The Crisis of Communism

A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 1

THE CRISIS OF COMMUNISM & THE END OF THE COLD WAR A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 2

Theme 3: The Collapse of Communism The Sino-Soviet Conflict

Map of China and the USSR Discussion

 Looking at the map what strikes you about the position and size of China and the USSR?

 Why might they be likely to come into conflict?

 Which possible areas might they clash over?

 Which Chinese enemies might the Soviets be likely to support?

 Which Soviet enemies might the Chinese be likely to support?

 Which major Asian power did they have a shared hatred of? A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 3

Long Term Reasons

The history of Sino-Soviet relations had seen a mixture of co-operation and conflict. When it had been the Russian Empire, Tsarist troops had been part of the occupying forces who had carved up a weak imperial China. Between 1858-1881, China had ceded 1.5m square km’s to Russia. But even in the post-Tsarist world, relations between the two great Asian powers had remained tense.

Good Relations Bad Relations

The CCP had been helped by Moscow Moscow never really gave that much support throughout the Chinese Civil War with some to Mao’s forces. Lundestad comments that: “if military aid (mostly dis-garded Japanese US support to Chiang was limited, Soviet equipment), advisers and economic help support to Mao Tse-Tung was even more limited” The American uncertainty over the USSR’s Stalin had co-operated with the KMT when it possible reaction had kept the US from was in Soviet interests, even though they had interfering too much in the KMT’s favour, and massacred Chinese Communists in 1927, for so had indirectly helped with Chiang’s defeat example Mao was a great admirer of Stalin’s methods The USSR had never given any help to the and his ruthless policies of modernization and Chinese against the vicious Japanese occupiers industrialization, especially his Five Year Plans; (in fact they had signed a Non Aggression pact he also admired Stalin’s personality cult - and with them in 1941), and had only entered labour camps (but despised Stalin himself) WWII in its final days to grab territory and resources ($2 billion worth of plant and machinery) Mao never initially questioned the USSR’s claim The 1945 Sino-Soviet Pact had even seen to be the world’s premier Communist power - Moscow recognise Chiang as China’s legitimate and its right to global leadership ruler. Not until October 1949 were the Chinese Communists praised on the front page of Pravda China and the USSR had always had a shared Europe was always more of a Soviet priority hatred of Japan; they were then to develop a than China and Asia; and Moscow was worried shared mistrust of the USA about straining its relations with the USA if it interfered too much in China Khruschev had pulled all Soviet troops out of A weak China was to the USSR’s benefit, as China by 1955, restoring full sovereignty to Moscow still had Tsarist-era territorial the Chinese government (though Macau and ambitions in Manchuria and Outer Mongolia; Hong Kong remained in the control of the old Russia would also retain Port Arthur (Lushun) imperialists) as a naval base for a number of years, and have other territorial claims A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 4

Stalin was suspicious of Mao’s independence of mind and feared the rise of another Tito (the independently-minded Yugoslav leader) Stalin & Mao – together at last Pro-Soviet Chinese Communist leaders, like Kao Kang in Manchuria, were dismissed by Mao Short-Term Reasons for the Sino-Soviet Split

(Use Painter pages 38-39 and Lundestad pages 195-201 to help you find the key words) 2. The 1956 speech at 8. In summary, China and the 1. The ______War had seen the the 20th Party Congress USSR were always likely to beginnings of a split as the USSR given by ______clash. There were: had gone back on its promise of where he attacked and  Long-standing tensions; taking a more active role in the denounced _____, his  Incompatible strategic fighting. Stalin misled Mao. methods and ambitions Instead, despite his promises, he personality cult were  Ideological conflicts had left the Chinese _____ to do interpreted by the

 Different ways of doing the fighting and dying, while Chinese as a criticism of things Moscow had done little more than ____ and his similar  Differing attitudes towards provide aid and a few pilots. The methods. Later both the US and the West Soviets were even suspected of sides would play a  Different levels of wanting the war to drag on to game of who was the development exhaust the rival PRC, which lost more Communist, with  Different personalities in a million men, including Mao’s the Chinese calling the charge ____ Soviets “______”  And they were far too near and the Soviets calling each other for comfort the Chinese “______”

Why Sino-Soviet Relations Became 3. The failure of Mao’s 7. The USSR had also Strained Great Leap Forward in cut its aid to the PRC, ___ also alarmed the instead focusing on Soviets and undermined supplying its satellites their confidence in in ______. This 5. Both sides disapproved of each Mao’s leadership and damaged China’s ability. Painter says attempts at achieving others’ foreign policies. China disliked Khruschev’s ideas of __m starved to death; 6. Chinarapid ______.and the USSR also “______” with the West, Lundestad ___m. Mao’s clashed over nuclear weapons. and his treatment of Poland & ______hardly Initially, the Soviets helped the ______in 1956, and the impressed either. PRC develop a Bomb; but seeming desertion of ____ in 1962; halted assistance in ____, and 4. The Chinese were Brezhnev’s invasion of ______then withdrew all advisers and more confrontational in 1968 was also denounced; the technicians the following year, towards the USA who USSR opposed Chinese annexation after Mao had proclaimed the Mao termed a of Tibet in ______and Chinese ______of a nuclear “______” - hostility towards one of Moscow’s conflict with the West! The without knowing the allies in Asia, ______, with which thaw in relations between the US’ real strength. The China was to fight a border-war in USA and USSR known as Soviets found this ____. The USSR was also worried ______also meant Moscow no dangerous and ignorant the PRC might start a war with the longer needed Beijing’s posturing, USA over the island of ______. support as much as they knew that the US had a massive lead in ______weapons! A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 5

Sino-Sovi Sino-Soviet Clashes

It is perhaps telling that the PRC and the USSR ultimately came into conflict over border disputes. For all the ideological rhetoric and posturing, it was essentially geo-political, strategic interests that mattered most to both sides. Despite being huge nations (the USSR was the largest in the world, with China the fourth biggest) they both wanted more land, more resources, more prestige.

In March, 1969 at the Amur-Ussuri River border open conflict occurred with hundreds killed. In 1967 the USSR had 15 divisions along the 4, 500 mile Chinese border; by 1973 this had risen to 45 or a massive 25% of its total forces. The Chinese began digging fallout shelters and hoarding grain. The US must have been rubbing its hands in glee.

However, was there any real danger of war? Diplomatic relations were never fully severed; and as Lundestad implies, it was only natural that they would fall out: “two countries seldom or never have identical interests”.

The results of the crisis though were important in a number of ways:  The restraining influence of the USSR on the PRC was gone; China would attack (and defeat) India in 1962; the USSR had been wooing Third World nations like India, and China put this policy in danger; the USSR sold MiG jets to India to try and undermine China’s advantages;  The Americans exploited the breach to their own ends; the US tried to drive a wedge between the two Communist powers by courting one or the other; Nixon famously favoured an agreement with China and visited the nation; the US only made mild protests at China taking up Taiwan’s seat on the Security-Council; at one stage, the PRC and the USA were even supporting the same (right-wing, anti-Soviet) dictators in Iran and Chile (the Shah and Pinochet)! In 1979, full diplomatic relations were established;  China began pursuing its own global agenda, distinct from that of the USSR; it developed relations with European Marxist states like Albania, which had left the Warsaw Pact in 1968; it criticized Soviet actions in Afghanistan and elsewhere; it attacked Soviet allies like Vietnam; Relations though did improve in the 1980s because: A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 6

 Mao was dead and the far more pragmatic Deng was in charge;  Leonid Brezhnev died in 1982 and would eventually be replaced by the moderate Mikhail Gorbachev; he even visited China in May, 1989; between 1985-89 trade between the two doubled to over $4billion; and Gorbachev removed all SS-20s from Asia and restrained Vietnam, etc.  New tensions arose between China and the USA, and between the USSR and the USA; Reagan was in office, there were arguments over Taiwan, but relations never deteriorated too much (Reagan sold China weapons in 1984-5); even US condemnation of the Tiananmen massacres was muted; The USSR – Challenges to Communism

The imposition of Soviet control over Eastern Europe (the ‘iron curtain’) was bound to eventually cause a backlash. The Soviets had rigged elections, murdered and executed opponents, and permanently stationed the Red Army in those unfortunate nations.

Match up the nation with its anti-Soviet and/or anti-Communist action

Date Nation Action 1956 Poland a. Serious riots saw dozens dead and hundreds wounded 1956 Czechoslovakia b. The riots were largely socio-economically motivated; the installation of the relative moderate, Gomulka, helped to bring the situation under control 1953 Hungary c. Its revolt was aimed at instigating reforms, of wanting ‘socialism with a human face’ 1968 GDR d. The most bloody revolts took place in a nation that had been a close ally of the Germans in WWII & had seen a particularly harsh Communist regime A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 7

Date Nation Action

Wladyslaw Gomulka –hardliner or moderate?

The Reasons For The Hungarian Uprising - And Its Effects

“As an ordinary worker, I should like communism. However, I am sick of Soviet interference; I am tired of poor living and working conditions, especially the endless queues; the secret police (____) are everywhere and people have disappeared into their torture chambers and concentration camps. We need change. The Americans or the ___ will help us, I’m sure. Radio Free Europe promised us as much…”

Hungarian Worker I was sent here along with 200 000 of my comrades and 2 500 tanks to put down what Comrade ______says is a capitalist, Western plot to overthrow communism. The Hungarians are fierce fighters and we have lost thousands of men and dozens of tanks in the bitter street-fighting in the capital city of ______. Mind you, we have killed up to 3000 of them, though our losses are over twice as many. Red Army soldier

As an educated professional I am sick of communism. I am poorly paid and live in a pokey little ______. Unlike in the West, I have no car, no TV - not even an electric kettle. As a proud Catholic Hungarian, I am also fed up of the Soviets interfering in our affairs, imprisoning our ______leaders and telling us what to do. They even try to force us to learn ______.

Hungarian Scientist We need a new style of leadership in the Communist Party. ______was a disaster. Gero was no better. I am for ______. We need to become a neutral nation and leave the ______. Khruschev seems reasonable; he showed that in Poland & Yugoslavia. He also denounced _____ earlier this year and his _-______policy is welcome. He’s bound to treat us leniently as well and let us go our own way. A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 8

Hungarian Communist

Hungary will never be allowed to leave the ______. It is our ____. Supplier. Its leaders will be punished. We depend on our buffer zone in Eastern Europe to protect us. Besides, Hungary was our fascist enemy in WWII and owes us –and if it leaves what will Poland and the others do? When we put down this uprising we will deal with _____ and the other bourgeois traitors! Our lenient approach will be reined in! We will use our economic body ______to control our satellites more closely and we will condemn ______more than dogmatists from now on.

The Kremlin The Reasons For The Czech Spring - And Its Effects Doctrine Dubcek GDR Freedoms I am sick and tired of communism. Working Warsaw Pact What motivation do I have to work Diligently Hungarians ______? My living conditions are Eastern poor; I have to ______for food and Queue Spring clothing; I’m not allowed a Passport ______to leave the country and Soviet Heavy Industry I couldn’t protest about it – until Poland Suez ______started creating a more One Party open and just society with his ideas of Socialism Strategic ‘______with a human face’ . Czech Worker

We are here to stop the Czechs in case they turn violent, like the ______did in 1956. Mind you, I haven’t seen too much in the way of armed opposition.

Warsaw Pact soldier A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 9

We need greater ______and other reforms. The ‘Prague ______’ promised these. As the educated, we are leading the protests, but are in union with our ______-class brothers. I am sure the West will not tolerate a ______invasion. They are not busy with a ____ Crisis as they were in 1956

Czech Intellectual

We need greater freedoms for our people. We do not want to withdraw from the ______like the Hungarians did nor do we want to stop being communists, so surely the USSR won’t invade…

Czech Communist The Czechs must not be allowed to succeed. If they do other states in ______Europe might follow suit. I have been under pressure from hard-line communist leaders in countries like the ______and ______to do something about Czechoslovakia’s moves. Besides, we need Czechoslovakia as it is a successful communist nation which has a lot of resources and ______and is in a key ______position for us. My views are contained in my ______, which allows no outside interference - so the West better do nothing to interfere! Czechoslovakia will remain a ___ -____ state. Leonid Brezhnev Comparisons and Contrasts Between the Hungarian & Czech Uprisings

Similarities

1. Both the Hungarian revolt of _____ and the Czech uprising of _____ were popular responses to ordinary peoples’ discontent with Soviet-style imposed ______. In both, a hardline ______Party leadership was deposed in favour of a more ______approach. In Hungary ______came to power, in Czechoslovakia ______replacing ______

2. In both nations, living-standards had been _____; the _____ police everywhere and the Soviets in the form of the ___ Army had been seen as unwanted foreign occupiers imposing their own culture and language on a proud people.

3. Both countries had seen leadership emanate initially from the ranks of ______and ______as they were the best educated and the most articulate critics of the regimes.

4. Both countries were unsupported by the West, which was occupied at the A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 10 time. During the Hungarian revolt, there was the ______Crisis and during the Prague Spring, the USA was more concerned with events going on in ______. Besides, eastern Europe was regarded as the Soviet’s ‘______of______‘, and the West feared starting a major war if it interfered there.

5. Both uprisings were ruthlessly crushed by the Soviets, because both nations were regarded as ______important to the security of the ______Pact and the USSR. Both were also full of exploitable ______.

6. The Hungarians and the Czechs both saw ______reforms introduced as a result of their revolts (though much more so in Hungary under ______than in Czechoslovakia under the less moderate ______), and so benefited more than countries like the GDR, which had never revolted on such a scale and maintained a consistent hard-line leadership in place: first Walther ______and later the slightly more moderate Erich ______.

The GDR Leader

Differences

1. The Hungarian revolt was certainly a much bloodier affair than the Czech uprising. In the former, probably around ______Hungarians were killed, ______arrested and _____executed, as well as ______Russians being killed. In contrast, the Czech disturbances saw perhaps a handful of deaths.

2. Both revolts had different aims. The Hungarians were more radical and nationalistic and wanted to leave the ______Pact. The Czechs in contrast wanted to reform communism and never threatened to leave the ______Pact or COMECON.

3. During the Hungarian revolt, Nikita ______was leader of the USSR and took a harder line than his successor Leonid ______who was Soviet leader during the ‘Prague Spring’.

4. In Czechoslovakia, the leadership of the protests actually came from the head of the Communist Party, ______, whereas in Hungary the new leader of the Communist Party, ______was not a popular figure.

5. In ______the army had joined in on the side of the rebels, whereas in ______the army had stayed out of matters.

6. In Czechoslovakia, the forces of a number of countries besides the USSR including: Poland, East______, Hungary and ______(but not ______) had been involved in an invasion; whereas in Hungary the country was already occupied and only attacked by _____ Army forces.

7. Both countries moderate communist leaders (in Hungary____ and in Czechoslovakia,______) were victimised; in Hungary he was _____; whereas in Czechoslovakia he was merely ______.

8. As a direct result of the Czech uprising, the Soviet leadership introduced a new policy called the ‘______’ which was designed to keep members of its military alliance ______Communist states.

Other eastern European nations had varying degrees of closeness to Moscow

 Romania, a former German ally and fascist nation, pursued an independent foreign policy, and, under Nikolae Ceausescu, Lundestad claims was the most independent of all Warsaw Pact members (Soviet troops were withdrawn from Romanian soil in 1958); though it maintained a rigid domestic policy enforced by its infamous Securitate secret police;  Bulgaria was the most loyal of all the Warsaw Pact nations, maintaining a slavish loyalty to Moscow; it had the most in common with the USSR; The Reasons For The Berlin Wall, 1961

WEST BERLINER SOVIET DIPLOMAT EAST BERLINER US DIPLOMAT AN HISTORIAN (MARTIN WALKER)

1. “The West is re-building the German 2. “I want to move to the West for a state that invaded us twice before. It is better lifestyle and to be with my being provocative and we are determined relations. Many in my family have to protect our people from capitalist already gone to the FRG and say contamination, including the thousands of things are much better over there. spies. Berlin lies deep within our zone of The Soviets regard us as a crucial Germany and the West rejected our plan to industrial cog and exploit our see W. Berlin de-militarised and turned into industrial know-how and a Free City, so we have increased our achievements. Just before the Wall defence budget by 30% and cancelled our went up, up to 4000 of us were defence cuts” leaving a day!” A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 12

3. “They need to wall in their own people to stop them leaving in search of a better life. Communism doesn’t work and the Soviets are just showing who really calls the shots in the GDR. They tried to drive us out of Berlin in 1948-9, and Khruschev gave us an ultimatum in which if we did not agree to his proposals he would turn control of the access routes to our Berlin sectors over to the GDR!”

4. The period just before Berlin Wall saw so much tension that JFK, he points out, was given a briefing on how to reach his Nantucket Island fallout shelter!

5. “By building that wall they have isolated us from our relatives and made us feel prisoners in our own city. They have done it to try and intimidate us. But all they have really done is stiffen our resolve. Kennedy is determined not to budge. The Americans need us as a propaganda symbol; but also as a key listening and forward base of operations. JFK has tripled the draft, increased the armed forces by 15% and planned 70 new warships”

The Effects Of The Berlin Wall, 1961

WEST BERLINER SOVIET DIPLOMAT EAST BERLINER US DIPLOMAT AN HISTORIAN (DAVID PAINTER)

1. “We have shown the capitalists that we will not allow their spies into our ally’s country. We have also stopped them luring away our skilled 2. “The Wall has trapped me people, and ensured the GDR will here and isolated me from my prosper as never before!” relatives. If I were to try to go to the West now I might be shot or imprisoned. I am now effectively a prisoner, one of 17m, in my own country!”

3. “The Soviets have shown what barbarians they are! This only confirms my opinion of them as little better than tyrants. Our government is right to take a hard-line. Tensions have certainly increased. There was nearly a clash in October, 1961 when it seemed our diggers were going to bulldoze the Wall and the Soviets brought up tanks, but that was the idiot General Lucius Clay’s fault”

4. “The Wall makes me realise how fortunate I am to be in the British sector. But it also makes me worried that tensions are increasing and a war could break out; though a neighbour of mine says it has in reality established a period of stability and lessened the likelihood of conflict”

5. “The Berlin Wall was an ideological defeat of colossal proportions for the Soviet Union and world communism. The wall became a symbol of the Cold War, concrete evidence of the inability of East Germany to win the loyalty of its inhabitants.”

The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe

The Soviet Union, between 1989-1991, lost control of its Eastern European satellites and effectively imploded, dissolving itself on Christmas Day, 1991.

Why did it lose control? Why did it collapse? We need to look at individual nations, personalities and events. The historiography on the reasons for the collapse is also pretty extensive.

During the 1950s there had been a Complete the details. I have started you off. series of revolts in … (Use Lundestad to help you) When the iron curtain had first been created in the 1940s… A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 14

Long Term Reasons

In the 1960s, there were further During the 1970s, things hardly calmed down as… uprisings in… A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 15

Poland and Solidarity

Poland had always had a strained relationship with its powerful neighbour. These tensions came to a head in the 1980s.

Initially, as in other Eastern European nations, concerns were mundane: better working and living conditions. Later these developed into more profound demands for political reform.

In 1980 striking Polish workers had a number of demands. They had formed their own trade union, Solidarity, to co-ordinate their efforts.

Find these initial demands and place them in the relevant box

SOLIDARITY’S EARLY DEMANDS A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 16

Timeline of Polish Discontent

During the 1980s Solidarity grew more and more radical and bolder in its opposition to the regime of General Jaruzelski.

(Use Lundestad pages 211-212, etc. to establish a narrative of events)

Date Event July 1980 a. Solidarity wins the elections and forms Poland’s first democratic government since before WWII, with a Solidarity official becoming Prime Minister August 1980 b. Father Jerzy Popieluszko, a Catholic priest and opponent of the regime, is beaten to death by the secret police. He becomes a martyr for the cause of free speech. September c. Strikes take place in the important Gdansk shipyards of Northern Poland. Ship- 1980 building is one of Poland’s most important industries. The government gives in to most of Solidarity’s initial 21 demands. October d. More than a third of all workers are now in Solidarity. It has more than 9m 1980 members, many of whom (30%) are also Communist Party members Jan. 1981 e. Solidarity organises a boycott of the Polish elections in protest at their unfairness October f. Polish Communist Party expresses its support for Gorbachev’s reforms, indicative 1981 that serious change is planned Dec. 1981 g. Jaruzelski calls for elections, sure of his grip on the country and that the result will be favourable. He was wrong. The government was defeated in a referendum on economic reforms. October h. Solidarity is set up and Lech Walesa, a shipyard electrician with history of 1982 radicalism, becomes its courageous and charismatic leader 1983 i. Lech Walesa becomes first non-Communist President of Poland in over 50 years 1984 j. Solidarity’s membership reaches 3.5m 1985 k. General Jaruzelski becomes leader of the Polish Communist Party after effectively a military coup. He will later justify it by claiming the Soviets had threatened military intervention. The police and army never side with Solidarity. 1986 l. Government announces price rises, including of food 1988 m. Martial law is imposed and a clampdown on Solidarity activists sees many imprisoned including its leader, Lech Walesa June 1989 n. Solidarity is formally abolished by the state – but will make a quick comeback 1990 o. Solidarity’s membership reaches 7m and is officially recognized by the weak and confused government

Lech Walesa and strikers A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 17

Date Event July 1980

August 1980

Sept.1980

October 1980

January 1981

October 1981

Dec. 1981

October 1982

June 1989

1990 A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 18

The Government’s Appeasement & Clampdown Of Solidarity

Economics Politics

Solidarity was especially active in the important ______industries like ______in places The union was not seen, initially, as a rival to like ______. A general ______would the ______Party & in fact __ % of its have devastated the whole Polish economy, very early membership (1 000 000) were which was already teetering on the edge after ______Party members as well. years of mis-management and inefficiency. Solidarity’s leader ______also kept the radicals under control – for now.

The Church

The West

The union was fully supported by WHY THE the Roman ______Church. GOVT. The Church was extremely GAVE IN The West was watching events and was ______with most Poles, and the not already occupied with other events, as government was wary of it had with the Hungarian Revolt of ____ antagonising it, especially now the or the ______Uprising of 1968. Pope ______was Polish! President ______in the USA and leaders like _____ in Britain were observing events closely.

. Politics WHY THE Economics GOVT. CLAMPED DOWN Solidarity was creating chaos with The government had always been its strikes. Meat and ____ playing for time, hoping Solidarity supplies fell by ___%; would ______apart. The union was ______had been also starting to act like an introduced; industrial production alternative ______and so had fallen by ___% and ______directly challenging the Party’s trade by a huge 20%! This could control. This provided an excuse not be allowed to go on, as Poland according to the 1968 ______was not meeting its ______for action. commitments to the USSR.

Soviet Pressure Solidarity’s Mistakes Government leadership

Solidarity was losing control over its The Soviet leader, The leader of Poland was own membership. They were far Leonid ______was General ______and more _____ than the leadership and under pressure from he was not afraid to use the different ______were hardline leaders in force to crush Solidarity, threatening turmoil. The leadership other E. European rather than risk a ______had less and less influence on them. nations like the ____, invasion. He always retained Lech Walesa was even accused of to crush Solidarity – the crucial support of the being a sell-out. before it gave their _____. people ideas A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 19

What Was The Significance Of Solidarity?

Soviet official Communist official Catholic Priest Ordinary Pole Modern Historian Western diplomat

2. “Solidarity were Western 1. “I am afraid the government might have me lackeys. We watched events in killed like poor Jerzy Popieluszko. Solidarity has Poland and warned the done many good things and we have always co- government there that if Poland operated with them against the communists, but became too unstable we would without the army what can we do, even with our intervene, as we did in own Polish Pope John Paul II behind us?” Czechoslovakia, in 1968. Jaruzelski soon took the hint and introduced martial law”

3. “For me Solidarity made me proud to be Polish again. They helped keep 4. “Solidarity has stood up to those prices down, protected the Church and communist tyrants. They have shown that we won us support from abroad. are right to defend our freedoms and to However, the fanatics within the union oppose the expansion of communism any were always a problem and could further. We will give them all the (moral) have led to us being invaded by the support we can”. USSR”

6. “Solidarity certainly shook up the establishment in Poland; they also improved living and working conditions. They provided a cadre of leadership for the post-communist era and inspiration for 5. “Solidarity has undermined people all over the world fighting oppression. the power of the Party here. However, we should not over-estimate their They have also ensured that power or success. The Party still maintained my colleagues and I have control, and without the backing of the police and even less trust amongst the army Solidarity could do little. It was also an people. They prefer to listen organisation riven with factions. Ultimately, it was the to Walesa and the priests than collapse of the USSR and advent of Gorbachev which to us. If they’re not careful the Soviets will be running the brought Polish freedom – not Solidarity”. country!” A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 20

The Collapse of Communism in Other Eastern European Nations

Communism in Eastern Europe collapsed very rapidly. With the exception of Romania, the revolts were peaceful, even involving Communist co-operation.

a. Saw a very violent overthrow of its ruler, Ceausescu, in a December revolution. He was then b. The ‘Velvet Revolution’ saw the quiet overthrow executed on Christmas Day. It had been the most of communism in November, with a dissident poet, independently-minded of all the Warsaw pact Vaclav Havel, becoming leader (he had been nations, refusing to take part in the Czech invasion imprisoned earlier in the year). As an industrial and for instance, and doing business with the West. strategically vital nation it had always been tightly However, it had remained a strict single-party controlled by its hard-line successors to Dubcek, dictatorship with a Stalinist-style personality cult. Milos Jakes (and previously) Gustav Hasek. It Conditions for ordinary citizens had been harsh, would later split into two new nations. even by iron curtain standards.

d. Perhaps the most economically successful of all the Warsaw Pact nations, its hard-line leader, Erich Honecker, was told he could c. It had been a fairly economically liberal expect no Soviet assistance. Later in the Communist nation and had never stopped being autumn, ‘people power’ brought down the anti-Marxist in feeling. In May, 1989, the Wall, and a year later the nation was re-united government opened its border with neighbouring by Helmut Kohl. Austria – the iron curtain had a gap, which East Germans poured through. The Communist party here was unique in that it dissolved itself.

f. June saw semi-free elections and the election of a Solidarity government to power, the first free government of the former ‘iron curtain’. This Soviet neighbour had always been a thorn in Moscow’s side and there had been revolts there in the e. In November, the pro-Soviet Todor 50s, 70s and 80s. Zhivkov was overthrown – Moscow would not back him, despite the fact he and his nation had been the most loyal of all the iron curtain nations. A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 21 A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 22

Colour Key Hungary Czechoslovakia Poland The Collapse of Communism, 1989 GDR Bulgaria Romania A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 23

Gorbachev’s Role in The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe

Arguably, Communism collapsed in E. Europe primarily because Gorbachev (whom Lundestad has described as the “decisive factor” and Ambrose and Brinkley say “the lion’s share of the credit” should go to) was sympathetic, and had emphasised that the Red Army would not intervene to prop up any Communist regimes. However, this moderate approach had taken time to develop and had not been apparent when Gorbachev initially took power in 1985. Nor should we give him complete credit for what was a long and complex process in many ways.

Gorbachev was indeed sympathetic to the reforms taking place, which mirrored his own glasnost and perestroika innovations. In Czechoslovakia, he was in favour of the traditionalist Milos Jakes being replaced by a more moderate leader, for example. It was incompatible to be reforming the USSR and not allow an equal degrees of openness in its own satellites.

Perhaps, Gorbachev also took account of the bloody nose the Soviets had got in 1956, and the fact that the Czech invasion had had to involve Warsaw Pact forces as well. While Poland, had never been invaded despite its intransigence. In 1989, the Brezhnev Doctrine was repudiated by the Warsaw Pact. In 1990, Germany was re-unified and joined NATO. Gorbachev made no objection, beyond demanding some arms limitations. In November 1990, both NATO and the Warsaw Pact agreed to reduce their strength and a year later the Warsaw Pact had virtually ceased to exist.

However, Gorbachev was being as much pragmatic as altruistic. The USSR could no longer afford its commitments in E. Europe. In the 50s and 60s it had been a source of resources (through COMECON); but from the 1970s it was an area that leeched them away. The USSR was selling its gas and oil at subsidized prices; paying for the Red Army’s presence in the GDR et al, and buying shoddy goods at a high price from nations like Poland. While in Romania, it was hatred of Ceausescu which led to rebellion, rather than anything Gorbachev did.

The whole corrupt, inefficient system of Communism was in tatters in Eastern Europe. People were fed up of long queues, little choice and constant government surveillance. In Poland by 1989, inflation was in three digits! Communism had failed the very people it was meant to benefit. Gorbachev was perhaps a sincere enough Marxist to know this. A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 24

The flame would soon be out

Why the Soviet Union Collapsed

There were many reasons, needless to say, why the USSR ceased to exist at the end of 1991.

The USSR was a mess. It was a dysfunctional, corrupt, inefficient and unhappy society. Alcoholism was rampant; Gorbachev even ordered a concerted campaign against drinking and increased the price of vodka. The USA was providing its wheat; the Afghan War was humiliating and bankrupting the nation even further (20 000 young men, mostly conscripts, died in the fighting there).

Walker points out that “the Soviet empire was expensive…the cost of Soviet aid and trade credits, subsidies and arms shipments ranged between $15 and $20 billion a year after 1980”. Cuba received $4billion a year between 1981- 86; while Vietnam got $1 billion and even Mongolia was in receipt of nearly a billion a year. It sold its petrol and oil to Eastern Europe at a massively subsidized $16-20 a tonne, when on the open market it was getting $70! Walker claims it was high oil prices after 1974 that kept the USSR afloat in the 1970s. In 1982, a CIA report even claimed the Soviet economy was in good shape.

The Americans Ambrose and Brinkley though, emphatically claim the USSR would collapse because of its ideas: “Communism is a rotten system”.

Walker emphasizes the role of Reagan and Thatcher. He claims Reagan’s anti- Soviet policies were “spasmodic” and “capricious”, and that he was keen to make arms deals with the Soviets, especially after Congress effectively eliminated the obstacle of the SDI, by imposing military cuts. In contrast, Ambrose and Brinkley are highly critical of George Bush Snr. whom they claim did little to make the world a more stable place. They also point out that the USA was the world’s leading debtor nation by 1989. This is an interesting argument, as the bankruptcy of the USSR is always stressed as a factor, while the US’ economic problems and handicaps are often ignored. Could it afford to carry on the Cold War either? A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 25

Vodka brings with it… A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 26

The Post-Stalin Soviet Economy

Stalin had created a superpower. But his methods were ruthless and, arguably, unsustainable. New approaches were needed, and tried, after his death in 1953.

Agriculture had especially suffered from Stalin’s over-emphasis on heavy industry. Khruschev, a more sincere Marxist, wanted to improve the lives of Soviet citizens, but also prove how superior a system Communism really was. He wanted to reform agriculture; produce more consumer goods, but not neglect heavy industry at the same time. To encourage farmers he announced:  Rises in the amounts paid to farmers for their produce;  A reduction in their taxes;  An increase in the size of individual plots;  A greater emphasis on the production of consumer goods;

His 1954 Virgin Lands Scheme was designed to better exploit the huge untapped resources of the USSR and produce more corn (maize). More corn would mean more fodder and more meat. He became obsessed with maize.

Industrial reforms were less of a priority because, as Robert Service points out, the USSR was locked into an arms race with the USA.

He did try and tackle the bureaucracies and vested interests that administered the nation though. His attacks on these sovnarkhozniki led to the creation of 105 new regional economic councils. It also made him unpopular.

Khruschev though was essentially a conservative reformer. Gosplan, Five Year Plans, even a Seven Year Plan (1958), remained aspects of the still heavily, centrally-controlled Soviet economy. Mark Sandle refers to a recentralization of power taking place, in effect.

Successes Failures Initial increases in grain production; Much of the USSR was not suitable for went from 82.5m tons in 1953 to maize production and growing corn 102.6m tons by 1958 had led to the neglect of wheat Meat, milk and potato production all Poor harvests led to the humiliation of initially went up having to rely on grain imports from the USA Living standards improved, as more The new flats were shoddily built. consumer goods like fridges and TV’s Jonathan Davis comments that this were turned out was typical of Khruschev’s reforms: A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 27

well-intentioned, but ineffective, and driven by his desire for quick results More flats were built (22 million), The bureaucracy had actually housing 80 million Soviets increased under his reforms A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 28

The Pre-Gorbachev Leadership –The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

The USSR had also suffered a series of incompetent rulers:

Nikita Khruschev (1953-64) had brought the world to the brink of nuclear war in 1962; he had massively increased military spending and crushed revolts in Hungary, the GDR and Poland. His Virgin Lands scheme had been a disaster and the Soviet Union had to go cap in hand to the Americans for food imports. His attempts at ‘ghoulash communism’ had failed. Soviet citizens were still likely to not have a car, TV or even an apartment to themselves. Even their daily bread was made from foreign wheat.

If anything, Leonid Brezhnev (1964-1982) had been even worse. He was vain, indolent and corrupt, more concerned with the trappings and privileges of power (especially cars and medals) than in using it to benefit the average Soviet citizen. Dissidents were still persecuted (often being sent to psychiatric hospitals); opposition in Eastern Europe crushed; and the Cold War pursued, despite periods of détente.

Yuri Andropov (1982-1984) was an ex-KGB head, but realized the USSR needed reforming. However, he was plagued by ill-health and was able to do little himself. His greatest contribution was that he mentored Mikhail Gorbachev.

Konstantin Chernenko (1984-1985) I remember best for reducing the USSR to a laughing stock. Was he still alive or dead? David R. Marples sums him up as a “virtual clerk of Brezhnev with few ideas and lacking in intellect”. He had wanted to maintain the status quo. Fortunately for ordinary Soviets, and the rest of the world, he died a few months after A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 29

taking office.

It is perhaps, therefore, no surprise that Walker claims reform and profound change was almost “inevitable” by 1985. Mikhail Gorbachev’s Role

Background & Character  From a humble peasant background; some of his family had been victims of Stalin’s purges;  Possessed of remarkable energy; he had been trained as a lawyer and become a CPSU member at the age of 21; Marples says his subsequent career was the result of “graft, patience and good fortune” ; he became a regional leader and agriculture expert, well aware of Soviet short- comings in food production; he was also determined on a more personable approach to ordinary people;  Before becoming leader he had travelled outside the USSR, impressing Mrs. Thatcher in GB, e.g.  A unanimous Politburo choice to lead the USSR, he came to power at the age of 54 in 1985; he had given no warnings of his radical new ideas. Marples says he was a typical product of the system;

 In his first year in power he changed 70% of ministers; Soviet republics, the Central Committee all saw clear-outs; rivals like Grishin and Romanov were removed; but he maintained a hard- line leader in control in Ukraine to keep it stable; but he also brought in reformers like Domestic Reforms Alexander Yakovlev, Ryzhkov - and Boris Yeltsin; Brezhnev was openly criticized for his “Epoch of Stagnation”; but this was not unusual Soviet policy for a new leader to criticize his predecessor;  He introduced a policy of perestroika or restructuring of the economy (but also society and politics);however, Gorbachev, jealous of Yeltsin, sacked the popular and much more radical Moscow chief in 1987; Yeltsin would go on to lead the break-up of the SSR’s and create Russia;  Gorbachev’s campaign against alcohol (really orchestrated by Ligachev) earned him the nickname ‘Comrade Orange Juice’ and quickly started to encounter problems, as ingenious Soviets merely manufactured their own illegal alcohol; anti-corruption and anti-inefficiency drives had been implemented under Andropov; GNP and industrial output increased, the budget deficit lowered;  But quality control was not popular and met extensive opposition; unemployment and crime rose, and workers, like coal miners, went on strike in 1989 and 1990; market economic reforms were a necessary evil, the Soviet people had to suffer for (akin to the situation in GB under Thatcher); Gorbachev was trying to un-do nearly eighty years of Bolshevik misrule in the six years he got; in the end even he began to back pedal having witnessed and felt the brunt of their unpopularity, and by 1990 there was a severe economic crisis brewing; currency reform was especially unpopular as many lost their life’s savings; production declined, the deficit rose and GNP fell 8%; Marples points out the 1991 crisis was a symptom, rather than a cause of the USSR’s disintegration;  Glasnost or political openness saw Gorbachev allow open political debate and criticism;  He released famous dissidents like Sakharov and Shcharansky; allowed freedom of the press and open debate and criticism; he rehabilitated Stalin’s victims; and he admitted the USSR had been responsible for the Katyn massacres; he even showed some environmental concerns, at least after the Chernobyl incident in 1986; he released figures relating to the low birth rate, high infant mortality and AIDS epidemic; political de-centralisation was effectively creating new nations;  But his policies also allowed the break up of the USSR & its disintegration into squabbling republics A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 30

Foreign Policy  He installed new people, most notably Eduard Shevardnadze, to replace the “negative” (Marples) Gromyko in foreign affairs; this would herald a much more positive stance towards détente;  He established a rapport with Reagan and Thatcher with his “dynamic and friendly” approach (Marples) so different to that of Brezhnev and Gromyko;  Marples dismisses the arms race as a reason for the fall of the USSR; to him it was, at best, a contributing, but not main factor; however, Gorbachev made a number of arms agreements, some of them unilateral reductions; but was he motivated by a genuine desire for peace or forced to do so by the precarious domestic situation of the USSR? Date Agreement 1987 Elimination of medium range nuclear weapons in Europe agreed upon (INF Treaty) 1988 USSR decided to remove its army from Afghanistan; Moscow summit with Reagan on START, human rights and regional conflicts; Gorbachev visited the UN and promised massive military cuts reducing Red Army by 500 000, e.g. 1989 Announces removal of 500 tactical nuclear weapons from Eastern Europe; refuses to contemplate forcing E. European nations to stay Communist states; 1990 Makes no objections to German re-unification and membership of NATO; Bush and Gorbachev sign the START treaty;  Gorbachev became very popular around the world, especially in Europe (‘Gorbymania’); he was probably glad to get out the USSR and meet people who admired, rather than detested him!

 Historians tend to be critical of GorbachevHistoriography and stress his mistakes as a major reasons for both the collapse of Communism and the USSR; they are a little more complimentary about his foreign policy; I feel they have been a little harsh and perhaps not stressed the long-term factors enough;  To Marples, Gorbachev was ultimately a failure; a man who was admired abroad, but despised at home; he describes him as a Leninist who was trying to save rather than destroy the system; he weakened the Party though with his structural reforms creating a power vacuum; he claims that it was Gorbachev’s disastrous relationship with Yeltsin that was the most important cause of the collapse of the USSR, and that Yeltsin possessed a will and ruthlessness lacking in Gorbachev;  Tedstrom claims: “Gorbachev did not understand the basic economic principles of the reforms he sought to introduce”;  Breslauer argues that he was arrogant, ungrateful to subordinates and unwilling to work with Yeltsin, the man of the future; his personal weaknesses are also stressed by Marples, who claims he had no constituency being popular neither with the plebs nor amenable to the elite;  Even Walker ends up describing Gorbachev as more of as failure than a success, especially in terms of his economic reforms; but he, at least, points out the misrule of Stalin as a base factor; A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 31

“I think I played the crucial role. I

The views of Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet leader (1985-1991)

“The Soviets folded under our pressure! We…

The views of Ronald Reagan, Us President (1981-1989)

“Solidarity helped to undermine the control of the communists in Poland. This meant…

The views of Lech Walesa, Solidarity leader and later Polish President

“Like many of my fellow Soviet citizens, I was fed up of communism.

The views of Boris Yeltsin, first leader of the non-communist Russia

“A range of factors brought an end to communism in the USSR and Eastern Europe. A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 32

The views of historians A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 33

Reasons For The Collapse Of The USSR & Its Control Over Eastern Europe

Nationalism within the USSR’s republics saw a steady disintegration of Gorbachev’s and the CPSU’s power MORE IMPORTANCE

Western leaders like Reagan, Mitterrand & Thatcher stood up to the The CPSU was out of touch with USSR, but also co-operated with it ordinary Soviets, even Gorbachev himself

Capitalism had proved itself Gorbachev was not Soviet society superior to communism. prepared to ‘send disintegrating – Ordinary people wanted its in the tanks’ alcoholism was benefits commonplace

USSR had been bankrupted by the arms Gorbachev’s reforms both allowed and space races, and had been spending dissent - and created economic up to 40% of its GNP on the military chaos and discontent

LESSER Reformers in the USSR like Boris Yeltsin demanded IMPORTANCE change

MORE IMPORTANCE

2nd 3rd

4th 5th 6th

7th 8th

9th LESSER IMPORTANCE A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 34

The Deng Era (1976-91) & The Crisis of Communism in China

By 1991, China was effectively a crypto-capitalist, not a Communist state.

There had been an inevitable power struggle after Mao’s death. The loyal Maoist Hua Guofeng seemed to be Mao’s choice. Even Mao himself, who had even distrusted his own wife, Jiang, saw the ‘Gang of Four’ as too radical. Hua was significantly close to the PLA leadership and so was able to outmanoeuvre Jiang’s fanatics. As with other events in Chinese history, the military would be the crucial institution. The ‘Gang of Four’ were then removed to prison and would eventually be sentenced to life inside.

Hua, however, was not the CCP or PLA’s real choice as leader. That was Deng Xiaopeng. Deng was a natural politician and schmoozer. Popular, approachable, modest; most of all a survivor. To a degree, Deng would owe his accession to power to the military and political elite. Unlike other dictators though, Deng had already proved himself in the area of economic reform and foreign affairs, under Zhou’s tutelage, and had been prominent in the CCP since the 1930s. By 1980, he had sidelined Hua and was China’s effective leader, even though he held no formal title beyond that of the purposely vague, ‘paramount leader’.

The CCP in its historic 1978 Third Plenum meeting, accepted Deng’s ‘Four Modernisation’ programme (of industry, agriculture, defence and education) and the rehabilitation of those persecuted during the Cultural Revolution, including Deng’s loyal supporters. Even the Tiananmen Square riots of 1976, for which Deng had been blamed, were made into a respectable, ‘revolutionary’ event.

Deng wanted to erode Mao’s actions, but he could not afford to destroy the Mao personality cult. The political show trail of the ‘Gang of Four’ revealed also that China was hardly going to become a politically liberal state. Deng was not a democrat and would always be prepared to act the ruthless dictator when necessary to do so, as he showed in the events of June, 1989.

Economically, however, Deng was more radical. He took a pragmatic approach, clearly discernible by his oft-quoted aphorism that: “It does not matter whether the cat is black or white, as long as it catches the mice”. He was prepared to see an element of market forces introduced into the economy. Initially, agriculture would be the focus of reform; after 1984, it was industry’s turn. Bureaucracy would be the servant and not the master of the Chinese economy. He was also prepared to open China up to outside investors. China would be less insular and less Marxist. The left-wing writer, Charlie Hore, certainly believes that under Deng, China ceased to be a genuinely socialist state and instead became a pseudo-capitalist enterprise. A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 35

This was perhaps apparent in a number of areas.

Agriculture

The commune-system was abandoned and the peasants regained some of their independence and initiative. They were given quotas, but anything more they could sell for their own profit. Canny peasants, however, then switched production to cash crops and neglected staples like wheat, causing shortages. Also uncertainties regarding land-ownership did not made the peasants sense of security any better.

Industry and Commerce

The universities were expanded to produce the new technocrats the country would need. Thousands more were sent abroad to be educated. China set up Special Economic Zones (SEZ) in certain parts of the country and modelled them on Hong Kong. They were a great success and became one of modern China’s most apparent achievements.

However, the introduction of capitalist practices to China also brought the evils of capitalism: unemployment, lack of job security, stress and corruption. Given that workers had few rights in the PRC, can we perhaps see Deng’s China as having much in common with Chiang’s?

Deng’s pragmatism was also easily recognised in his population control policies. The state, worried about over-population and its crippling effects, restricted couples to one child. Penalties for infringements of this policy could be severe, and cases of family homes being blown up were not un-known.

With the collapse of the USSR in 1991, the PRC became the world’s biggest and most powerful Marxist nation. However, whether Mao would recognise it as such is highly debateable.

“Science can be difficult and dangerous, but…” (1979) A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 36 A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 37

Deng’s Political Actions

As touched on earlier, Deng though a fairly radical economic reformer, was no political liberaliser and this was made clear in his ‘Four Fundamentals’. He wanted to maintain the paramount control of the CCP and Lynch calls him “a CCP hardliner”. Charlie Hore goes further and claims that septuagenarian Deng and his acolytes, like the hardline Li Peng, had established a gerontocracy in China. Their refusal to contemplate political reform only encouraged protest in the country.

From the middle ‘70s protesters had pinned up their calls for democracy on the so-called ‘Democracy Wall’, near Tiananmen Square. Those caught, like Wei Jingsheng, were often imprisoned for lengthy periods. The democracy movement, though, had continued to grow. People pointed out the widespread corruption within the CCP; and serious pro-democracy protests took place in 1986. Deng purged and persecuted pro-reformers in his government like Yu Yaobang, and re-iterated in his speeches, that China would never be allowed to become a democratic country.

In 1989, the infamous and bloody Tiananmen Square massacres showed that the CCP would not allow its rule to be challenged. Thousands of protesting students, supported by ordinary workers, were mowed down by the PLA and run over by its tanks. Again, we have an example, says Lynch, of the Chinese tradition of crushing opposition in the severest way in order to undermine the legitimacy of the protesters. In this way, Deng had shown he was very much in the same mould as Yuan Shi-Kai, Chiang Kai-Shek and Mao Zedong. A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 38

Historiography of Why The Cold War Ended

Using Lundestad pages 102-108, who gives an excellent overview, match up the correct historian with their viewpoint

Historian Argument Peter Schweizer a. Gives credit to the policy of containment for defeating the USSR Don Oberdorfer b. Part of the school of triumphalism, which believes the West defeated the “evil empire” and so ‘won’ the Cold War struggle Robert Gates c. Gives credit to both the USA and Gorbachev Archie Brown et al d. Claims, unlike Marples (who states it was a “propagandist” stunt) that Gorbachev was sincere in his calls for the complete elimination of nuclear weapons by 2000; and he also lauds Reagan’s role, denigrating the idea of an anti-Communist ‘Reagan Doctrine’ Raymond Garthoff e. Stresses the primary, but not sole, role of Gorbachev, whom he praises as a reformer Martin Walker f. Prefer to give all the credit to Gorbachev, even accusing Reagan’s hard- line policy of being counter-productive

Historian Argument Peter Schweizer

Don Oberdorfer

Robert Gates

Archie Brown et al

Raymond Garthoff

Martin Walker

Robert Gates A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 39

Reasons for the End of the Cold War

Major Factors SOCIAL

POLITICAL

ECONOMIC

Lesser Factors

ENVIRONMENTAL

MILITARY

RELIGIOUS A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 40

Past Paper Questions

1.‘Reagan was more responsible than Gorbachev for the end of the Cold War.’ How far do you agree? [N. 2009] 2.‘Deng Xiaoping’s reforms created more problems than they solved in China.’ How far do you agree? [M. 2009] 3. ‘Internal factors were more important than external factors in explaining the collapse of the USSR in 1991.’ How far do you agree? [M. 2009]

Use the mark scheme to construct an essay plan

‘Reagan was more responsible than Gorbachev for the end of the Cold War.’ How far do you agree?

The question offers candidates the opportunity to assess the roles of the leaders of the two superpowers. Candidates may mention that Reagan can be held responsible because of US defence build-up from 1981 and in particular the support for the SDI. They may also state that Reagan held out for major weapons concessions from Gorbachev which led to the INF Treaty. To counter the argument candidates may mention that Gorbachevs’ reforms led to disarmament. They could also mention that ‘perestroika’ and ‘glasnost’ created a new atmosphere for what proved to be superpower cooperation. In order to achieve Bands 1 and 2 candidates should balance their answers and reach a clear, well supported judgement.

Use the mark scheme to construct an essay plan

‘Deng Xiaoping’s reforms created more problems than they solved in China.’ How far do you agree?

This question offers candidates the opportunity to assess the impact of Deng’s reforms. The economic reforms brought to an end the command economy of the Mao era. It involved creation of SEZ (Special Economic Zones) and TVEs (Town/village enterprises). Collectivisation of agriculture came to an end. On the positive side, by 1991, China had begun a process of rapid industrialisation which increased economic wealth for China. However, it also causes mass migration to cities and led to inequalities in economic development between east and west China. Process also involved major increase in pollution. A major impact was the growth of opposition to communist rule, culminating in the Tiananmen Demonstrations of 1989. A Level Paper 3 M. Nichols SCIE 2011 41