Virginia Review of Asian Studies

Virginia Review of Asian Studies Volume 17 (2015): 175-192 Showalter: Education of Women HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN IN JAPAN: A CASE STUDY OF THE HISTORY AND INFLUENCE OF DOSHISHA WOMEN’S COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS

Raven Alexandra Showalter Mary Baldwin College

Abstract

This research seeks to analyze Japanese education for women since pre-Meiji times up to the present with a focus on higher education. In doing a case study of a Japanese women’s college in Kyoto, Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts, I draw comparisons between earlier women’s education, specifically in how education relates to the gender role of “Good Wife, Wise mother” in Japan. I also draw on the history and founding of D.W.C.L.A., and analyze the social and global influences on its founding.

Founder Joseph Hardy Neesima believed that incorporating Christianity into an educational institution would bring much needed morality to the young Japanese. After analyzing the development and history of the college, I tie in my experience during my Fall 2014 semester abroad at D.W.C.L.A. and my research pertaining to women’s education and gender roles.

In November, 2014, I interviewed 11 current Doshisha students, ranging from freshmen to seniors about their career goals and marriage intentions. All of the students felt that it is necessary for the Japanese government to expand the career opportunities for women, as they are a highly educated and willing resource. I conducted a second interview at my home institution, Mary Baldwin College, with yet another student from D.W.C.L.A. on many of the same topics. Her responses were similar to those I had previously interviewed. Drawing from these two interview experiences, I make suggestions for D.W.C.L.A. on how it can improve its education of women, and what Japanese society should do in the future to support these well-educated and career driven women. Finally, I encourage the college to push its graduates to break traditional gender roles, like “Good Wife, Wise Mother” and find success for themselves in whatever career field they choose.

Introduction: Japanese Women as “Good Wife, Wise Mother”

Today’s Japan is a leader in inventive technology, video-games and animation. With a population that prides itself on both manner and intellect, education plays a large role in its citizens’ success. High-level college and post-graduate education is available for both men and women, providing students with opportunities to learn a variety of subjects to prepare them for their future careers. However, despite the accessibility of higher education, very few women ever get to hold key positions of power. In 2010, only 4% of women served as the CEO of a

1 major company.1 Despite Japan’s abundance of educational centers, it still remains behind other developed nations when it comes to gender roles of women, and women’s education.

This thesis seeks to analyze the changes in Japanese women’s education from Japan’s early history until the modern day, and to provide a case study of a leading women’s educational institution, D.W.C.L.A. Through this thesis, I demonstrate that it is in Japan’s best interest to continue to improve and expand the academic curriculums at women’s colleges like D.W.C.L.A. because, now more than ever, highly educated women are a major resource.

In order to understand the current situation of women’s education and gender roles in Japan, it is important to look at the traditional concept of “Good Wife, Wise Mother.” The concept of “Good Wife, Wise Mother”2 is an idea that has been ingrained into Japanese society since the late 1800s.3 Originating from political ideologies before and during World War I and World War II, this phrase essentially describes the socially acceptable and idealized role of traditional women. However, Japanese women have not always simply fulfilled this particular role. During the Heian period (794-1159) women were the leading writers and poets among the nobility. Later, in feudal Japan, women continued to hold a relatively high status, now working alongside men in the fields, managing the home and in raising the children.4 They were not subservient to their husbands, but rather, were treated as equally skilled contributors. By 1914, however, the education, or preparation of women to serve the role of “Good Wife, Wise Mother” began to dominate all other roles women had previously secured.

Prior to Meiji (1868-1912), there were very few educational opportunities available in Japan for women. Aside from being educated to perform their role as a “Good Wife, Wise Mother,” elite families educated their daughters in the study of cultural traditions such as calligraphy and tea ceremony. Lower class men and women did not have access to even such a traditional Japanese education.5 In fact, it was not until Meiji that education for men and women alike became a national issue.6 These lower-class women, who did not have the means to pay for lessons in the traditional arts, were educated solely to perform their social role as “Good Wife, Wise Mother” by their mothers and grandmothers.

During Meiji, however, concerns regarding higher education were brought to the forefront, as Japan felt weak and threatened by Western forces. In 1872, Emperor Meiji’s government established compulsory education. Japan, aware of its poor modern educational standards after having greater contact with Western nations like the United States, sought to

1 Zahidi, Saadia and Hermina, Ibarra. “The Corporate Gender Gap.” World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland, 2010. 2 Concept of women in Japan relating their necessary role as a model, serving wife yet intelligent, and nurturing mothers. 3 Araújo Nocedo, Ana Micaela. “The “good wife and wise mother” pattern: gender differences in today‘s Japanese society.” Crítica Contemporánea. Revista de Teoría Politica. Nov. 2012. Accessed February 20, 2015. http://www.fcs.edu.uy/archivos/Araújo(1).pdf 4 Araújo Nocedo, 1. 5 Lombard, Frank Alanson. Pre Meiji Education in Japan. Tokyo, Japan, Methodist Publishing House, 1913. 169- 170 6 Asia for Educators. “The Meiji Restoration and Modernization.” Asia for Educators. Columbia University. 2009. Accessed February 03, 2015. http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1750_meiji.htm. Virginia Review of Asian Studies Volume 17 (2015): 175-192 Showalter: Education of Women transform itself into a modern and powerful nation-state.7 By educating its citizens to be both supportive of the government and learned in subjects like math and science, Japan believed it could finally rank among the world powers. A leading authority and author on Japanese education, Lucien Ellington recounts, “Meiji policy makers envisioned the imperial universities as organs of the national government.”8 As such, standards of education were nationalized, and the government set about buildings schools in each prefecture. Primary schools, which educated children from first grade until sixth grade, were co-ed, while secondary schools, seventh grade and beyond, remained single-sex.9 The government reasoned that, after a certain age, men and women needed to receive education tailored to suit their future role in society. While all citizens could be active participants in the nation’s modernization process, not all of them were expected to work outside the home. The gender role of “Good Wife, Wise Mother” was still impacting women’s lives in the Meiji Period.

A fundamental belief of the Meiji government was, in order for the nation to prosper, the home needed to prosper equally well. As in other eras, the role women in Meiji was essentially that of the “Good Wife, Wise Mother.” With their husbands toiling away in factories and offices, the burden of raising children fell almost entirely onto the mother. Women were greatly needed in the home, especially now that the father spent most of his time away at work. Their children, after all, would one day enter society and serve the government as factory workers or bureaucrats, so a large emphasis was placed on the children’s early education. The mothers during this period were active participants in both their children’s early development and education. While some may argue that this participation shows that women held greater power and influence, when compared to other periods, women were still were unable to break free from their destined role as “Good Wife, Wise Mother.”

As the mothers spent most, if not all of their time in their home with their children, the Japanese family unit was very stable and prosperous. The stability of the household aided in the overall development of the children, and of Meiji society as a whole. In order to support the needs of the Meiji government, women’s education at the secondary level became focused around family, social and home-making skills.10 There was little need for women to attend college, because they had already received the training they needed during their secondary schooling. Those who did go on to college mainly went to improve social status and connections. Women’s colleges played a big role in further preparing women for their roles as “Good Wives, Wise Mothers” in Japan. To some extent, this pattern continues today.11

7 Platt, Brian. “Children and Youth in History: Educational Reform in Japan”. George Mason University. Accessed February 03, 2015. http://chnm.gmu.edu/cyh/teaching-modules/125. 8 Ellington, Lucien. Education in the Japanese Life-Cycle: Implications for the United States. The Edwin Mellen Press, Lampeter, United Kingdon, 1992. 138. 9 Asia for Educators. “The Meiji Restoration and Modernization.” Asia for Educators. Columbia University. 2009. Accessed February 03, 2015. http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1750_meiji.htm. 10 Li, Yuk-Heung. Women's education in Meiji Japan and the development of Christian girls' schools. University of Hong Kong. 1993. 11 McVeigh, Brian. Life in a Japanese Women’s College: Learning to be Ladylike. Routledge, New York, 2014. 3. 3 Educated Women in the Modern Era

The realm of education is ever-evolving. In global-minded countries such as the United States and Japan, well-educated women can claim key positions of power and influence. Developed nations understand that they are at their strongest when they offer women the same educational opportunities as men. At the same time, while it is evident that traditional gender roles are changing, many Japanese are still very traditional in their opinion of the role of women. There is an ever present “glass ceiling” preventing most Japanese women from attaining positions of power and influence, and these ideas are often reinforced by leading educational institutes who prepare women for their socially-accepted role.

After spending a semester at Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts, a women’s college in Kyoto, Japan, in the Fall of 2014, and learning about the many gender issues present in Japan today, I became interested in the development and progression of Japanese women’s colleges. From my experience at Mary Baldwin College, a small women’s college in Staunton, Virginia, the college and its professors are very supportive of women’s rights and encourage their graduates to seek high positions in whatever career field they pursue, and to challenge gender roles. I was curious to see how a Japanese women’s college like Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts would compare to similar American institutions. I was also interested in learning how a women’s college like D.W.C.L.A. could have been founded during a time where the “Good Wife, Wise Mother” role was still largely prevalent. I wondered what kind of education the college provided for women, and what these women were expected to do with their lives after graduation in such a period. Was the college seeking to break the societal mold of women as “Good Wives, Wise Mothers”, or was it enforcing this gender role? Similarly, I wanted to see how the present-day D.W.C.L.A. compares to its founding roots? Has the college made progress towards surpassing the gender role of “Good Wife, Wise Mother” or does it continue to educate its students to support this idea?

The purpose of this thesis is to provide a case study of Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts from its founding in 1876 until 2000, when a major shift in the Japanese educational system occurred. In the conclusion, I will draw comparisons between the “old” and current Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts. I will analyze the changes in curriculum and mission to see whether or not the College remains true to its founder’s ideals, and if the college continues to support the gender-role of “Good Wife, Wise Mother.” Finally, I will decide whether or not it is D.W.C.L.A.’s best interest to continue on its current educational path, or if it is better suited returning to its original incarnation.12

The Cause of Doshisha Women’s College

Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts was first established in Kyoto, Japan as Doshisha Eigakko, in 1876.13 The early incarnations of D.W.C.L.A. and its partner institution, co-ed Doshisha University, were created during a period of large-scale educational reform. The centers of higher learning that were being developed across the country were entirely secular,

12 Acronym for Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts. 13 English Translation, “Academy.” Virginia Review of Asian Studies Volume 17 (2015): 175-192 Showalter: Education of Women focused on newly discovered mathematic principles and sciences. The founder of D.W.C.L.A, Joseph Hardy Neesima (1843-1890) wanted to develop a university and a school for girls that would expose the Japanese to the same subjects, but also incorporate lessons on Christianity and its principles of benevolence.14 The experiences of his life led to his strong desire to create what would become the leading educational institutes of Doshisha University and Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts. In order to understand the current D.W.C.L.A., it is necessary to look back on its history and educational development over time.

Joseph Hardy Neesima, founder of both Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts and Doshisha University was a unique individual with a strong desire to improve the lives and educational opportunities of the Japanese. Born in 1843, Neesima grew up in Edo 15 during the Edo Period (1603-1868.) His father, Neesima Shimeta, was a retainer for the Prince Itakura.16 Because of his family’s status, Neesima received both a classical education in Chinese, Japanese language and etiquette, as well as training in swordsmanship and horseback riding.17 In the Edo Period, classical educations were only available for high ranking families. For the lower-class, there was no real educational opportunities. Neesima became aware of this gap, and questioned the validity of this division. Regardless of his curiosity and desire for change, teachers and advisors pushed Neesima along in his classical studies, anticipating his future career as a highly knowledgeable government official.

Like other students, Neesima focused study on Eastern culture and history. At the time, even the most elite of Japanese students were not taught to think about nations outside of Asia, and had very little knowledge about the Western world. Despite that lack of knowledge, Neesima dreamed of a better Japan—a Japan that would focus more on the needs of its people rather than stray into corruption. After a friend showed him a Chinese atlas of the United States with detailed descriptions of their democratic system and societal organization, Neesima became motivated to incorporate Western ideas in the Japanese government.18 “Why government? Why not let us be free? Why let us be as a bird in a cage or a rat in a bag? Nay! We must cast away such a savage government, and we must pick out a president as the United States of America.”19 However, it was not until Neesima had read a copy of the Bible in Chinese that he made up his mind to come to America.

“Having recognized God as my Heavenly Father, I felt I was no longer inseparably bound to my parents. ‘I am no more my parents, but my God’s.’ I felt then that I must take my own course. This new idea gave me courage to make a decision to forsake my prince, and also to leave my home and my country temporarily.”20

14 The Doshisha. “Chronology: Founding Spirit and Joseph Hardy Neesima.” The Doshisha. Accessed Feb 04, 2015. http://www.doshisha.ed.jp/english/history/niijima.html. 15 The old name for modern-day Tokyo. 16 Hardy, Arthur S. The Life and Letters of Joseph Hardy Neesima. Doshisha University Press. 1980. 3. 17 Hardy. 3. 18 Hardy. 4. 19 Hardy. 7. 20 Hardy. 31 5 After much difficulty in securing safe passage, Neesima successfully boarded the “Wild Rover”, a vessel bound for Boston on April 1, 1865.21 Neesima’s time in America would lay the groundwork for his establishment of Doshisha University and D.W.C.L.A.

Once in Boston, Neesima received generous funding from a Mr. and Mrs. Hardy, the owners of the “Wild Rover,” to attend Amherst College, where he studied English, writing, science and Christian doctrine.22 The Hardy’s are important contributors in the founding of D.W.C.L.A. They became Neesima’s adoptive American family, and supported Neesima’s study financially in America.23 With their help, Neesima was able to enter the English Department at the prestigious Philips Academy Andover Theological Seminary after graduation. While Neesima was unable to complete his academic career in its entirety, he was ordained a minister.

In 1872 Neesima returned to Japan to serve as a Christian missionary.24 It was this work in particular, that pushed him to establish a Christian-based school in Japan, where free thinking and morality would be just as important as educational prowess. In a speech at Yokohama, Neesima expressed his enthusiasm for opening a Christian-based school, “I find it of great delight to tell of Christ to my own people.”25 During this time, however, Christianity was still looked upon unfavorably by the majority of the Japanese, and officials tried to prevent its study. The government of Kyoto went so far as to forbid Neesima from receiving and using funds received from foreigners.26 Despite the difficulties of bringing Christianity to the Japanese, Neesima was determined to create an educational institution that would teach young Japanese about morality—not simply educate them academically.27

Neesima grew up in a Japan that was filled with government corruption and inefficiency. When he first learned of Christianity, and its message of morality, Neesima embraced Christianity with open arms. He truly felt that Japan needed to be saved, and that Christianity was the best method through which such salvation could finally come. “...When we examine the present condition of affairs we find one cause for sorrow. Do you ask what that cause is? It is that there does not exist in Japan a university which, teaching the new sciences, is also founded upon Christian morality. This is the foundation which our civilization needs.”28

As D.W.C.L.A. was founded in 1876 with the goal of promoting Christian morality in Japan, the development and eventual opening of D.W.C.L.A. came with much difficulty. In Meiji, the Japanese government strained their finances paying for large-scale industrialization and modernization. Many of the newly built industries, such as railway and shipping, were sold to private investors.29 With the majority of private investors tied up in major industries, Neesima had to rely heavily on foreign investors. Luckily, Neesima received much funding and assistance

21 Hardy. 2. 22 Davis, J.D. A Sketch of the Life of Reverend Joseph Hardy. Fleming H. Revell Company, 1894. 35 23 Hardy. 12. 24 Hardy. 193. 25 Hardy. 194. 26 Hardy. 226. 27 Hardy. 239. 28 Hardy. 239. Virginia Review of Asian Studies Volume 17 (2015): 175-192 Showalter: Education of Women from Christians he met during his time in America and Europe. A significant amount of funding came from the Iwakura Missionaries. This funding turned out to be both a blessing and a curse for Doshisha. The mission wanted that money to be used to support a wholly Christian school, whereas Neesima wanted his school to offer courses in more than just Christianity.

Neesima knew that if the school was only a missionary institution, very few Japanese would come there to study, and he would face greater opposition from the Japanese government. “We must raise our standard of education until they can no longer assail us. If we limit it simply to theology, the best self-sustaining students will not come to us. Only by making our school attractive by giving a good and broad education can we widen our Christian influence.”30 Neesima developed a school that would offer students a curriculum based in Christian morality, which could provide knowledge of western sciences as well. Many rival schools and universities, such as Tokyo Imperial University, offered rigorous programs in western sciences.31 Certain concessions had to be made for the school to enroll enough students. As his school was to educate its students on subjects other than Christianity, Neesima struggled to maintain foreign funding.

When Neeshima set about opening Doshisha, various government officials including Prince Iwakura suggested that his experiences abroad would be much more beneficial to the nation if he accepted a high position in the new Meiji government rather than opening a Christian school. Neeshima declined these offers, stating: “I am very thankful for your kindness, but suppose I should take a government position, how much benefit could I give to Japan? Certainly very little. But if I educate many young men and women and produce hundreds and thousands of Neeshima’s who can work for this country, it will be of some use. This is my aim.”32

In order to develop his school, Doshisha, into a university, and establish a school for girls, the predecessor for D.W.C.L.A., Neesima decided to broaden the curriculum even more. ”If we do not strive to improve we shall be left in lower strata of educational system, and fail to lay hold of the best class of students. Our good missionary friends have thus far tried to teach the Bible too much and neglected scientific teaching.”33 While still maintaining courses in Christian theology, Neesima expanded the curriculum to offer courses in English, and improved the science and math courses.34

It was at this point that the two schools, Doshisha University and Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts began to diverge academically. While Doshisha University continued forward, developing a strong curriculum in math and the sciences, the early incarnation of D.W.C.L.A., Doshisha Girls’ School, sought to provide women with an education seen to be

29 Asia for Educators. “The Meiji Restoration and Modernization.” Asia for Educators. Columbia University. 2009. Accessed February 03, 2015. http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1750_meiji.htm. 30 Hardy. 235. 31 Hardy. 241. 32 Belle M. Brain, All About Japan: Stories of Sunrise Land Told for Little Folks (New York: Young People’s Missionary Movement, 1905), 203. 33 Hardy. 227-228. 34 Hardy. 33, 7 useful for their future roles as homemakers. The young women who attended Doshisha Girl’s School took courses such as home economics, English literature and Christian theology.35 After officially becoming D.W.C.L.A. in 1930, the next principal, Michi Matsuda, established the majors English, Music and Food Science.36 The Food Science major was the most developed, followed by English and Music. The English major was very popular among students because it gave them a competitive edge when looking for marriage partners.

As D.W.C.L.A. was a Christian-based college, students were also exposed to the ideas of Western faith and morality. As Neesima planned, these Christian courses were unique to D.W.C.L.A, and not available at other publicly-established schools. Yet, despite this difference in education, graduates did not have the expectation of entering the working world. Rather, having become well-suited for marriage and family life, they met partners of equal or higher social status and settled down, once again reinforcing the gender role of “Good Wife, Wise Mother.”

The trend of educating Japanese women to become more desirable brides through women’s colleges has been prominent since D.W.C.L.A.’s founding. A similar stigma exists for women’s colleges in America as well. While this stigma has been on the decline in recent decades, the notion has not completely vanished. Most Japanese women attend college seeking a degree to set them on a desired career path, yet for some, an underlying reason in choosing to attend a women’s college may be to achieve a desired social status. The concept that the best brides go to women’s colleges is still prevalent in Japan today, and while social “class” is not the main deciding factor in job selection, education at a women’s college for women simply looks good.37 Since the early days of women’s colleges like D.W.C.L.A., the career path of choice has, and to some extent, continues to be, homemaker.

Despite Neesima’s original intention to establish a school that would provide “meaningful education for girls,” the school that resulted from his intentions was not very academically challenging. The curriculum was quite different from that of Doshisha University, which, at the time, was only open to men.38 By offering mainly courses in home economics, students were pushed to accept the gender role of “Good Wife, Wise Mother.” Neesima was certainly a pioneer in women’s education, as there were very few educational opportunities available, however, could he really not have made the school for girls on an equal caliber with the all-male Doshisha University? Unfortunately, the school for girls that resulted from his hard work was little more than a bridal preparatory academy.

35 Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts. Timeline. Accessed March 1, 2015. http://www.dwc.doshisha.ac.jp/english/about/chronology.html 36 Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts. Timeline. Accessed March 20, 2015. http://www.dwc.doshisha.ac.jp/english/about/chronology.html 37 McVeigh, Brian J. Life in a Japanese Women's College: Learning to Be Ladylike. Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese Studies. N.p.: Routledge, 2014.

38 Even today there is a strict separation between DWCLA and Doshisha University even though their two campuses adjoin each other. Virginia Review of Asian Studies Volume 17 (2015): 175-192 Showalter: Education of Women

D.W.C.L.A. continued much the same until the late 1990s and early 2000’s. By 2000, academic reform at the college level was severely needed across Japan.39 Women’s colleges like D.W.C.L.A. and even some co-ed institutions had fallen behind academically, and were no longer pushing students to learn effectively. Professor of Asian Studies, Dr. Daniel Métraux recounts his experience at D.W.C.L.A. during his 1999-2000 school year, “Students take a wide range of courses with very impressive-sounding titles, but the simple fact is that students are forced to take so many courses at once and teachers must teach so many slots that students have little or no time to study and teachers can do little to prepare. It is more a tragic farce than quality education.”40

This system left students with very little time to study and do homework. Teachers, understanding this problem, would only assign basic homework ,if any, and often spent valuable class time on the homework assignment, instead of a lecture. Teachers were exhausted from teaching so many courses, and students were frustrated because they could not learn very much. What they did learn proved to be very useless in the working world, as the knowledge was superficial at best. In response to this call for change, D.W.C.L.A. worked to cut back the number of courses required, having students take between 8-9 courses a semester, while simultaneously expanding its curriculum and major offerings.

Doshisha Women’s College Since 2000

The education offered at D.W.C.L.A. has expanded greatly since its official founding as a college in 1930, and since the educational reform of the early 2000s.41 The college has adjusted its focus with expansion in areas that Neesima could hardly have anticipated. In order for these expansions to occur, however, other aspects of the college have lost prominence. One such aspect is Christianity. While Christianity continues to exist at the college, its importance has decreased greatly. Chapel hour is offered every morning, but few students make an effort to attend, choosing to use that time for study, socializing, or commuting.42 In its place, however, there is a growing emphasis and interest in internationalism. As the world continues to become more globally minded, the college understands that international interactions are key for student’s future success. Despite D.W.C.L.A.’s attempt to place equal importance on all three aspects of its Educational Philosophy: Christianity, Internationalism, and its Liberal Arts curriculum, Internationalism is continually overshadowing the importance of Christianity.

39 Metraux, Daniel. Under the Gaijin Gaze: Essays on Education & Attitudes of Japanese College Women. Writers Club Press, New York, 2001. 34. 40 Metraux, Daniel. 23. 41 Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts. Chronology. Accessed March 1, 2015. http://www.dwc.doshisha.ac.jp/english/about/chronology.html. 42 Impressions of Doshisha Women’s College Students, collected September-December 2014. 9 Graphic 1: Educational Philosophy at Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts, 2 March, 2015, http://www.dwc.doshisha.ac.jp/english/about/educational_ideal.html

It is Internationalism, not Christianity, that will be important to a student’s success in future years. With this mindset, D.W.C.L.A. is actively encouraging students to travel abroad for a semester, a year, or a summer at sister institutions.43 By the time of graduation, it is common for most students to have had at least one study abroad or travel experience. With Japan’s current economic situation, the demand for global-minded workers is rising. Japan needs to find a way to remain a global player, and it sees international study and experience as key. Students that participate in such programs gain applicable, real-world experience which can set them apart from others in their job search. In essence, what Japan and foreign companies are looking for from their employees today is not their religious affiliation or morality, but their skill in their career field, and international experience.44 D.W.C.L.A. is following this trend and is offering courses that prepare students for active, global engagement.

In the years to come, the Christian component of D.W.C.L.A.’s educational philosophy may vanish altogether. While this is unfortunately a deviation from Neesima’s original founding intentions, it is necessary for the college’s survival. Women’s colleges have seen a decrease in enrollment in recent decades, as co-ed universities expand and improve their academic offerings. Even America’s single-sex educational institutions face the same problems, with the most recent closure of the women’s college Sweet Briar College in 2015. All that women’s colleges can do now is to make their academic programs as challenging and rewarding as the programs at co-ed institutions.

To this end, D.W.C.L.A. offers majors in five faculties, the Faculty of Liberal Arts, Faculty of Contemporary Social Sciences, the Faculty of Human Life and Science, Faculty of Culture and Representation, and the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, a recent addition. Within these five departments are ten major fields. Students can pursue a variety of career fields with their selected major. Like all colleges, however, certain departments have better reputations and are stronger than others. For D.W.C.L.A., their strength lies in their Faculty of Culture and Representation, as well as their Faculty of Human Life and Science.45

43 Impressions and Interviews with current D.W.C.L.A. Students. January, 2015. 44 Impressions and Interviews with current D.W.C.L.A. Students. January, 2015. 45 Unless stated otherwise, all information was gathered during an Interview with a D.W.C.L.A. student. January 30, 2015. Virginia Review of Asian Studies Volume 17 (2015): 175-192 Showalter: Education of Women

Graphic 2: Faculties and Departments at Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts, 3 March, 2015, http://www.dwc.doshisha.ac.jp/english/faculty_dep_info/

In the Faculty of Culture and Representation, students can pursue cultural study of Japan, and linguistic studies of both Japanese and English, which prepare them for diverse jobs and career fields. The “English Major” is very popular at D.W.C.L.A., and many of its students come to MBC, or other abroad sister institutions to further their skill. The Faculty of Human Life and Science provides students with courses in diet and nutrition. One of the most popular careers of choice after graduation is dietician.46 The weakest faculty is the Faculty of Liberal Arts. The Department of Music is said to be the “easiest” and “least preparatory” of all of D.W.C.L.A.’s departments, perhaps in part due to the difficulties in obtaining a steady career or job in this field after graduation.47

The reputation of the D.W.C.L.A. as a women’s college has always been very positive. The college is academically sound, and its graduates find moderate success. Graduates are

46 Interview with D.W.C.L.A. student. January 30, 2015. 47 Interview with D.W.C.L.A. student. January 30, 2015. 11 looked upon favorably by companies in the Kyoto area, and have a good reputation for marriage meetings. In talking to both current students and graduates, it seems that almost all of the women who enroll in the college enjoy their experience greatly.48 While many comment that the academics were not as challenging as high school, they enjoy their freedom and new social opportunities greatly. For young Japanese women, the college period is often the most liberating of their lives, as they are not yet saddled with their “Good Wife, Wise Mother” role. They study in order to become successful, and the time that they don’t spend studying, they fill with extracurricular activities, part-time jobs, or other enriching experiences.49 Students at D.W.C.L.A. are independent and capable women, who can become good, skilled workers in the future, as long as Japan makes opportunities available, and does not saddle them with the “Good Wife, Wise Mother” gender role.

Before coming to Japan, I had studied greatly about its traditional culture and modern society. Having heard so much about the population crisis and limitations of women in the workforce, I wanted to find out the opinions of young Japanese women regarding the current issues of marriage and careers. In a questionnaire that I passed around to eleven students, ranging from freshmen to seniors at D.W.C.L.A this past November, I inquired about student’s career interest and opinion on marriage. When asked what kind of career they would like to have, students replied with a variety of career fields. The most popular answers were “undecided” and “a job that I can do from home.” The undecided students were only in their first semester and had little idea of what they would like to do. The more “decided” students were in their third and fourth years. Their career choices also varied greatly, and I found this variation quite interesting. One was interested in going into fashion, while another wanted to become a manga or Japanese comic artist. I’ve summarized the results in a table below:

Number of Students Desired Job/ Career 2 Job you can do from home 2 Undecided 1 Bank Accountant 1 Television Career, Newscaster 1 Manga, comic illustrator 1 Fashion worker 1 Interior Designer 1 Continue job started before marriage 1 Housewife

Table 1: Data collected from questionnaire at Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts, November, 2014

I had been under the impression that all of the students would reply that they would like to work in a company as an office lady.50 The office lady career has been around since the early 1970s and largely consists of women doing menial jobs for their boss or other co-workers. 51 I was happy to hear that these women were not seeking that impersonal career, but rather, were setting their sights on more diverse career fields, like interior design and news casting. It seemed to me that D.W.C.L.A. was pushing its students to pursue careers that they found interesting or

48 Interview and impressions for D.W.C.L.A. students. 49 Interview and impressions for D.W.C.L.A. students. 50 McVeigh, Brian. 146-171. 51 McVeigh, Brian. 146-171. Virginia Review of Asian Studies Volume 17 (2015): 175-192 Showalter: Education of Women rewarding, and not forcing students into jobs that would only force them into the “Good Wife, Wise Mother” role.

In a similar study completed by Asian Studies Professor, Dr. Daniel Métraux at D.W.C.L.A. in 2000, students were interviewed about their desired futures after college. Most responded that they would like to work for a company or office for a few years, and then settle down in marriage. In response to Dr. Métraux’s questioning of students entering diverse career fields, a freshman stated her opinion on the role of women, “You say that every woman should seek a profession and become a professional person, but in reality it is much better if we stay home and take care of our families.”52 His students didn’t have grand dreams of illusions about their career possibilities.

During this time in Japan, one of the best job options for women included the Office Lady. The students largely “saw themselves as becoming OLs (“Office Ladies” or busy secretaries and office assistant) who would work for a few years before finding the right man, marrying him and raising a family.”53 The few students who felt like pursuing higher-level jobs sought to become airline stewardess, teachers, artists and musicians. Métraux reports that only one student expressed a desire to enter a career in more traditional professions such as law, medicine, college teaching and business management.54

While current D.W.C.L.A. are not setting themselves on career paths to become CEO’s or political figures, they no longer see the Office Lady job as ideal. Following out lengthy discussions on current career aspirations, I continued my interview by switching to the topic of marriage. Like Métraux, I was particularly interested in the students’ responses to the need for marriage in Japan and the role of women as mothers. I was surprised to learn that all of the students surveyed replied that they had the intention and/or desire to get married by their mid- thirties. I wondered whether or not the current population crisis was having an effect on their decision. A news report from Jun 2, 1999 captures the view of women regarding this crisis perfectly, “Japan is a difficult place for a woman to raise a child, partly because in practice this is a nation of single mothers. Husbands stagger home late from the office of a bar, and a government poll found that fathers spend an average of just six minutes a day looking after their children.”55 Despite the difficulties of raising children in the modern era, each student stated that the Japanese youth have a social responsibility to get married and have children. It seems to me that if the current generation of Japanese women are coming out of college with the mindset that the gender role of “Good Wife, Wise Mother” is still necessary. While they may no longer be expressly taking courses on child-care or homemaking, the idea of becoming a “Good Wife, Wise Mother” is quite prevalent.

My suspicions were proved correct even when it came to the question of having a career in tandem with marriage. The opinion of the students was largely the same—ideally, they would like to have both a steady career and family, but most likely, one of the two would have to be

52 Métraux. 88. 53 Métraux. 87. 54 Métraux. 87. 55 Asahi Evening News, June 2, 1999, p. 1. Excerpted from Daniel Métraux’s Under the Gaijin Gaze. 17. 13 sacrificed—that their career would have to be sacrificed. Despite that statement, all of the students were of the same opinion that, if Japan wants women to get married, they need to provide greater opportunities for women to continue their career after marriage. Young Japanese women have a lot to offer in all career fields, but when faced with the social responsibility of marrying and bringing the next generation into the world, their potential is often wasted. These students have the desire and capability to work hard for their country, but without opportunities to have families and careers, Japan will never be able to get out of its economic slump. These women and I feel that it is necessary for the Japanese government to expand the career opportunities for women if they want to continue to exist as a strong and influential global power.56

Doshisha Women’s College Students Abroad

Continuing with these ideas, upon my return to MBC in January, 2015, I interviewed a student from D.W.C.L.A about her future career goals. I was curious to see if her reply would differ from the responses of the domestic students that I had interviewed in Kyoto. I felt that her ambitions might be grander, and involve becoming the head of a large corporation or working abroad.

I began the interview by asking M, a student from Osaka, what her intended career or job was after graduation. She replied that ideally, she would like to become a flight attendant. In Japan and Asia, the flight attendant position is highly respected, for each attendant is expected to be fluent in several foreign languages, such as English and Korean. She explained that she loves to travel and see new places, and that the flight attendant career would allow her to pursue that passion. I was happy to hear that M was pursuing a career related to internationalism. As I had previously stated, D.W.C.L.A. has been moving towards globalism and deviating away from Christianity, and it seems that this change has been having a positive effect on its current students.

When asked about why she chose to go to a women’s college like D.W.C.L.A., M replied that she had always been educated in an largely female environment, and simply felt more comfortable studying with other women. She also explained that D.W.C.L.A. has good connections with ANA, All Nippon Airlines, and offers students the opportunity to participate in internships during the summer in Tokyo, internships which often lead to full-time employment after graduation.57 Again, such international opportunities fit together perfectly with M’s future career aspirations.

In order to prepare for her future career as a flight attendant, M majors in one of the two English Majors available at D.W.C.L.A. The English major is broken down into four sections: Literature, Culture, Linguistics and Communication, all of which emphasize the four skills, speaking, listening, writing and reading.

56 Interview and impressions from Interviews with D.W.C.L.A. students. 57 Interview with M, January 30, 2015. Virginia Review of Asian Studies Volume 17 (2015): 175-192 Showalter: Education of Women

Graphic 3: English Major at Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts, 3 March, 2015, http://www.dwc.doshisha.ac.jp/english/faculty_dep_info/representation/english/index.html

M explained that she is a member of the most challenging English department because it requires each student to study abroad. She felt that this international experience would give her a competitive edge when applying to airlines. M related that the other major in English is tailored to those who intend to become English teachers in Japan, and for that, study abroad is only suggested, not required. M believes that the English department at D.W.C.L.A. is one of the best in the Kansai Region, because of the international experience and foreign faculty are present.58

After discussing the strengths of the college’s English program and curriculum, we spent some time talking about the impact D.W.C.L.A. has had on M’s career aspirations as a woman. I asked M several questions about the quality of education, and the promotion and support of women within the institution. I was curious to learn if faculty pushed their students to break typical gender roles. In response, M explained that faculty and staff of her department are always supportive of her career aspirations. While she cannot speak for other majors, she feels that the English Department pushes its students to take on challenges and pursue their dreams. Her professors do not encourage her to expressly break gender roles per se, but do encourage her to follow her dreams, wherever they may lead.

Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts has evolved over the years into an institution of higher learning that provides its students with opportunities to succeed in a variety of career fields. While it may not be overtly encouraging students to break traditional gender roles like the “Good Wife, Wise Mother”, the college is supporting its students to find success in their chosen career. Certainly, D.W.C.L.A. needs to continue to be open to making changes and evolving as time goes on. Currently, it is working to expand its international programs, while improving the

58 The Kansai Region is an area of western Japan that includes the major cities Kyoto, Osaka, Kobe. It is the second most populated region after the Kanto/ Tokyo area. 15 courses that focus on this area of study. In the years to come, the success of its students will largely depend on the college’s ability to keep up with trends in the global sphere. Expansion and improvements in the fields of science and mathematics, as well as engineering programs would greatly improve the competitiveness of the college, and help graduates to enter largely male-dominated career fields.59 Finally, Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts should push its student’s to break social molds and motivate students to call for much needed women’s social reform.

Annotated Bibliography

Araújo Nocedo, Ana Micaela. “The “good wife and wise mother” pattern: gender differences in today‘s Japanese society.” Crítica Contemporánea. Revista de Teoría Politica. Nov. 2012. Accessed February 20, 2015. http://www.fcs.edu.uy/archivos/Araújo(1).pdf This source provided information regarding the “Good Wife, Wise Mother” gender role in Japan.

Asia for Educators. “The Meiji Restoration and Modernization.” Asia for Educators. Columbia University. 2009. Accessed February 03, 2015. http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1750_meiji.htm. This source provides information regarding the changes in education during the Meiji Period, which I incorporated into the background section of my paper.

Brain, Belle M. All About Japan: Stories of Sunrise Land Told For Little Folks. New York: Young People’s Missionary Movement, 1905.

Ms. Brain was a prolific missionary writer whose works focused on books and articles on missionary activities around the world for juvenile readers

Davis, J.D. A Sketch of the Life of Reverend Joseph Hardy. Fleming H. Revell Company, 1894. This Book provides an overview of the life of Joseph Neesima, the founder of Doshisha Women’s College. I’ve used this information in the background section to help explain the development of DWCLA over time.

Doshisha Women's College of Liberal Arts. Accessed January 23, 2015. http://www.dwc.doshisha.ac.jp/english/.

This website provided key information regarding the academic curriculum of the school, historical development over time, and mission statement for education. The Doshisha. “Chronology: Founding Spirit and Joseph Hardy Neesima.” The Doshisha. Accessed Feb 04, 2015. http://www.doshisha.ed.jp/english/history/niijima.html.

This website provided information about Doshisha University, which enabled me to draw comparisons between the development of Doshisha and D.W.C.L.A.

59 Zahidi, Saadia and Ibarra, Herminia. “The Corporate Gender Gap.” World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland, 2010. Virginia Review of Asian Studies Volume 17 (2015): 175-192 Showalter: Education of Women

Ellington, Lucien. Education in the Japanese Life-Cycle: Implications for the United States. The Edwin Mellen Press, Lampeter, United Kingdom, 1992.

This source provides information on the Japanese Educational system, from primary education to higher education. While there was more information than I could use in this thesis, this book provides the reader with a good understanding of the development of the Japanese Educational system up to the 1990s.

Hardy, Arthur S. The Life and Letters of Joseph Hardy Neesima. Doshisha University Press. 1980. 5.

This source provides ample information about the founder, Joseph Neesima and the history of both Doshisha University and Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts.

Li, Yuk-Heung. Women's education in Meiji Japan and the development of Christian girls' schools. University of Hong Kong. 1993.

This work provides further insight into the education of women during the Meiji period.

Lombard, Frank Alanson. Pre Meiji Education in Japan. Tokyo, Japan, Methodist Publishing House, 1913.

Provided helpful information included in the background section of thesis, as it provides information regarding the pre-Meiji education experience in Japan.

McVeigh, Brian J. Life in a Japanese Women's College: Learning to Be Ladylike. Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese Studies. N.p.: Routledge, 2014.

This author of this book is currently a professor at Tokyo Gakuen University, Tokyo. McVeigh focuses on many of the same issues that I want to regarding women's colleges in Japan.

Metraux, Daniel A., Dr. Under the Gaijin Gaze: Essays on the Education & Attitudes of Japanese College Women. San Jose, United States: Writers Club Press, 2001. This book describes the educational experiences of Japanese college women and provides helpful insight regarding societal expectations. I used this book to further my understanding and use it to draw comparisons between my experience (Fall 2014) and Dr. Metraux's experience during the 1999-2000 school year.

Nakanishi, A., and B. Hirata. Interview by the author. Staunton, VA. January 30, 2015.

A is a student from Soka University. B is a student from Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts. I conducted an interview with both students about women’s education and social

17 issues in Japan. While I am not using any specific information related to Soka, I received similar impressions from both students about women’s issues in Japan today.

Platt, Brian. “Children and Youth in History: Educational Reform in Japan”. George Mason University. Accessed February 03, 2015. http://chnm.gmu.edu/cyh/teaching-modules/125.

Study Abroad Experience at Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts, September - December 2014.

This experience provided me with insight into the current education of D.W.C.L.A. and also provided me with the opportunity to get to know current students and learn about social issues.

Zahidi, Saadia and Ibarra, Herminia. “The Corporate Gender Gap.” World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland, 2010.

Provided information regarding women’s working situation in Japan, and the gender gap of corporate Japan.