Sector in the Pacific, by Holden, Bale & Holden, http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/Swimming_Against_Tide/swimming_agains t_tide.pdf 5. ADB (2005) Country Gender Assessment Timor-Leste, http://www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/Country-Gender-Assessments/tim.asp Timor-Leste is one of the world’s poorest countries. Women are overrepresented in the indicators that demonstrate this poverty. Literacy and health indicators are lower for women compared to men. The education system is failing to keep girls in school. Maternal mortality is a major problem. Mental health issues are an issue resulting from violence perpetrated against women during the occupation, and the prevalence of domestic violence. Gains have been made in women in governance positions both due to the role women are playing in nation-building and affirmative action initiatives by the government. 6. ADB (2006) Country Gender Assessment Papua New Guinea, http://www.adb.org/Documents/CSPs/PNG/2006/default.asp Identifies severe gender inequalities in all facets of PNG society, names gender- based violence as the worst manifestation of this inequality. Points out that the ADB’s own projects have been gender-blind to the detriment of their success. Argues for a gendered perspective to be included at all levels and all stages of the project, from design, to implementation and reporting. Also suggests projects that specifically promote gender equality. 7. Adinkrah, M (2001) ‘Patriarchal family ideology and female homicide victimization in Fiji’ in Journal of Comparative Family Studies, vol. 34, no. 2, Spring 2001, http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=302&cfc=1 Outlines the patriarchal social system of the Fiji Islands and explores the extent and

of 30 nature of Femicide in Fiji. Concludes that Femicide can be attributed to a dominant paradigm that promotes gender stratification and inequality. 8. Ali, S (2006) Violence against the girl child in the Pacific Islands region, United Nations Division for the advancement of Women (DAW) in collaboration with UNICEF, Expert Group Meeting on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination and violence against the girl child, Florence, Italy, 25-28 September 2006, http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/elim-disc-viol- girlchild/ExpertPapers/EP.14%20%20Ali.pdf Provides an overview of the Pacific region in terms of population and socio-cultural trends and traits. The status of the girl child is discussed. Discusses various socio- economic factors that are contributing to raising rates of violence against the girl child. 9. Allen, K & Hakena, H (2006) Policing for women in Papua New Guinea, Australasian Council of Women and Policing, http://www.iwda.org.au/wp/wp- content/uploads/2006/09/iwda_acwap_paper.pdf Argues that systemic gender bias in the Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary is resulting in a failure to protect women from violence, particularly domestic violence. Sites some positive initiatives but calls for broader cultural change towards gender equality. 10. Appleford, G (2000) ‘Women’s Groups for whom? The colonisation of women’s groups in Papua New Guinea’ in Development in Practice, vol. 10, no. 1, February 2000, http://ejournals.ebsco.com/Home.asp Argues that the current characteristics of women’s groups in PNG actually reinforce the discriminatory social structures that prompted their development. They serve to pay service to the WID development agenda but not even begin to challenge women’s subordinate position. 11. Aswani, S & Weiant, P (2004) ‘Scientific Evaluation in Women’s Participatory Management: Monitoring Marine Invertebrate Refugia in the Solomon Islands’ in Human Organization, vol. 63, no. 3, Fall 2004, http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3800/is_200410/ai_n9419316/pg_1 Describes and analyses a successful community marine conservation project in the Solomon Islands. Argues that the success of the project was due to high levels of community leadership and ownership, a marrying of traditional and scientific ecological knowledge, and the development of tangible economic incentives. 12. AusAID (2002) Potential economic impacts of an HIV/AIDS epidemic in Papua New Guinea, February 2002, http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/hivaids_png.pdf Identifies the diversion of resources from production and education to dealing with the consequences of a HIV/AIDS epidemic will have a strong negative impact on Papua New Guinea’s economic growth. Identifies a significant gender dimension to the epidemic. Gender inequality is fueling and being reinforced by the increase in HIV infection rates. 13. AusAID (2003a) Small Arms in the Pacific, March 2003, http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/small_arms_survey.pdf Discusses the prevalence of small arms violence in the Pacific. Argues that women and young people bear the brunt of this violence. The proliferation of small arms is

of 30 turning internal tensions deadly. Gender-based violence is a serious problem. Argues that including women in peace negotiations and disarmament agreements is crucial and has been dismally neglected. 14. AusAID (2003b) Youth in Solomon Islands: A participatory study of issues, needs and priorities, http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/youth_research_report.pdf Discusses the perceptions of young Solomon Islanders on what they see as the most important issues they face. Data was disaggregated by age group and gender. Common issues were identified by both women and men, although young women identified educational attainment and access to health services as important to them. 15. AusAID (2005a) Evaluation of the PNG National HIV/AIDS Support Project, December 2005, http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/nhasp_evaluation.pdf A review of the PNG National HIV/AIDS Support Project. Found that gender inequality and gender-based sexual violence left young women particularly vulnerable to HIV infection. Found that women bear the burden of caring for ill people. Idetnfiied that while women were key players in responding to the HIV epidemic they are noticeably absent from decision-making. Identifies the issue of dangerous masculinities as a neglected issue that lumps more responsibility on women for the epidemic. 16. AusAID (2005b) Ringing the church bell, January 2005, http://www.ausaid.gov.au/research/pdf/ringing_church_bell.pdf Describes the pivotal role churches play in Papua New Guinean society. Serving several functions, they are an integral part of civil society. Church women’s groups are an important site for the empowerment of women and the consciousness raising of issues affecting women. 17. AusAID (2006a) Impacts of HIV/AIDS 2005-2025 in Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor, February 2006, http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/impacts_hiv.pdf Models the growth in HIV infection rates until 2025 udner different scenarios. Outlines the potential economic and social impacts. Discusses the engendered nature of HIV infection in the Asia-Pacific. Argues that gender inequality is leading to violence against women and powerlessness that result in the proliferation of the epidemic. Identifies married women who are faithful to their husbands, but whose husbands are not faithful to them, as a high risk group that poses significant challenges for intervention. 18. AusAID (2006b) Solomon Islands Smallholder Agriculture Study, January 2006, http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/solomon_study_vol1.pdf An agricultural study that is gender aware. Recognizes the contribution of women to production. Discusses the importance of being gender sensitive when designing policy. Points out the potential for improving results by engaging with women’s organizations. 19. Avalos, B (1995) ‘Women and development’ in Pacific Economic Bulletin, vol. 10, no. 1, http://peb.anu.edu.au/pdf/PEB10-1avalos.pdf Slightly out of date overview of indicators of women’s status in Papua New Guinea regarding health, education, employment and decision making. Gives brief reasons for women’s relative inequality in these areas.

of 30 20. Bhagwan Rolls, S (2001) ‘femTALK: Young women’s perspectives from the Fiji Islands’ in Development Bulletin, no. 56, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/GenderPacific/index.html Collection of quotes from four young, literate, educated and employed Fijian women, talking about issues facing Fijian women today. 21. Booth, H (1999) Gender, Power and Social Change: Youth Suicide Among Fiji Indians and Western Samoans, Gender Relations Center, The Australian National University, Working Paper No. 5, http://rspas.anu.edu.au/grc/publications/pdfs/WP_5_Booth.pdf Investigates the globally unusual gender ratios in suicide rates amongst Fiji Indians and Western Samoans. Identifies social change interacting with gender and power to explain these unusual gender ratios. 22. Byford, J & Guanara, G (2002) ‘Gender and microfinance in Bougainville: A case study’ in Development Bulletin, no. 57, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/GenderPacific/index.html Describes a series of microfinance and gender workshops attended by women and men in Bougainville. Identifies the differential status of women and men in Bouganvillian society. Pinpoints the participation of men in the gender projects as a key factor that contributed to their success. 23. Carswell, S (2003) ‘A family business: Women, children and smallholder sugar cane farming in Fiji’ in Asia Pacific Viewpoint, vol. 44, no. 2, August 2003, http://ejournals.ebsco.com/Home.asp Challenges the notion of the household as the primary economic unit in the context of sugar cane growers in Fiji. Explores the gendered and generational division of labor in smallholder farms. Argues that trade liberalization will have devastating effects on already stretched women. 24. Conroy, J (2000) ‘Papua New Guinea’ in The Role of Central Banks in Microfinance in Asia and the Pacific: Vol. 2, Country Studies, chapter 8, http://www.microfinance- pasifika.org/Documents/Publications/ADB_Role_of_Central_Banks_PNG.pdf 25. Corner, L (1996) ‘Mainstreaming: The Pacific experience’ in Development Bulletin, no. 36, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/GenderPacific/index.html Records the experience of two successive UNIFEM mainstreaming projects in four Pacific Island countries. Found that mainstreaming projects are most effective when ‘owned’ by the target organization, managed at the national level and complimented by grassroots empowerment. 26. Corner, L (2004) ‘Women transforming the mainstream – a think piece’ in Development Bulletin, no. 64, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/GenderPacific/index.html Argues that the problem with past and present discourses on gender mainstreaming is that they do not seek to change the mainstream, but simply incorporate women and their concerns into it. Corner outlines a new vision for gender mainstreaming that seeks to transform the mainstream as a prerequisite for the realisation of women’s rights. 27. Das Pradhan, R (2000) ‘Engendering good governance in practice’ in Development Bulletin, no. 51, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/GenderPacific/index.html Discusses the incorporation of gender into governance policies. Argues that a lack

of 30 of gender awareness in governance development work is leading to sub-optimal outcomes. 28. Dickson-Waiko, A (2003) ‘The Missing Rib: Mobilizing Church Women for Change in Papua New Guinea’ in Oceania, vol. 74, no. ½, Sep-Dec 2003, http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=302&cfc=1 Explores women’s church groups as an ignored site of indigenous feminism in Papua New Guinea and other parts of Melanesia. 29. Dinnen, S & Thompson, E (2004) ‘Gender and Small Arms Violence in Papua New Guinea’ in State, Society and Governance in Melanesia, Discussion Paper 2004/8, http://rspas.anu.edu.au/papers/melanesia/discussion_papers/04_08_dp_dinnenthom pson.pdf Outlines and explores the nature of gun violence in Papua New Guinea. Argues that the proliferation of guns in PNG is exasperating women’s already subordinate status in a period of intense socio-cultural change. Explores the experience of women in the proliferation of violence and armed weapons. Also highlights the role women have and can play in peace building. 30. Donald, I, Strachan, J, & Taleo, H (2002) ‘Slo slo: increasing women’s representation in parliament in Vanuatu’ in Development Bulletin, No. 59, October 2002, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/db59pdfs.php Describes the issues that constrain women’s election to the Vanuatu Parliament and outlines efforts taken by the Department of Women’s Affairs in partnership with NGOs to increase the number and profile of women candidates. Argues that strong community support and being nominated by a political party rather than standing as an independent are vital the success of a woman candidate. 31. Douglas, B (2003) ‘Christianity, Tradition, and Everyday Modernity: Towards an Anatomy of Women’s Groupings in Melanesia’ in Oceania, vol. 74, no. ½, Sep-Dec 2003, http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=302&cfc=1 Argues that women’s groups in Melanesia are being idealized as the solution to all of Melanesia’s social and development challenges. Points out that the impressive but modest successes of these women’s groups will be stifled if too many expectations are placed upon them. 32. Durnan, D (2006) ‘Women’s empowerment in Timor-Leste: A popular education approach’ in Development Bulletin, no. 71, September 2006 Describes popular education initiatives in Timor-Leste and argues that they are an effective model for engaging women in an adult education setting. Argues that these initiatives have been successful in empowering women on significant and complex issues when peace, security and democracy remain fragile. 33. Fairbairn-Dunlop, P (????) ‘Gender, culture and sustainable development – the Pacific way’ in Culture and sustainable development in the Pacific, ed. Anthony Hooper, ANU E Press, Canberra, Chapter 4, http://epress.anu.edu.au/culture_sustainable/ch04.pdf 34. Farran, S (2000) ‘Gender discrimination: A review of legislation in Vanuatu’ in Development Bulletin, no. 51, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/GenderPacific/index.html A preliminary review of Vanuatu law in relation to gender equality. Found that the main areas in which discrimination on the basis of gender was found to exist were:

of 30 marriage and the family; citizenship and nationality; employment and labour; and sexual offences. 35. Fraenkel, J (2006) ‘The Impact of Electoral Systems on Women’s Representation in Pacific Parliaments’ in A Woman’s Place is in the House – the House of Parliament, Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat Examines the negative impact the structure of some electoral systems has on women candidates potential for success. Evaluates the potential for different initiatives to get more women in Pacific parliaments. 36. Friesen, H et al (1999) ‘Protection of breastfeeding in Papua New Guinea’ in World Health Organisaion. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol. 77, no. 3, http://www.who.int/docstore/bulletin/pdf/issue3/bu3226.pdf Outlines the factors influencing the rise in bottle feeding of in Papua New Guinea. Argues for governance initiatives to improve women’s access to their legislated right to breastfeed at work. 37. Garap, S (1999) ‘The struggles of women and girls in Simbu Province’ in Development Bulletin, No. 50, October 1999, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/db50pdfs.php

Outlines the situation for women and children in Papua New Guinea. Argues that the village court system is systematically discriminating against women and contributing to their disempowerment. 38. Garap, S (2004) ‘Kup Women For Peace: Women Taking Action to Build Peace and Influence Community Decision-Making’ in State, Society and Governance in Melanesia, Discussion Paper 2004/4, http://rspas.anu.edu.au/papers/melanesia/discussion_papers/04_04_dp_garap.pdf Describes the activities of the Kup Women For Peace movement in the Kup province on PNG that is being devastated by tribal fighting. Broadens the argument to a discussion of the importance of community driven governance and development initiatives and the importance of women in peace-building, post- conflict discussions and development projects generally. 39. Geissinger, H (1997) ‘Girl’s access to education in a developing country’ in Compare, vol. 27, no. 3, Oct 1997 Outlines the obstacles to girls’ educational attainment in PNG. Sites lack of access to education and socio-cultural issues as the factors influencing the poor educational attainment of girls. 40. Germain, A & Woods, Z (2005) ‘Women’s Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights: A key to ending HIV/AIDS’ in Development, vol. 48, no. 4, http://ejournals.ebsco.com/Article.asp?ContributionID=8085094 A brief outline of the current situation influencing the feminization of the global HIV/AIDS epidemic. Argues that gender inequality and policy maker’s ignorance towards it, are the driving forces behind the feminization of the epidemic. 41. Gibson, J (1999) ‘How can women's education aid economic development? The effect on child stunting in Papua New Guinea’ in Pacific economic Bulletin, vol. 14, no. 2, http://wms- soros.mngt.waikato.ac.nz/Research+Website/Research+Publications/Staff+List+Pu blications?uniid=50581 Analyses national household survey data in Papua New Guinea to estimate the

of 30 effect of mothers and fathers education attainment levels on child stunting. Finds that an extra year of education for a woman reduces the risk that her child will be stunted by more than three times the effect that an extra year of a father’s education has. Argues that the under-investment in girls education will have social and productivity costs for Papua New Guinea long into the future. 42. Gibson, J (2000) ‘Who’s not in school? Economic Barriers to Universal Primary Education in Papua New Guinea’ in Pacific Economic Bulletin, vol. 15, no. 2, http://www.econ.canterbury.ac.nz/personal_pages/john_gibson/pdf_files/Published/ SchoolEnrolments.pdf Analyses national household survey data in Papua New Guinea to estimate the barriers to universal primary education. Finds that household income, parental educational attainment and availability of school facilities. Hypothesizes that the status of women in difference provinces may account for the gender-stratified differences in primary enrollments unexplained by the other observed characteristics. 43. Gibson, J & Rozelle, S (2004) ‘Is it Better to be a Boy? A Disaggregated Outlay equivalent Analysis of Gender Bias in Papua New Guinea’ in The Journal of Development Studies, vol. 40, no. 4, April 2004, http://ejournals.ebsco.com/Home.asp Uses an outlay-equivalent ratio model to map gender discrimination in Papua New Guinea. Found that gender discrimination in the allocation of household resources is most prevalent in rural areas. Hypotheses that when resources are controlled by women there is less gender discrimination. Cannot account for gender discrimination on the basis of the value of agricultural labor. Argues that it is due to socio-cultural factors. 44. Goddard, M (2004) ‘Women in Papua New Guinea’s Village Courts’ in State, Society and Governance in Melanesia, Discussion Paper 2004/3, http://rspas.anu.edu.au/papers/melanesia/discussion_papers/04_03_dp_goddard.pdf Argues that much conventional wisdom on the status of women in Papua New Guinean village courts has been based on the unsubstantiated assumption that village court judges would be applying misogynist traditions. Instead suggests that in courts that were reviewed, women were in fact actively and positively using the village court system as an avenue to justice that they otherwise lacked. Found that they were not generally discriminated against. 45. Goddard, M (2005) ‘Research and Rhetoric on Women in Papua New Guinea’s Village Courts’ in Oceania, vol. 75, no. 3, Mar-Jun 2005, http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=302&cfc=1 As above. 46. Griffen, V (2006) ‘Local and Global Women’s Rights in the Pacific’ in Development vol. 49, no. 1, http://ejournals.ebsco.com/Home.asp Outlines the issues highlighted by Pacific women at the AWID forum. Identifies these issues: violence against women, the persecution women suffer in armed conflict, the role women have in peace building, lack of input into decisions effecting finite natural resources, lack of women decision-makers on national economic issues, loss of customary land rights under Western law, and corruption. Argues that these issues are often situated within a wider global context.

of 30 47. Guttenbeil-Likiliki, ‘O (2006) ‘Advancing Women’s Representation in Tonga’ in A Woman’s Place is in the House – the House of Parliament, Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat Analyses the structural, institutional and attitudinal issues constraining Tongan women from entering Parliament. 48. Hakena, H (2000) ‘Strengthening communities for peace in Bougainville’ in Development Bulletin, no. 53, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/GenderPacific/index.html Outlines some initiatives to promote the status of women and peace in Bougainville. Highlights the way women have suffered due to the conflict and their currently underutilized role in attaining and maintaining peace. 49. Harrington, C (2004) ‘‘Marriage’ to capital: the fallback positions of Fiji’s women garment workers’ in Development in Practice, vol. 14, no. 4, June 2004, http://ejournals.ebsco.com/Home.asp Outlines ways to increase the bargaining power of women garment workers in Fiji in a climate of high capital mobility. Argues for strengthening their support from NGOs, their collective assets and other income-generating means. Contextualizes her own argument as reformist rather than the preferred transformative agenda. 50. Huffer, E (2004) Review of institutional mechanisms, policies, legislation and programmes in support and promotion of gender equality in the republic of Marshall Islands, Samoa and Fiji, Research paper prepared for the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and presented during the Ninth Triennial Conference of Pacific Women, Nadi, Fiji, 16-19 August 2004 51. Hopkos, T (2000) ‘The Ambunti District Council for Women: achievements and problems’ in Development Bulletin, no. 51, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/GenderPacific/index.html Describes the activities of the Ambunti District Council for Women as of 2000. Identifies lack of funding as the major obstacle to increasing the capacity of this successful grassroots women’s organization. Written by the President of the Ambunti District Council for Women. 52. Horan , J(2002) ‘Indigenous wealth and development: micro-credit schemes in Tonga’ in Asia Pacific Viewpoint, vol. 43, no. 2, August 2002, http://ejournals.ebsco.com/Home.asp Argues that a micro-credit scheme in Tonga that has been deemed a failure (despite low default rates on loans) actually contributed to development and the empowerment of women by increasing their capacity to undertake activities within the Indigenous economy. Argues that the narrow definitions offered by macroeconomic theory are blind to the success of the project for the women involved, and thriving indigenous economies worldwide. 53. House, W (2000a) ‘ICPD goals and thresholds: How well have the Pacific Island countries performed?’ in Development Bulletin, no. 51, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/GenderPacific/index.html Outlines the progress made in the Pacific towards ICPD goals of gender equality and women’s health. Argues that while modest improvements have been made true change will only come with increased and innovative political will, and increased global (financial) support.

of 30 54. House, W (2000b) Women’s Labour Market Status in Fiji: Are They Subjected to Discrimination?, UNFPA Country Support Team, Office for the South Pacific, Discussion Paper No. 23 A statistical analysis that looks at women’s labour market status in Fiji. Finds that from 1986-1996 women’s labour market share had increased from 21% to 33% but many remained unemployed in the formal sector. Women working in the formal sector earned, on average, considerably less than men and the majority were in low paid jobs with little possibility for advancement. 55. Huffer, E (2006) ‘Desk Review of the Factors Which Enable and Constrain the Advancement of Women’s Political Representation in Forum Island Countries’ in A Woman’s Place is in the House – the House of Parliament, Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat Finds the factors enabling women’s representation in Pacific parliaments are: non- discrimination against women in decision-making, gender equality under the constitution and affirmative action initiatives, traditional status of women as decision makers, and a stock of well educated women leaders in other fields. Find the factors constraining women’s representation in Pacific parliaments are: equality of opportunity is seen as the same as equality of outcomes, a conservative and patriarchal culture, discrimination in education and women are not economically empowered, and a political culture that excludes women. 56. Hung, S & Petersen, L (2006) ‘Striving to measure improved gender equality and the empowerment of women in the Pacific’ in Development Bulletin, no. 71, September 2006 Outlines the status and challenges to measuring gender (in)equality in the Pacific. 57. Ironmonger, D & Hill, H (1998) Women’s economic participation in five Pacific island countries, International Development Issues No. 50, AusAID, Canberra. 58. Jalal, P (1998) Law for Pacific Women, Fiji Women’s Rights Movement Suva, Fiji A comprehensive description and discussion of the legal status of women in the Pacific. Explores the development and application of law and women in the Pacific. Explores the intersection between custom and Western law. 59. Jalal, P (2002) ‘Gender and race in post coup d’etat Fiji: snapshops from the Fiji Islands’ in Development Bulletin, No. 59, October 2002, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/db59pdfs.php Describes the intersection between gender and race in Fiji that is a major challenge to Fijian women’s organizations that can be easily polarized on racial terms. Argues that despite this hurdle Fijian women’s organizations have made considerable progress promoting the rights of women and democracy. 60. JICA (2002) County WID Profile Papua New Guinea, http://www.jica.go.jp/english/global/wid/report/pdf/e02png.pdf Comprehensive quantitative and qualitative overview of the status of women in Papua New Guinea. 61. JICA (2005) Samoa: Country Gender Profile, http://www.jica.go.jp/english/global/gend/back/pdf/e05sam.pdf } Comprehensive quantitative and qualitative overview of the status of women in Samoa.

of 30 62. JICA (2006) Vanuatu: Country Profile on Gender, http://www.jica.go.jp/english/global/gend/back/pdf/e06van.pdf Comprehensive quantitative and qualitative overview of the status of women in Vanuatu. 63. Jolly, M (2000a) ‘Depopulation; Family, Gender; Culture, Kastom, Tradition’ Entries in B.V. Lal and K. Fortune (eds) The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia, University of Hawai’i Press, Honolulu. 64. Jolly, M (2000b) Woman Ikat Raet Long Human Raet O No? Women’s Rights, Human Rights and Domestic Violence in Vanuatu. In A.-M. Hilsdon, M. Macintyre, V. Mackie and M. Stivens (eds) Human Rights and Gender Politics: Asia-Pacific Perspectives, Routledge, London and New York, 124-46. Updated and expanded version of article first published in Feminist Review vol. 52 (1996). 65. Jolly, M & Lukere, V (eds) (2002) Birthing in the Pacific: Beyond Tradition and Modernity?, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu This collection explores birthing in the Pacific against the background of debates about tradition and modernity. The difficulties entailed confront public health programs concerned with practical issues of infant and maternal survival in developing countries as well as scholarly analyses of birthing in cross-cultural contexts. 66. Jolly, M (2003a) ‘Epilogue. In B. Douglas (ed.) Women's Groups and Everyday Modernity in Melanesia. Oceania (Special Issue) 74(1&2). 67. Jolly, M (2003b) ‘Epilogue – Some Thoughts on Restorative Justice and Gender’ in S. Dinnen (ed.) A Kind of Mending: Restorative Justice in the Pacific Islands, Pandanus Books, Canberra, 265-74. 68. Jolly, M (2005) ‘Beyond the Horizon? Nationalisms, Feminisms, and Globalization in the Pacific’ in M. Kaplan (ed.) Outside Gods: History Making in the Pacific. Ethnohistory (Special Issue) vol. 52, no. 1. 69. King, S & Mascie-Taylore, C (2002) ‘Nutritional Status of Children from Papua New Guinea: Associations with Socioeconomic Factors’ in American Journal of Human Biology, vol. 14, http://www3.interscience.wiley.com.virtual.anu.edu.au/cgi- bin/fulltext/98016131/PDFSTART This study finds malnutrition and/or stunting in 62% of children living near Kanabea, Papua New Guinea. Identifies the educational level of the mother as the main factor influencing child malnutrition. Hypothesizes that this correction may be due to access to cash. 70. Kofe, S & Taomia, F (2006) ‘Advancing Women’s Representation in Tuvalu’ in A Woman’s Place is in the House – the House of Parliament, Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat Analyses the issues constraining women’s political representation in Tuvalu’s Parliament. Identifies attitudinal issues as the major constraint. 71. Korare, D (2002) ‘Gender and perceptions of political power in Papua New Guinea’ in Development Bulletin, No. 59, October 2002, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/db59pdfs.php Argues that there is growing discontentment among Papua New Guineans in general and Papua New Guinean women in particular about the perversion of the

of 30 ‘it’s tradition’ argument to the detriment of women’s status and democracy in general. Explores the different ways in which Papua New Guinean women striving for their rights contextualize their struggle within broader political frameworks. 72. Lackshman, C (2004) Emerging Issue: HIV/AIDS and Women in the Pacific Island countries and territories, Research paper prepared for the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and presented during the Ninth Triennial Conference of Pacific Women, Nadi, Fiji, 16-19 August 2004 73. Lauti, A & Fraenkel, J (2006) ‘Developing a More Facilitating Environment for Women’s Political Representation in Nauru’ in A Woman’s Place is in the House – the House of Parliament, Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat Analyses the structural and attitudinal issues constraining women from entering Parliament in Nauru. Makes recommendations. 74. Laverack, G & Gould, K (FPAID) (2005) Male Involvement in Reproductive Health: An Assessment of the Behaviour Change Effectiveness of Information, Education and Communication, FPAID, October 2005, http://www.fpaid.org.nz/SITE_Default/SITE_fpaid/SITE_resources/x- files/21156.pdf Evaluates the techniques used to inform, education and communicate with men regarding family planning and men’s and women’s reproductive health issues. Found that while techniques used so far in Fiji have been successful, a more strategic plan of implementation would provide even more benefits. 75. Lepani, K (2005) Everything has come up to the open space: Talking about sex in an epidemic, Gender Relations Center, The Australian National University, Working Paper No.15, http://rspas.anu.edu.au/grc/publications/pdfs/WPS_15_Lepani.pdf Describes the nature of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Papua New Guinea. Argues that ignoring the culturally specific nature of sexual activity is leading to ineffective HIV awareness campaigns. 76. Leslie, H (2002) ‘Gendering conflict and conflict management in the Solomon Islands’ in Development Bulletin, No. 60, September 2002, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/db60pdfs.php Argues that women have been left out of the official Solomon Islands peace process and more broadly post-conflict development activities. This is despite the fact that women have borne the burden of conflict in the Solomon Islands, have been instrumental to the peace process and current development discourse emphasises the importance of women in development and post-conflict projects. 77. Leslie, H & Boso, S (2003) ‘Gender-related violence in the Solomon Islands: The work of local women’s organisations’ in Asia Pacific Viewpoint, vol. 44, no. 3, December 2003, http://ejournals.ebsco.com/Home.asp Outlines the trauma suffered by women during the Solomon Islands conflict. Argues that the lasting effects of this trauma are a major development challenge currently being ignored by the Solomon Islands government and international aid donors. Highlights the under resourced and largely unrecognized work of women’s organizations working to heal the wounds of war.

of 30 78. Lewin, K (2002) ‘Microfinance in the Pacific – mipela katim bus! The experience of Putim na Misim’, in Development Bulletin, no. 57, http://www.microfinance- pasifika.org/Documents/Publications/PNG_Putim_na_Kisim.pdf 79. Loveridge, D & Kotvojs, F, (2004) ‘Gender mainstreaming in the Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary’ in Development Bulletin, no. 64, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/GenderPacific/index.html Outlines a gender mainstreaming project in the PNG police force. Identifies several positive initiatives but argues that ingrained gender bias is difficult to overcome. 80. Lukere, V (2004) ‘AIDS and the burden of care: Mainstreaming gender or ‘main- themeing’ women?’ in Development Bulletin, no.64, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/GenderPacific/index.html Highlights the relatively unrecognized issue of the fact that the burden of care of people sick with AIDS falls primarily upon women. Argues that this issue is largely ignored because it is the most cost effective method of caring for AIDS patients and because it is a very difficult issue to deal with politically and practically. 81. Lukere, V (2002) Gender, Women and Mothers: HIV/AIDS in the Pacific, Gender Relations Center, The Australian National University, Working Paper No. 7, http://rspas.anu.edu.au/grc/publications/pdfs/LukereHIV.pdf A gender ethnographic overview of the HIV epidemic in the Pacific and particularly Papua New Guinea. Challenges dominant health discourses that reduce women to simply reproductive machines, dramatize the epidemic to Armageddon proportions and oversimplifies and homogenizes masculinity. 82. MacDonald, I & Rowland, C (2002) Tunnel Vision: Women, Mining and Communities, Oxfam Community Aid Abroad, November 2002, http://www.oxfam.org.au/campaigns/mining/women/tunnelvisionreport.pdf A collection of articles on large mining projects and the women that are affected by them. Two articles on Papua New Guinean mines analyse the way women have been left out of decision-making and consequently suffered reductions in status and quality of life. Argues that mining companies have an ethical imperative to involve women in decision-making despite men’s cries that it is against PNG custom. 83. MacIntyre, M (2000) ‘Violence and peacemaking in Papua New Guinea: A realistic assessment of the social and cultural issues at grassroots level’ in Development Bulletin, No. 53, November 2000, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/db53pdfs.php A think piece on violence in PNG from womens’ perspective. Outlines the issues of domestic violence, sexual assault and rape, and tribal warfare. Argues that while women have been recognized as peacemakers, the real problem lies in their overall political and social voicelessness. Argues that all these types of violence will only be effectively addressed if gender inequality is reduced and the violent and dominating behaviour of men is changed. 84. MacIntyre, M (2003) ‘Petztorme Women: Responding to Change in Lihir, Papua New Guinea’ in Oceania, vol 74, no. ½, Sep-Dec 2003 Outlines the way women have been excluded from decision-making regarding a mine project in PNG. Examines a women’s organization set up by the mining company to facilitate women’s political voice and uses this to explore the tensions that more generally constrain women’s organizations and women’s income-

of 30 generating projects in PNG. Identifies culturally inappropriate models of women’s organization as a key problem. 85. Malua, M (2004) Globalisation and trade and the impact on Pacific women, Research paper prepared for the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and presented during the Ninth Triennial Conference of Pacific Women, Nadi, Fiji, 16-19 August 2004 86. McGuire (2000) ‘Vanuatu’ in The Role of Central Banks in Microfinance in Asia and the Pacific: Vol. 2, Country Studies, Chapter 11, http://www.microfinance- pasifika.org/Documents/Publications/Role_of_central_bank_vanuatu.pdf 87. McLeod, A (2002) ‘Where are the women in Simbu politics?’ in Development Bulletin, No. 59, October 2002, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/db59pdfs.php Argues that women in Simbu province PNG, despite their absence from holders of national parliamentary seats, are in fact engaged in national and local politics at the grassroots level. This grassroots political participation must be recognized and encouraged. Contradicts the image of Melanesian women as apolitical and dominated by men. 88. McMurray, C (2002) ‘Population dynamics and development in the Pacific: Making the connection’ in Development Bulletin, No. 60, September 2002, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/db60pdfs.php States that population growth in the Pacific will create a massive imbalance between population and resources by 2025 if fertility does not decline. Argues that non-declining fertility rates, as opposed to the usual decline that accompanies development, are due to almost exclusively urbanised economic development initiatives. Calls for a more innovate development approach that fosters rural livelihoods and education. 89. Mitchell, S (2004) ‘What lies at the heart of the failure of gender mainstreaming: The strategy or the implementation?’ in Development Bulletin, no. 64, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/GenderPacific/index.html Argues that the ‘failure’ of gender mainstreaming, particularly in the UN, has been due to a lot of talk and not much action. 90. Nath, M (2006) ‘A gendered response to HIV/AIDS in South Asia and the Pacific: insights from the pandemic in Africa’ in Gender & Development, vol. 14, no. 1, March 2006, http://weblib.ausaid.gov.au:12593/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=? &profile=ausaid&menu=search&submenu=power&ts=?#focus Uses the experience of Africa to inform discussion about the HIV pandemic in Asia and the Pacific. Situates HIV within a broader development framework, rather than just simply seeing it as a health issue. Provides a gendered analysis of HIV in development and identifies gender inequality and the care burden women face as key issues that must be addressed if the devastation of HIV in Asia and the Pacific is to be mitigated. 91. Newton, T (2000) ‘The differential impact of the criminal law on males and females in Pacific Island jurisdictions’ in Development Bulletin, no. 51, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/GenderPacific/index.html Examines the status of women under Pacific Island law. Identifies discriminatory laws particularly in regard to sexual offences and prostitution. Also identifies social and cultural barriers to women’s full access to their legal rights, such as police

of 30 attitudes towards domestic violence. Argues that while law reform is essential women will only have legal equality when broader gender inequality is addressed. 92. Overfield, D (1998) ‘An investigation of the household economy: Coffee production and gender relations in Papua New Guinea’ in The Journal of Development Studies, vol. 34, no. 5, June 1998, http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb? RQT=302&cfc=1 Argues that gender inequality within the household is creating a market failure. This market failure is creating incentives for women to invest in less productive and efficient economic activities. 93. Paina, D (2000) ‘Peacemaking in Solomon Islands: The experience of the Guadalcanal Women for Peace movement’ in Development Bulletin, No. 53, November 2000, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/db53pdfs.php Outlines the work of the Guadalcanal Women for Peace movement. Argues that the conflict in the Solomon Islands has been very damaging for women and that a lasting peace will require women’s involvement and a reduction in gender inequality. 94. Phillpot, R (2002) ‘Provincial performance and social capital in Papua New Guinea’ in Development Bulletin, No. 60, September 2002, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/db60pdfs.php Argues that the difference in performance between provinces in PNG can be partly explained by a social capital argument. Uses statistical analysis to identify a) a fairly strong association between the number of women’s organisations present in a jurisdiction and government performance; and b) a strong association between the number of women in local politics and provincial development. 95. Pollard, A (2000a) Givers of Wisdom, Labourers Without Gain, ed: Anthony R. Walker, Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, Suva, FIJI. A comprehensive overview of the status of, and issues facing, women in the Solomon Islands. 96. Pollard, A (2000b) ‘Resolving conflict in Solomon Islands: The Women for Peace approach’ in Development Bulletin, No. 53, November 2000, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/db53pdfs.php Discusses the activities of the Solomon Islands’ Women for Peace group in the context of the broader ethnic tension. Explores the ways women can lead peace- building. 97. Pollard, A (2003) ‘Women’s Organizations, Voluntarism, and Self-Financing in Solomon Islands: a Participant Perspective’ in Oceania, vol. 74, no. ½, Sep-Dec 2003, http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=302&cfc=1 Outlines the types of women’s groups in Solomon Islands. Describes the challenges in funding and internal divisions that they face. Argues that women’s groups in Solomon Islands demonstrate the unutilized capability of women to participate on the national level. Call for more thoughtful support of these groups, particularly in rural areas. 98. Reddy, M & Reddy, B (2006) Analyzing Wage Differential by Gender Using an Earnings Fuction Approach: Further Evidence from a Small Developing Economy, University of the South Pacific School of Economics working papers, no. 2006/22, http://www.econ.fbe.usp.ac.fj/fileadmin/files/schools/ssed/economics/working_pap

of 30 ers/2006/wp200622.pdf A statistical analysis of the gender wage differential in Fiji finds that it is due to direct discrimination against women, and indirect discrimination against women though less educational outcomes. Calls on the government to ensure that it is an equal opportunity employer and set the tone for the private sector. Calls for gender sensitive financial analysis and policy. 99. Reid, E (2004) Transformational Development and the Wellbeing of Women. Development Bulletin 64: 16-20. 100. Rokoduru, A (2004) Emerging Women’s Issues in the Pacific – Migrant Women Workers, Research paper prepared for the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and presented during the Ninth Triennial Conference of Pacific Women, Nadi, Fiji, 16- 19 August 2004 101. Scheyvens, R (1997) Sustaining Women Whilst Sustaining the Land? Engendering Eco-Timber Production in the Solomon Islands, Michigan State University, Women and International Development, Working Paper #262, August 1997, http://www.wid.msu.edu/resources/papers/pdf/WP262.pdf Argues that environmentally sustainable development projects, particularly those specifically exploiting natural resources have a greater chance of success if they fully engage women. Argues that women should benefit as much as men from development projects. Ensuring that women are not marginalized not only promotes gender equality (a good development outcome in itself) but utilizes their often invaluable local environmental knowledge. Environmental sustainability and gender equality should be joint goals of every development project. 102. Scheyvens, R (1998) ‘‘Engendering’ environmental projects: the case of eco- timber production in the Solomon Islands’ in Development in Practice, vol. 8, no. 4, November 1998, http://ejournals.ebsco.com/Home.asp As above. 103. Scheyvens, R (2003) ‘Church Women’s Groups and the Empowerment of Women in Solomon Islands’ in Oceania, vol. 74, no. ½, Sep-Dec 2003, http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3654/is_200309/ai_n9277434 Argues that while the main focus of most Solomon Islands women’s church groups is welfare based activities, the solidarity fostered within the group has opened spaces for more empowerment based activities to take hold. Women’s church groups should not be dismissed simply because they do not overtly or vocally challenge women’s subordination. 104. Schoeffel (2004) An Evaluation of the Thirteen Critical Issues and the Status of Pacific Women 1994-2004, Research paper prepared for the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and presented during the Ninth Triennial Conference of Pacific Women, Nadi, Fiji, 16-19 August 2004 105. Seeley, J & Butcher, K (2006) ‘‘Mainstreaming’ HIV in Papua New Guinea: putting gender equity first’ in Gender & Development, vol. 14, no. 1, March 2006, http://ejournals.ebsco.com/Home.asp Argues that ‘mainstreaming’ HIV into development projects cannot occur without a significant challenge to gender inequality. Development projects that empower women work towards reducing gender inequality and hence gender-based violence which is fueling the HIV epidemic in Papua New Guinea.

of 30 106. Sen, P (1998) ‘Development practice and violence against women’ in Gender and Development, vol 6, no. 3, November 1998, http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/media/1f9kxjrutn56d4v5pn5u/contributions/g /j/n/a/gjnate3gbg5rjm40.pdf Argues that many development practitioners and policy makers are mistakenly viewing violence against women as a result of poverty. Presents an anti-cultural relativism view that condemns all violence against women. 107. Sepoe, O (2002) ‘To make a difference: realities of women’s participation in Papua New Guinea politics’ in Development Bulletin, No. 59, October 2002, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/db59pdfs.php Argues that women in PNG are already actively perusing a grassroots political agenda that promotes democracy, transparency and non-violence. Argues that these women need to be supported when they desire to enter formal national politics because they are essential to sustainable solutions for PNG. 108. Sharp, R (2004) Government Budgets and Gender Equality in the Pacific Islands, Research paper prepared for the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and presented during the Ninth Triennial Conference of Pacific Women, Nadi, Fiji, 16-19 August 2004 109. SPC (1999) An Assessment of the Role of Women Within Fishing Communities in The Republic of Palau, Community Fisheries Section, Secretariate of the Pacific Community, Nouma, New Caledonia Studies the role of women in Palau’s fishing industry. Finds that the majority of Palauan women are engaged in the fishing industry. While there has been a gendered division of labor with men doing larger scale fishing with motor boats, trolling and spear fishing, women are increasingly undertaking these activities. Government fisheries development has focused on the infrastructure needs of men and neglected women fishers and the unique challenges they face. 110. SPC (2005) Revised Pacific Platform For Action On Advancement Of Women And Gender Equality 2005 To 2015, A Regional Charter, Proceedings of the 9th Triennial Conference of Pacific Women 16–19 August 2004 and 2nd Pacific Ministerial Meeting on Women 19–20 August 2004 Nandi, Fiji Islands, http://www.spc.int/women/PDF%20files/9th%20Triennial%20Volume%201.pdf 111. Stewart, C (2006) Prostitution and Homosexuality in Papua New Guinea: Legal, Ethical and Human Rights Issues, Gender Relations Center, The Australian National University, Working Paper No. 19, http://rspas.anu.edu.au/grc/publications/pdfs/WP_19_Stewart.pdf Reviews the development and current status of laws relating to prostitution and homosexuality in Papua New Guinea. Explores the socio-cultural motivations behind these laws and the way the laws are enacted. Identifies human rights abuses, discrimination against women, difficulty in preventing the spread of HIV etc as results of the criminalization of prostitution and homosexual practices. 112. Strachan, J (2004) ‘Gender and the formal education sector in Vanuatu’ in Development Bulletin, no. 64, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/GenderPacific/index.html Argues that while there is recognition in the Vanuatu government that gender inequality in the formal education system is a major problem, intensions to fix it

of 30 have not led to any concerted or coordinated action. An extensive gender mainstreaming plan needs to be a priority, not an extra workload. 113. Sukthankar, N (1999) ‘Cultural Factors in Mathematics Education Contributing to the Shortage of Women Professionals in Papua New Guinea’ in Education Review, vol. 51, no. 2, Jun 1999 Argues that PNG development requires many technical expertise to manage its natural resource and financial development. The strikingly low percentage of women with these technical skills is attributed to a shortage of women with the required mathematical skills. Identifies the socio-cultural reasons that influence this shortage and recommends a comprehensive plan to ensure girls are taught mathematics from a young age. 114. Tonissen, M (2000) ‘The relationship between development and violence against women in post-conflict Bougainville’ in Development Bulletin, No. 53, November 2000, http://devnet.anu.edu.au/db53pdfs.php Argues that violence against women is a significant development issue not only because of the effect it has on health and productivity but because it prevents women from exercising their rights, organizing for development and increasing their empowerment in a time when their input is vital to the success of any project. Women in post-conflict situations are often subjected to unprecedented levels of domestic and other violence against them. 115. UNESCAP (2005) Gender and HIV/AIDS in the Asia and Pacific Region, UNESCAP Gender and Development Discussion paper Series, No. 18, http://www.unescap.org/esid/GAD/Publication/DiscussionPapers/18/DiscussionPap er18.pdf An overview of the issues relating to the gendered dimension of HIV infection. Argues that HIV and the empowerment of women should be understand as interrelated cross cutting issues that should inform all development practices. Argues that reducing gender inequality is essential to slowing the spread of HIV. 116. UNIFEM & SPC (2003) Strengthening Pacific Partnerships for Eliminating Violence Against Women, A Pacific Regional Workshop Report, Suva, Fiji Islands, 17-19 February 2003, http://www.thecommonwealth.org/shared_asp_files/uploadedfiles/{6BFB16A3- 3529-49C5-A2B8-31FE1CFB2601}_pacific_Workshop_report.pdf Outlines the proceedings of a Pacific regional workshop on Violence Against Women. A comprehensive review of the issues and actions being undertaken to address violence against women. Of particular interest is the section on the social and economic costs of violence against women. Also highlights the connection between violence against women and development because of its disempowering affect on women. 117. UNIFEM (2006) Child Sexual Abuse and Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in the Pacific: A Regional Report, http://www.unicef.or.jp/library/pres_bn2006/pdf/csec.pdf A review of the status and issues surrounding child sexual abuse in the Pacific. Identifies gender inequality as a major factor in child sexual abuse. 118. UNIFEM (2007) Translating CEDAW Into Law: CEDAW Legislative Compliance In Nine Pacific Island Countries, UNIFEM & UNDP Pacific Centre,

of 30 http://regionalcentrepacific.undp.org.fj/Files/CEDAWbook.pdf Assesses the legislative (rather than actual) compliance of 9 Pacific states with CEDAW. Against the indicators all countries surveyed (indeed all countries in the world) have achieved some full compliance, some partial compliance, and some incompliance. Notably while all of the states surveyed have enshrined equality of opportunity (or various manifestations there of) none have enshrined equality of outcomes as agreed to upon signing CEDAW. 119. Varani-Norton, E (2005) ‘The Church Versus Women’s Push for Change: the Case of Fiji’ in Fijian Studies, vol. 3, no. 2, http://www.fijianstudies.org/dload/vol3no2/2-varani-norton.pdf Argues that the pivotal role the churches play in Indigenous Fijian live gives them a responsibility to ensure that they are promoting the rights and empowerment of women, rather than shouldering them with more burden in terms of institutional responsibilities. Argues that churches simultaneously promoting individualism but denying feminist ethics are hypocritically doing a disservice to women. 120. Wandita, G, Campbell-Nelson, K & Pereira, M (2006) Gender and Reparations in Timor-Leste, International Center for Transitional Justice, http://idrinfo.idrc.ca/archive/corpdocs/122060/TimorLesteExecSum.pdf Outlines the way women experienced Timore-Leste’s fight for independence. Highlights the human rights violations inflicted against women. Argues that the project for identifying victims eligible for reparations took comprehensive steps to address the human rights violations suffered by women and ensure that they were included in decision-making. Highlights lessons learned for improving the process for women. 121. White, C (2005) ‘Fijian Males at the Crossroads of Gender and Ethnicity in a Fijian Secondary School’ in Ethnology, vol. 44, no. 4, Fall 2005, http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=302&cfc=1 An anthropological study of two Fijian transgender male high school students. Highlights the negotiation of masculinity, sexuality and ethnicity in Fiji. 122. White, G (2006) Indigenous Governance in Melanesia, in State, Society and Governance in Melanesia, February 2006, http://rspas.anu.edu.au/papers/melanesia/research/SSGM_IndigenousCustomaryGo vernance_ResearchPaper_06.pdf A discussion of the issues and potential for the development of indigenous governance systems in Melanesia. Argues that while they hold much potential many issues must be overcome, notably that the discourse of ‘tradition’ may work to exclude women from political influence. 123. WHO (2005) ‘Samoa: Country Findings’ in WHO Multi-country Study on Women’s Health and Domestic Violence against Women, http://www.who.int/gender/violence/who_multicountry_study/fact_sheets/wsm/en/p rint.html A study of the effects domestic violence has on women and family health in Samoa. Finds that domestic violence is endemic in Samoa. Finds that the probability of domestic violence is inversely correlated with a woman’s education level. 124. Yabaki, R & Norton, E (2004) The Impact of Tradition and Religion on Women’s Lives in the South Pacific, Research paper prepared for the Secretariat of the Pacific

of 30 Community and presented during the Ninth Triennial Conference of Pacific Women, Nadi, Fiji, 16-19 August 2004