An Analysis of British and Irish Poetry Written by Women in the 20Th Century

1 Lane Brittany Lane

Professor Johnson Johnsen

ENG 320A

7 December 2015

An Analysis of British and Irish Poetry Written By Women in the 20th Century

As made evident in The Anthology of Twentieth Century British and Irish Poetry, poetry written during a particular time period often embodies a clear character with distinctive features.

Poetry written in the twentieth century exemplifies this idea due, in part, to the massive impact that current events had on art during those years. These events and their subsequent implications were experienced by much of the world, particularly by those in Europe, and could simply not evade being addressed in the realm of art. Thus, British and Irish poetry written during the twentieth century actively responds to relevant political issues and historical events, expressing the sentiments felt by society. Overall, these sentiments were wrought with overwhelming pessimism, conveying the sense of emotional weariness and helplessness felt in the modern world.

The poetry written by women during the same time period, however, embodies its own distinct traits and characteristics. The nature of women’s poetry at the time was undeniably distinguishable from the nature of men’s poetry, and the voice of the female poet was unmistakable. Although both genders sought to address worldly issues, they did so in far different ways. For this reason, one cannot read a poem found in The Anthology of 20th Century

British and Irish Poetry that is written by a woman and fail to recognize this fact.

First and foremost, poetry written by women in the twentieth century distinguishes itself in its subject matter, as female poets tend to focus on the woman and the woman’s experience in 2 the world. This is true for nearly all poetry written by women; “one consensus finds the distinctive ‘voice’ [of female poets] inextricably wrought with the cultural ideologies of gender with which the poet[s] negotiated” (Dowson 2). Thus, while most poetry written by men at the time speaks primarily to men, leaving women out of the picture, poetry written by women achieves the exact opposite, providing readers with “the voices of character types rarely heard in poetry” (Tuma 850), in particular those of women.

As a result, a great deal of poems written by women focus on feminine themes, specifically marriage and the formation of the female identity. Through these poems, the female poets are able to make sense of a woman’s role in society and to voice their opinion on it. In this way, poetry provided a medium through which these women could comment on social issues, in particular, those that concern women, and allowed them to criticize and stress aspects of which they did not approve. This is important considering the limited means for self-expression women had during most of the twentieth century. Poetry was one means of self-expression that some women utilized, and their position as poets and writers afforded these women with the ability to discuss their gender and the issues that were important to them. These female poets make women visible and allow their gender to be rightfully represented in the world of poetry by portraying women from a female perspective. These women “use their position outside the tradition to kick at the male prerogative in a metaphor that indicates restriction, anger, playfulness, and freedom”

(Dowson 4). Their interest seems to be “not [in their] characters per se” but rather “a larger society’s values, its languages and images” (Tuma 850).

One prevalent theme in the writing of female poets is marriage, a theme that makes sense considering the pervasive expectations for women to be dutiful wives. During the twentieth century, it was “within the family that women [had] been most likely to feel the pressure of 3 Lane societal expectations” (Tudor 39). As a result, numerous female poets focus their poetry on marriage and present their views on the institution, considering its large impact on their lives.

In her poem “The Farmer’s Bride,” Charlotte Mew reveals the lack of choice in relation to marriage for women at the time. Although the speaker of the poem is male, the poem nevertheless succeeds in revealing the inherent issues with a marriage like the one described, the fruitless marriage of a farmer and a girl that is “too young maybe” (2). In the poem, Mew criticizes this type of marriage and the circumstances under which it occurred, emphasizing the lack of love in the marriage and the farmer’s perceived dominance over his young wife. She portrays the farmer’s young bride as trapped in an unhappy marriage with a man who seems to believe that “her wild self” (33) can be contained and domesticated like a farm animal. This is revealed by the fact that he continually compares her to animals and describes her as he would one of his livestock, admiring the “soft young down of her, the brown, the brown of her—her eyes, her hair” 45-46). She “[flies] like a hare” (15), works “like a mouse” (21) and is “shy as a leveret” (30). In this way, he expresses his belief that she “twasn’t a woman” (47), but rather, something he owns.

Similarly, in her poem “Meditation at Kew,” Anna Wickham also implies the idea that women should have more choice when it comes to marriage, as she laments, “Alas! For all the pretty women who marry dull men” (1). She too emphasizes the negative results of women having little choice, as this leads to a dull life and to “suffer[ing]” (5) on the part of the women involved. In her funny, satirical poem, Wickham fanaticizes about a world in which women would “see all the men in the world and choose a mate” (14). She asserts that “from gay unions of choice/We’d have a race of splendid beauty and of thrilling voice” (17-18). 4

Stevie Smith also makes a commentary on the institution of marriage in her poem “My

Hat;” in this poem, Smith “[identifies] and satirize[s] middle-class expectations for women”

(Tuma 264) in regards to finding the proper husband. In the poem, Smith tells the story of a young woman who discovers that a particular hat helps her to escape to a deserted island. This young woman receives the hat from her mother, who claims that “if [she] wore the hat/[she] would be certain to get off with the right sort of chap” (1-2). This reveals her mother’s expectation for her daughter to find a proper husband, as she does not wish for her daughter to wear the hat for self-expression or for fashion but rather as a means to attract “the right sort of chap.” Instead, however, the young woman finds that the hat fulfills a different purpose, allowing her to “[rise] up like a flying swan” (8), away from “Father, Mother, and the young man” (20). In this way, the hat serves to please the young woman and her desires, offering her a chance at freedom and an escape from a world dominated by expectations of marriage.

Anna Wickham also expresses a yearning desire to be freed from the expectations of marriage and the obligations of the home in her poem “Divorce.” In this poem, the speaker

“nurse[s] a fire” in “the close house” (2) and feels “frozen in rigid tenderness” (8). The speaker’s wifely responsibilities and obligations to her home make her feel as though she “smother[ed] in the house” (11). She desperately cries, “Let me out to the night, let me go, let me go” (12), and the darkness calls to her, offering her freedom. In this poem, Wickham reveals a woman’s desire to leave the home and to explore the rest of the world, which is unknown to her, by conveying the idea that the woman feels stifled by the warmth of the home and seeks, instead, to venture out into the cold, dark night. 5 Lane Another prevalent theme that serves as the subject matter for a number of poems written by women relates to their gender’s identity. By garnering control of the portrayal of their gender in poetry, these female poets influence how women see themselves and the female identity.

For instance, in her poem “Against Coupling,” Fleur Adcock empowers women to embrace their sexuality and to take control of pleasuring themselves rather than relying on men.

She achieves this by vividly expressing her distaste for the sexual acts that occur between a man and a woman, asserting that these acts are a source of “unpleasure” (7). She utilizes the following words to convey the idea that these acts are forced and undesirable for the women involved:

“trespassing” (2), “forced” (3), “smothered” (4), “crushed” (4), “against” (4), “nerve” (6), and

“unpleasure” (7). Instead, she “write[s] in praise of the solitary act” (1), encouraging women to engage in “five minutes of solitude” (28), which are “enough” (29) to fulfill their sexual needs and desires. In this way, she refutes the idea that a woman’s identity is based upon her attractiveness to a man and upon her willingness to engage in sexual acts with that man.

Similarly, in her poem “Listen. This is the Noise of Myth,” Eaavan Boland empowers women to take their own path and to declare their independence from men and relationships. In this poem, she strives to reveal the inherent fallacy portrayed throughout literature and poetry that tells “the story of a man and a woman…intimates of myth” (1-4). She does so by telling her own story, which does not follow the traditional romantic path taken in much of literature and poetry. In her poem, the woman “never turn[s]” (55) to the man, and “they never make love”

(57), as they would in a typical myth. Instead, the woman’s “head begins to shine” (64), as she recognizes the fallacy in what she has previously been told and thus decides her own destiny.

This poem is incredibly empowering, as Boland urges readers to follow in this woman’s footsteps and to “consider how the bereavements of the definite/are easily lifted from our 6 heroine. She may or she may not. She was or wasn’t by the water at his side” (71-75). In this way, she encourages women to form their own identity, one that is not reliant upon a relationship with a man.

While some poems encourage the formation of a new identity, others simply reflect a changing gender identity during the twentieth century and women’s attempts to make sense of that identity. For instance, in her poem “Self-Analysis,” Anna Wickham expresses “the tumult of

[her] fretted mind” (1), as she attempts to make sense of her desires and the expectations for her as a woman. The speaker “desire[s] Virtue, though [she] love[s] her not” (9) and feels

“consumed with slow fire,/For righteousness is [her] desire” (5-6). Yet, she fears that this virtue and righteousness will “bind [her] and make [her] a slave” (11). Essentially, the speaker fears

“the whiteness of straight ways—[for she] think[s] there is no colour in unsullied days” (17-18).

Through this self-meditation, Wickham describes a woman struggling with herself and her identity. Although she wishes to act without sin, she fears that a perfectly “straight and ordered”

(24) life will offer her no enjoyment. This expresses a conflict that many women experienced at the time, as they attempted to align their desires with the expectation that they be sinless and pure.

Overall, female poets often center their poems on the woman and the woman’s place in society. As a result, they focus a great deal on social issues, particularly those that concern women and gender roles. In contrast, male poets focus far more on political and historical events, with much of their poetry acting as a direct response to events occurring in the political sphere.

This difference in focus reflects the fact that women were often confined to the private, personal sphere of the home, while men dominated the “public” political sphere throughout the twentieth century (Tudor 42). Nevertheless, by focusing on women’s roles in society and on the private 7 Lane sphere, female poets succeeded in “[making their] personal experience a public matter” (Dowson

5). In this way, they made their experiences relevant and important and shed light on the social issues that were otherwise overlooked. The focus of female poets changes, however, as the century goes on, corresponding with changes in women’s role in politics and the political sphere.

Many female poets who wrote later in the twentieth century distinguish themselves from earlier poets in that they directly address political issues. Medbh McGuckian’s poem, “The Albert

Chain,” and Carol Ann Duffy’s poem, “Translating the English, 1989,” clearly reflect this change.

Women’s poetry is not unique only in its subject matter, however; poetry written by women during the twentieth century is also characterized by the use of satire. This distinct use of language helps these female poets to convey their ideas and express their discontent in regards to social issues. In their poetry, many woman choose to “exploit the power of parody to seize the authority of centralizing discourses which erode all other voices” and thus effectively “‘talk back’ against social hegemony” (O’Neill and Callaghan 232). In this way, women directly identify issues they see and address them in a humorous manner, while “refusing to write a poem of straightforward sorrow” (O’Neill and Callaghan 231) even when addressing troublesome issues. Stevie Smith exemplifies this idea in her poem, “Black Marsh,” a poem in which she welcomes death as “a friend” (1) who offers her “a breath of fresh air/A change” (36-37).

Overall, the attitude of female poets contrasts greatly with the attitude possessed by male poets of the same time period who seem to be determinably more pessimistic than women, hopelessly lamenting the issues at hand. Their poetry conveys the overwhelming sense of weariness and helplessness that characterizes twentieth century poetry as a whole, while women’s is much less forlorn. 8

Despite the differences that exist between poetry written by men and poetry written by women in Britain and Ireland during the twentieth century, there is nevertheless an important similarity between the two groups of works. Notably, both address relevant political and social issues occurring during the time period. This reflects the importance of these issues and the historical events that occurred during this time period, as these issues and events impacted the world and forever changed the course of history. Overall, taken as a whole, poetry written during the twentieth century serves as evidence of the historical change that was occurring and that this change and the corresponding events significantly affected the lives of both men and women. 9 Lane Works Cited

Adcock, Fleur. “Against Coupling.” Anthology of Twentieth-century British and Irish Poetry. Ed.

Keith Tuma. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. 587-588. Print.

Boland, Eaavan. “Listen. This is the Noise of Myth” Anthology of Twentieth-century British and

Irish Poetry. Ed. Keith Tuma. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. 706-708. Print.

Dowson, Jane. The Cambridge Companion to Twentieth-century British and Irish Women's

Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2011. Print.

Duffy, Carol Ann. “Translating the English, 1989.” Anthology of Twentieth-century British and

Irish Poetry. Ed. Keith Tuma. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. 853. Print.

McGuckian, Medbh. “The Albert Chain.” Anthology of Twentieth-century British and Irish

Poetry. Ed. Keith Tuma. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. 788. Print.

Mew, Charlotte. “The Farmer’s Bride.” Anthology of Twentieth-century British and Irish Poetry.

Ed. Keith Tuma. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. 60-61. Print.

O'Neill, Michael, and Madeleine Callaghan. Twentieth-century British and Irish Poetry: Hardy

to Mahon. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. Print.

Smith, Stevie. “Black Marsh.” Anthology of Twentieth-century British and Irish Poetry. Ed.

Keith Tuma. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. 269. Print.

Smith, Stevie. “My Hat.” Anthology of Twentieth-century British and Irish Poetry. Ed. Keith

Tuma. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. 267. Print.

Tudor, Ruth. Teaching 20th Century Women's History: A Classroom Approach: A Teaching

Pack Designed for Use in Secondary Schools. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2000.

Print. 10

Tuma, Keith. Anthology of Twentieth-century British and Irish Poetry. New York: Oxford UP,

2001. Print.

Wickham, Anna. “Divorce.” Anthology of Twentieth-century British and Irish Poetry. Ed. Keith

Tuma. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. 96-97. Print.

Wickham, Anna. “Meditation at Kew.” Anthology of Twentieth-century British and Irish Poetry.

Ed. Keith Tuma. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. 98. Print.

Wickham, Anna. “Self-Analysis.” Anthology of Twentieth-century British and Irish Poetry. Ed.

Keith Tuma. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. 97. Print.