Kritovoulos on the Fall of Constantinople (1450S)

Despite the differences in their origins and length, the two documents below give strikingly parallel descriptions of the last days of Constantinople. Both describe the battle tactics of the two sides, the roles of the Emperor and the Sultan in the struggle, and, most importantly, the relationships among the Byzantine Emperor (Constantine XI), his nobles, and the Orthodox Church. Each of the authors approached the subject from a "mixed" background. Kritovoulos was a Greek in service to the Sultan, and Nestor-Iskander an Orthodox Slav who converted to Islam. Both thus approach the fall of the city with mixed emotions. Kritovoulos on the Fall of Constantinople (1450s) Kritovoulos. 1954. History of Mehmed the Conqueror. Translated by Charles T. Riggs. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. The Greek historian Kritovoulos was not present at the final siege of Constantinople in 1453. He entered the service of the Turkish sultan Mehmed the Conqueror shortly thereafter. The sultan appointed him governor of the island of Imbros.

Kritovoulos' clearly set forth his sense of his own cultural status in his introductory note to the sultan, in which he declared that, to be properly preserved for posterity, the sultan's tale had to be recorded in Greek. His account of the city's fall reflects his contradictory feelings about the event, in that he openly admired the sultan's military ability (which he called "in no way inferior to those of Alexander the Macedonian"), while lamenting the final disappearance of the Byzantine Empire.

This document relates the events of the fall of Constantinople, from Mehmed's speech to his troops on the eve of battle to the death of the Emperor Constantine and the sack of the city. Kritovoulos recognized that readers would question the accuracy of his account. He stressed: "I have already labored hard, for I was not a witness of the events, to know the exact truth about these things. In writing the history, I have at the same time inquired of those who knew, and have examined carefully into how it all happened."

Second Address of the Sultan, calling upon all to fight bravely, and promising them that they would be rewarded with goods and many other fine things, if they fought well.

" . . . And I also wish that you may know well how to carry on the struggle for the very highest rewards.

§ 190. "First, then, there is great wealth of all sorts in this city, some in the royal palaces and some in the houses of the mighty, some in the homes of the common people and still other, finer and more abundant, laid up in the churches as votive offerings and treasures of all sorts, constructed of gold and silver and precious stones and costly pearls. Also there is countless wealth of magnificent furniture, without reckoning all the other articles and furnishings of the houses. Of all these, you will be the masters!

§ 191. "Then too, there are very many noble and distinguished men, some of whom will be your slaves, and the rest will be put up for sale; also very many and very beautiful women, young and good-looking, and virgins lovely for marriage, noble, and of noble families, and even till now unseen by masculine eyes, some of them, evidently intended for the weddings of great men. Of these, some will be wives for you, while others will do for servants, and others you can sell. So you will gain in many ways, in enjoyment, and service, and wealth.

§ 192. "And you will have boys, too, very many and very beautiful and of noble families.

§ 193. " . . . A great and populous city, the capital of the ancient Romans, which has attained the very pinnacle of good fortune and luck and glory, being indeed the head of the whole inhabited globe -- I give it now to you for spoil and plunder -- unlimited wealth, men, women, children, all the other adornments and arrangements. . . . § 194. "And the greatest of all is this, that you will capture a city whose renown has gone out to all parts of the world. It is evident that to whatever extent the leadership and glory of this city has spread, to a like extent the renown of your valor and bravery will spread for having captured by assault a city such as this. But think: what deed more brilliant, what greater enjoyment, or what inheritance of wealth better than that presented to you, along with honor and glory!

§ 195. "And, best of all, we shall demolish a city that has been hostile to us from the beginning and is constantly growing at our expense and in every way plotting against our rule. So for the future we shall be sure of guarding our present belongings and shall live in complete and assured peace, after getting rid of our neighboring enemies. We shall also open the way to further conquest.

§ 196. "You must never imagine that, although this is all true, the City is impregnable or its wall hard to approach and difficult to pierce, or that very great danger awaits those who attack it, as if it were not easily to be taken. . . ."

§ 217. The hour was already advanced, the day was declining and near evening, and the sun was at the Ottomans' backs but shining in the faces of their enemies. This was just as the Sultan had wished; accordingly he gave the order first for the trumpets to sound the battle-signal, and the other instruments, the pipes and flutes and cymbals too, as loud as they could. All the trumpets of the other divisions, with the other instruments in turn, sounded all together, a great and fearsome sound. Everything shook and quivered at the noise. After that, the standards were displayed.

§ 218. To begin, the archers and slingers and those in charge of the cannon and the muskets, in accord with the commands given them, advanced against the wall slowly and gradually. When they got within bowshot, they halted to fight. And first they exchanged fire with the heavier weapons, with arrows from the archers, stones from the slingers, and iron and leaden balls from the cannon and muskets. Then, as they closed with battleaxes and javelins and spears, hurling them at each other and being hurled at pitilessly in rage and fierce anger. On both sides there was loud shouting and blasphemy and cursing. Many on each side were wounded, and not a few died. This kept up till sunset, a space of about two or three hours.

§ 219. Then, with fine insight, the Sultan summoned the shield-bearers, heavy infantry and other troops and said: "Go to it, friends and children mine! It is time now to show yourselves good fighters!" They immediately crossed the moat, with shouts and fearful yells, and attacked the outer wall. All of it, however, had been demolished by the cannon. There were only stockades of great beams instead of a wall, and bundles of vine-branches, and jars full of earth. At that point a fierce battle ensued close in and with the weapons of hand-to-hand fighting. The heavy infantry and shield-bearers fought to overcome the defenders and get over the stockade, while the Romans and Italians tried to fight these off and to guard the stockade.

§ 220. The Sultan followed them up, as they struggled bravely, and encouraged them. He ordered those in charge of the cannon to put the match to the cannon. And these, being set off, fired their stone balls against the defenders and worked no little destruction on both sides, among those in the near vicinity. . . .

§ 225. But the Romans on their part met them stubbornly and repulsed them brilliantly. They fought bravely and proved superior to the Ottomans in battle. Indeed they showed that they were heroes, for not a one of all the things that occurred could deter them: neither the hunger attacking them, nor sleeplessness, nor continuous and ceaseless fighting, nor wounds and slaughter, nor the death of relatives before their very eyes, nor any of the other fearful things could make them give in, or diminish their previous zeal and determination. They valiantly kept on resisting as before, through everything, until evil and pitiless fortune betrayed them.

§ 226. Sultan Mehmed saw that the attacking divisions were very much worn out by the battle and had not made any progress worth mentioning, and that the Romans and Italians were not only fighting stoutly but were prevailing in the battle. He was very indignant at this, considering that it ought not to be endured any longer. Immediately he brought up the divisions which he had been reserving for later on, men who were extremely well armed, daring and brave, and far in advance of the rest in experience and valor. They were the elite of the army: heavy infantry, bowmen, and lancers, and his own bodyguard, and along with them those of the division called Yenitsari [Janissaries] . . . .

§ 227. Calling to them and urging them to prove themselves now as heroes, he led the attack against the wall, himself at the head until they reached the moat. . . .

§228. To all the rest, the heavy infantry and the shield-bearers, the Sultan gave orders to cross the moat swiftly and attack the palisade. With a loud and terrifying war-cry and with fierce impetuosity and wrath, they advanced as if mad. Being young and strong and full of daring, and especially because they were fighting in the Sultan's presence, their valor exceeded every expectation. They attacked the palisade and fought bravely without any hesitation. Needing no further orders, they knocked down the turrets which had been built out in front, broke the yardarms, scattered the materials that had been gathered, and forced the defenders back inside the palisade. . . .

§232. The Emperor Constantine forbade the others to follow. Then, though he had no idea what to do next -- for he had no other reserves to fill the places thus left vacant, the ranks of those who had so suddenly deserted, and meantime the battle raged fiercely and all had to see to their own ranks and places and fight there -- still, with his remaining Romans and his bodyguard, which was so few as to be easily counted, he took his stand in front of the palisade and fought bravely.

§ 233. Sultan Mehmed, who happened to be fighting quite near by, saw that the palisade and the other part of the wall that had been destroyed were now empty of men and deserted by the defenders. He noted that men were slipping away secretly and that those who remained were fighting feebly because they were so few. Realizing from this that the defenders had fled and that the wall was deserted, he shouted out: "Friends, we have the City! We have it! They are already fleeing from us! They can't stand it any longer! The wall is bare of defenders! It needs just a little more effort and the City is taken! Don't weaken, but on with the work with all your might, and be men and I am with you!"

Capture of the City

§ 234. So saying, he led them himself. And they, with a shout on the run and with a fearsome yell, went on ahead of the Sultan, pressing on up to the palisade. . . .

Death of Emperor Constantine

§235. He had opened this gate in the great wall, so as to go easily over to the palisade. Now there was a great struggle there and great slaughter among those stationed there, for they were attacked by the heavy infantry and not a few others in irregular formation, who had been attracted from many points by the shouting. There the Emperor Constantine, with all who were with him, fell in gallant combat. . . .

Great Rush, and Many Killed

§ 237. Then a great slaughter occurred of those who happened to be there: some of them were on the streets, for they had already left the houses and were running toward the tumult when they fell unexpectedly on the swords of the soldiers; others were in their own homes and fell victims to the violence of the Janissaries and other soldiers, without any rhyme or reason; others were resisting, relying on their own courage; still others were fleeing to the churches and making supplication -- men, women, and children, everyone, for there was no quarter given.

§ 238. The soldiers fell on them with anger and great wrath. For one thing, they were actuated by the hardships of the siege. For another, some foolish people had hurled taunts and curses at them from the battlements all through the siege. Now, in general they killed so as to frighten all the City, and to terrorize and enslave all by the slaughter.

Here, too, a Sad Tragedy § 240. There was a further sight, terrible and pitiful beyond all tragedies: young and chaste women of noble birth and well to do, accustomed to remain at home and who had hardly ever left their own premises, and handsome and lovely maidens of splendid and renowned families, till then unsullied by male eyes -- some of these were dragged by force from their chambers and hauled off pitilessly and dishonorably. . . .

§ 242. They say that many of the maidens, even at the mere unaccustomed sight and sound of these men, were terror-stricken and came near losing their very lives. And there were also honorable old men who were dragged by their white hair, and some of them beaten unmercifully. And well-born and beautiful young boys were carried off.

§ 243. There were priests who were driven along, and consecrated virgins who were honorable and wholly unsullied, devoted to God alone and living for Him to whom they had consecrated themselves . . . Tender children were snatched pitilessly from their mothers, young brides separated ruthlessly from their newly-married husbands. And ten thousand other terrible deeds were done.

Plundering and Robbing of the Churches

§ 244. And the desecrating and plundering and robbing of the churches -- how can one describe it in words? Some things they threw in dishonor on the ground -- ikons and reliquaries and other objects from the churches. The crowd snatched some of these, and some were given over to the fire while others were torn to shreds and scattered at the crossroads. The last resting-places of the blessed men of old were opened, and their remains were taken out and disgracefully torn to pieces, even to shreds, and made the sport of the wind while others were thrown on the streets. . . .

§ 246. And holy and divine books, and others mainly of profane literature and philosophy, were either given to the flames or dishonorably trampled under foot.

Glossary

Yenitsari [Janissaries] Elite troops of the Ottoman Sultan. Born Christian, these soldiers were conscripted as children, converted to Islam, and trained in the use of the latest in firearms technology. Originally forbidden to marry or own property, they evolved over time into a notorious political/military class in the Ottoman Empire.

Nestor-Iskander on the Fall of Constantinople (1450s) 1954. Anthology of Old Russian Literature. Edited by Ad. Stender-Petersen in collaboration with Stefan Congrat-Butlar. New York: Columbia University Press.

Nestor-Iskander was, insofar as we know, a Slav of Orthodox background who converted to Islam. His account of the fall of Constantinople has been preserved in Russian language sources, and tells the story of the battle from the Byzantine perspective--that is, from inside the city. Nestor-Iskander apparently was actually present for the siege and fall of the city.

This document paints a noble picture of the Byzantine Emperor, Constantine XI. More importantly, it highlights the intimate relationship between the Byzantine ruler, the Orthodox Church, and the elite of Byzantine society.

Nestor-Iskander concludes his tale by mentioning an old Byzantine "prophecy" that held that one day a people called the rhusios would gain control of Constantinople. Russian sources interpreted rhusios, which in Greek means "red-haired," as russkii, which means Russian. This "prophecy" would inspire some Russians to understand that Russia would take Constantinople's place as the heir of Rome, and the seat of true Christianity.

The godless [Sultan] Mohammed [II, 1451-1481], son of Murad [II, 1421-1451], who at that time ruled the Turks, took note of all the problems [that plagued Constantinople]. And, although he professed peace, he wanted to put an end to Emperor Constantine [XI, 1449-1453]. Towards that end he assembled a large army and, by land and by sea, suddenly appeared with that large force before the city [of Constantinople] and laid siege to it....[The Emperor], therefore, sent his envoys to Sultan Mohammed in order to discuss peace and past [relations]. But Mohammed did not trust them, and as soon as the envoys departed, he ordered cannons and guns to fire at the city. Others were commanded to make ready wall-scaling equipment and build assault structures. Such city inhabitants as Greek, Venetian, and Genoese [mercenaries] left because they did not want to fight the Turks. . . .

When the Emperor saw this [exodus], he ordered his nobles and high officials to assign the remaining soldiers to each sector of the city's wall, to main gates, and to windows. The entire population was mobilized and alarm bells were hoisted throughout the city. Each person was informed of his assignment and each was told to defend his country. All were organized into a fighting force to battle the Turks from city walls and no one was allowed to leave the city. They also placed cannons and guns in strategic places to defend city walls. The Emperor, the Patriarch, bishops, priests, and the entire church council, as well as a multitude of women and children, attended church service, where they prayed, cried, and lamented. . . . The Emperor frequently travelled around the city, encouraging his military leaders, soldiers, and all inhabitants, telling them to have faith, not to allow themselves to be disheartened by enemy pressure, and to trust Almighty God, their Savior and Protector. He also implored them to pray. Meanwhile, day and night, the Turks bombarded all parts of the city without stopping, and gave its defenders no time to rest....

On the fourteenth day, after they had said their heathen prayers, the Turks sounded trumpets, beat their drums, and played on all other of their musical instruments....Because of continued heavy shooting, city defenders could not stand safely on the wall. Some crouched down awaiting the attack; others fired their cannons and guns as much as they could, killing many Turks. The Patriarch, bishops, and all clergy prayed constantly, pleading for God's mercy and for [His help in] saving the city.

When the Turks surmised that they had killed all the defenders on the wall, they ordered their forces to give a loud shout [before the assault]. Some soldiers carried incendiary devices, others ladders, still others wall-destroying equipment, and the rest many other instruments of destruction. They were ordered to attack and capture the city. City defenders, too, cried out and shouted back and engaged them in a fierce battle. The Emperor toured the city, encouraging his people, promising them God's help and ordering the ringing of church bells so as to summon all the inhabitants [to defend their city], When the Turks heard the ringing of church bells, they ordered their trumpets, flutes, and thousands of other musical instruments to sound out. And there was a great and terrible slaughter! . . . When Mohammed saw such a multitude of his men killed, and when he was told of Emperor's bravery, he could not sleep. [On May 27, 1453] he called in his Council and informed them that he wanted to lift the siege that night, before a large [Papal] fleet arrived in the city to reinforce [its defenses]. But then there appeared an unexpected miracle of God! The anticipated [Papal] help failed to materialize. Instead, at 7:00 p.m. that evening the entire city was suddenly engulfed by a great darkness. The air suddenly thickened and, in a moaning way, it hovered above the city. Then, big black drops of rain, as large as the eye of a buffalo, began to fall. People were shocked and horrified by this unusual occurrence. Patriarch Athanasius gathered all of his clergy and members of the Imperial Council, went to the Emperor, and told him the following: "Your Illustrious Majesty! All citizens of the city believe in its vitality. But they also think that the Holy Spirit has abandoned it. Now every living creature is foretelling the demise of this city. We beseech you to leave the city. All of us will perish here. For God's sake, please leave!". . . The Emperor did not listen to them. He replied instead: "Let God's will be done!"

When he saw that the great darkness engulfed the city, the impious Mohammed called in his learned men and dignitaries and asked them to explain: "What is the meaning of the sudden darkness that descended upon the city?" And they replied: "This is an important sign portending the demise of the city."

. . . [At that moment] a Turkish military governor, whose large force was deployed on the eastern flank, attacked the Greeks. His action divided Greek forces and forced them to retreat. He even captured their standards and advanced against the Emperor. The Emperor positioned his shield in a defensive position, knocked out [the Turk's] lance, and struck and cut off the enemy's head with his sword. When Turkish soldiers saw this they were shocked and carried away the corpse of their dead leader.

. . . When Mohammed learned about the death of his eastern military commander, he wept profusely because he admired the commander's bravery and wisdom. He also became very angry and led all of his forces to the Sublime Porte. He ordered that the Emperor's positions be bombarded with cannons and guns, being concerned that the Emperor's forces might attack him. Then, the godless [Mohammed] appeared opposite the Poloe Mesto and ordered his forces to fire cannons and guns at defenders in order to induce them to retreat. He also instructed [Turkish Admiral] Balta-Oghlu, in charge of many regiments and a select force of 3000, to capture the Emperor dead or alive.

When they noticed the determination of the godless [Mohammed], [the Byzantine] military commanders, officials, and nobles joined the battle and implored the Emperor to leave in order to escape death. He wept bitterly and told them: "Remember the words I said earlier! Do not try to protect me! I want to die with you!" and they replied: "All of us will die for God's church and for you!"

Then they escorted him to [relative] safety and many people told him to leave the city. After they pledged their allegiance to him, they lamented and cried and returned to their posts....There was fierce fighting, more vicious than all previous encounters. Many [Byzantine] military commanders, officials, and nobles perished and the few who survived went to the Emperor to report to him about the disaster. There is no way to give an accurate number of Byzantine and Turkish casualties. The select Turkish force of 3000, like wild animals, dispersed and searched all comers of the city in an effort to capture the Emperor.

The impious Mohammed then ordered all of his forces to occupy all city streets and gates in order to capture the Emperor. In his camp he retained only the Janissaries, who readied their cannons and guns in fear of a sudden attack by the Emperor. Sensing God's command, the Emperor went to the Great Church [St. Sophia?], where he fell to the ground pleading for God's mercy and forgiveness for his sins. Then he bade farewell to the Patriarch, the clergy, and the Empress, bowed to those who were present and left the church....As he left the church the Emperor said: "If you want to suffer for God's church and for the Orthodox faith, then follow me!"

Then he mounted his horse and went to the Golden Gate, hoping to encounter there the godless. He was able to attract some 3000 [Byzantine] soldiers. Near the Gate they met a multitude of Turks whom they defeated. The Emperor wanted to reach the Gate but could not on account of many corpses. Then he encountered another large Turkish force and they fought till darkness. In this manner the Orthodox Emperor Constantine suffered for God's churches and for the Orthodox faith. On May 29 [1453], according to eyewitnesses, he killed more than 600 Turks with his own hand. And the saying was fulfilled. It started with Constantine and it ended with Constantine. . . .

...City inhabitants in streets and courtyards refused to surrender to the Turks. They fought them and on that day [May 29] many died, including women and children. Others were taken into captivity. Brave soldiers stationed themselves in windows and refused to surrender and give up their posts....During daylight they ran and hid themselves in various abysses and at night they came out and fought the Turks. Others, especially women and children, threw bricks, tiles, and burning pieces of wood at them and thereby caused them great trouble.

[This form of resistance] stunned the pashas and sanjak-beys. Because they did not know what to do, they sent a messenger to the Sultan with the following information: "The city will not be pacified until you enter it!" He ordered that a search be made for the Emperor and the Empress. He [the Sultan] himself was afraid to enter the city and that fact troubled him greatly. He then called in [Byzantine] nobles and military commanders who had been captured in the battle and were held as war prisoners by the pashas. He gave them his resolute word and some gifts, and sent them, together with the pashas and sanjak-beys, to deliver the following message to [the defiant] city inhabitants in streets and courtyards: "All fighting must stop! There should be neither fear, nor killings nor taking people into captivity! If you disobey this order, all of you, including your wives and children, will be put to the sword!" And so it was. The fighting stopped. . . .

When he heard this the Sultan was pleased....

Then he went to the Imperial Palace. There he met a certain Serb who handed him the Emperor's [Constantine's] head. Mohammed was pleased with it and called [Byzantine] nobles and military commanders and asked them to verify whether or not the head was really Emperor's. Because they were afraid, they all said: "It is the Emperor's head!" He examined it and said: "It is clear that God is the creator of all, including emperors. Why then does everyone have to die?"

Then he sent the head to the Patriarch, instructing him to inlay it with gold and silver and to preserve it the best he knew how. The Patriarch placed it in a silver chest, gilded it, and hid it under the altar of the great church. I have heard from others that the survivors [of the battle] at the Golden Gate [where the Emperor was killed] took the Emperor's corpse that night and buried it in Galati.

. . . All of this happened as a consequence of our sins, that the godless Mohammed ascended the imperial throne. . . . Yet, those who know [history] also know that all of this was prophesied by Methodius of Patera [a third-century martyred Church Father] and by Leo the Wise [author of several prophetic works] concerning the destiny of this city. Its past has been fulfilled and so will be its future. For it is written: "A nation of Rus, as has been prophesied in the vision of St. Daniel, will triumph. And they will inherit the traditions of the seven hills [namely, Rome], as well as its laws, and will disseminate them among five or six nations that comprise Rus, and they will implant seeds among them and will harvest many benefits."

To you who have been selected to rule, by the highest, the all-powerful and almighty hand of God, by Whose will all rulers on earth govern and Whom all great people praise and about Whom the powerful write the truth, [I address these words] to you, the illustrious sovereign, Grand Prince [of Muscovy], occupier of the high throne, the Orthodox Christian Tsar and lord of all, the administrator of all Holy Churches of God and of the Holy Universal and Apostolic Church and of the Church of the Holy Mother of God, that has made such honest and illustrious progress that it has been enabled to triumph over the Church of Rome as well as over the Church of Constantinople.

...[H]eresy caused the downfall of old Rome. The Turks used their axes to shatter the doors of all churches of the Second Rome, the city of Constantinople. Now [in Moscow], the new Third Rome, the Holy Ecumenical Apostolic Church of your sovereign state shines brighter than the sun in the universal Orthodox Christian faith throughout the world. Pious Tsar! Let [people of] your state know that all states of the Orthodox faith have now merged into one, your state. You are the only true Christian ruler under the sky! Tsar! As long as you hold that position, be mindful always of God. Fear God who has bestowed so much on you. Do not rely on gold, wealth, or glory! All of that is collected here and it will remain here on earth. Tsar! Remember the Blissful who held the scepter in His hand and the imperial crown on His head and said: "Do not turn your heart to wealth that is running away from you." The wise Solomon said: "Wealth and gold are valued not when they are hidden, but when people offer help to those in need. . . ." Tsar! During your rule remember [an additional] two commandments. . . . [The first is]: Do not violate the order which was chosen by your great predecessor [Emperor] Constantine, the beatific Vladimir, the great and God-selected Iaroslav, and all other blissful and saintly [rulers] from whom you have descended. [And second]: Tsar! Do not harm the Holy churches of God and honest monasteries. [Do not expropriate] that which has been given to God in return for eternal blessing of the memory of a family. The Fifth Great and Holy Ecumenical Council issued a very strict injunction [against such action]. . . .

Now I beg you and beg you again, please remember what I have said. For God's sake, please also remember that now all [Orthodox] Christian kingdoms have merged into your tsardom. Henceforth we can expect only one kingdom to come. That kingdom is eternal. I have written this because, admiring you as I do, I have appealed and have prayed to God that He may bless you. Change your stinginess to generosity and your inclemency to kindness. Comfort those who cry and moan day and night. Protect the innocent from their tormentors.

I repeat here what I have written above. Pious Tsar! Listen and remember that all Christian kingdoms have now merged into one, your [tsardom]. Two Romes have fallen. The third stands [firm]. And there will not be a fourth. No one will replace your Christian tsardom. . . .

1. Both accounts describe the opening and closing of the battle. What similarities or differences are apparent in those aspects of the documents? How do these descriptions support or undermine the credibility and accuracy of the two documents? 2. Both Constantine XI and the Sultan Mehmed personally exort their troops to greater efforts and lead them in battle. What do the descriptions of these interactions reveal about the relationship of the two rulers to their nobles and to their common subjects? 3. Compare the documents' portrayals of Constantine XI. What positive and negative descriptions of him do they give? Do they offer any differing perspectives on his roles as political and religious leader?

4. Do the documents reveal any biases in the perspectives of Kritovoulos and Nestor-Iskander? If so, how are these biases similar/different?

5. How do the two documents describe the Orthodox clergy? What do these descriptions reveal about church-state relations in Byzantium?