Harness Hope and Align for Opportunity

2006 RMIT Women and Work Conference P. 1 Conference Version 2006-11-28

Great Expectations and Coping with Risk

Dr Lionel Boxer Centre for Management Quality Research [email protected]

With aspirations of achieving success also comes risk that obstacles will confound progress. In earlier work, the hoping aspect of the appreciative inquiry (AI) philosophy has been shown to enable women to harness opportunities. By engaging in discourse intended to disseminate that AI hope, mood can be realigned and opportunities can present themselves and these can be taken advantage of. Yet, it has been shown that there remain risks to achieving those opportunities brought within reach. There are residual forces in society that will continue to obstruct realisation of those opportunities aspired to by women. These barriers pose a risk of failure to those women who have determined aspirations for themselves. Further exploration of the social constructionist perspective used previously attempts to build another dimension to positioning theory relating to uncertainty. By introducing principles of contemporary risk management it is intended to help women identify the uncertainty in achieving their objectives and focus their discursive effort to reduce this uncertainty. 2006 RMIT Women and Work Conference P. 2 Conference Version 2006-11-28

INTRODUCTION

Where hope has been successfully harnessed by women to make opportunity happen (Boxer 2006a), there remains an element of doubtfulness in the attainability of aspirations brought on by a dominant male discourse (Fairclough 1992, Hardy and Phillips 2004, Linstead, Brewis and Linstead 2005; p. 544). Risk management is now introduced to better understand this uncertainty that might be obstructing women’s success. There are indications that even where women have gained some measure of equality, dominant male discourse denies them the possibility of true freedom (Boxer 2006a). Mansfield (2006, p. 6-7) demonstrates this by suggesting that it is possible for women to “return to happiness” if they would only focus on “finding a new feminism” in which they cease seeking “for an impossible, utopian equality between the sexes.” Indeed, there are risks in the pursuit of great expectations regardless of one’s hoping for opportunity.

This paper expands on Boxer (2004 and 2006a) by exploring management of risks associated with aspiring to create and capitalise on opportunity and offering an approach to treat these risks. Discursive data collected during structured interviews has been drawn on to build the ideas expressed here. It has been proposed that the positioning theory approach can be used to explain the discursive creation of barriers to one’s success as well as the discursive treatment that is needed to reduce or even eliminate the risks of failing.

Risk management offers a structured approach to identifying, analysing and treating risks. While it is a business tool, there are aspects of risk management that would be helpful in expanding social theory and reinforcing practical approaches to resolve inappropriate limitations on women that are imposed by personal behaviour and cultural constraints.

Women with aspirations may benefit from applying this risk management disciplined approach to dealing with uncertainty relating to their achievement. From another perspective, others need to beware of the uncertainty of the ability of anyone with aspirations to perform effectively.

The next Section explores risk and risk management. This is followed by a Section that considers some risks faced by women referred to in literature. Then the application of a risk management framework to risks faced by women is introduced using discursive data collected during interviews.

RISK AND RISK MANAGEMENT

When an individual or collective is exposed to the consequences of uncertainty they are said to be at risk. Risk is not necessarily negative; an uncertain outcome may refer to potential opportunities or adverse effects. So, where possible, and in keeping with the principles of Appreciative Inquiry (AI), it may be helpful to express risks in positive terms (Boxer 2006a). If there are aspects of uncertainty relating to the aspirations of an individual it may be helpful to grasp as much as possible about that uncertainty and then be free to act (Barsoux and Bottger 2006). With that understanding, one can then put in place provisional plans that can be activated to 2006 RMIT Women and Work Conference P. 3 Conference Version 2006-11-28 capitalise on opportunities and reduce adverse effects when they occur (Kelly and Weber 2005). Such analysis and planning is referred to as risk management.

It is wise to manage the inherent risks (Standards Australia 2004) in an enterprise effort or in the pursuit of ones aspirations. The practice suggests that to deal with risks, first understand the context of the situation. This requires consideration of various issues and how they manifest themselves. From that, discrete risks can be identified, analyzed and evaluated so that a treatment plan can be established, implemented and monitored. The full spectrum of risk management is beyond the scope of this paper, but the overview provided here can contribute to a better control of the uncertainty in affecting one’s aspirations. Kirytopoulos, Leopoulos and Malandrakis (2001) suggest that risk management enables a much more realistic view of what can be expected.

Risk management is a systematic approach to dealing with uncertainty encompassing culture, processes and structures. As with any management system, it is necessary that the culture of individuals and the broader organisational discursive formation (Foucault 1972) underlying mood (Boxer 2005) is aligned with the intent of the system. How such a culture is achieved is not within the scope of this paper. However, its definition, its progress towards that state, and the gap between these two states can be expressed in terms of four components – rights, duties, moral order and actions – that can be adjusted to realign the underlying mood of the organisation (Boxer 2005, 2003a, 2003b). Structures are similarly beyond the scope of this paper.

The substantial body of work that has arisen surrounding risk management is summarised in the Standards Australia (2004) publication AS4360: 2004 as explored by Boxer (2006b). In an environment of ongoing consultation, communication, monitoring and review, risk management follows an iterative sequential process of:

 Establishing the context in which risk occurs  Identifying risks in terms of opportunities and adversities  Analysing risks identified  Evaluating risks identified and analysed  Treating risks identified, analysed and evaluated

Intergon (2006) provides a risk management primer based on AS/NZ4360: 2004, which summarises the various steps to risk management. By exploring the approach specified in AS/NZ4360: 2004 and reflecting on the various steps, it becomes clear that robust risk management could enable women to gain understanding over the full spectrum of risks they may encounter. Armed with that knowledge, women may better select the risks that they are prepared to take, and then determine appropriate measures that will provide them with control over those risks taken.

Risk management is conducted following a process similar to that in Figure 1. There are three phases involving preparation, understanding and treating risks. This process is most effective with consultation and communication.

This process is repeated on a frequency appropriate to the context and situation. At the least, it should be repeated following changes in context or situation and on a 2006 RMIT Women and Work Conference P. 4 Conference Version 2006-11-28 predetermined frequency. These steps are explored in subsequent sub-sections in the context of women and work.

Figure 1. Risk Management Process as a Linear Activity

Ph I Prepare Ph II Understand Ph III Treat

Consult & communicate

Establish Identify Analyse Evaluate Treat risks / context risks & risks & exploit opportuniti opportuniti Evaluate opportuniti Objectives es es risks & es Stakeholders opportunities Criteria How will lit Review Rank risks / Identify Key elements manifest? controls opportunities options What Likelihoods Screen out Select best happens if it Consequence minor issues Develop does? s plans Why? Significance Implement Monitor & review

Ph I - Prepare

Each person needs to determine the context in which risks will be managed. That is, what can be expected to occur during the pursuit of a particular woman’s ambition and how might that affect uncertainty. As shown in Figure 1, this risk assessment is done in the context of one’s goals. Such a personal endeavour is beyond the scope of this paper, but it is helpful to scope goals in terms of:

 one’s long term ambition  the team one is part of

Generally speaking, risks associated with women’s ambition occur within a context burdened by predisposed thinking that will be explained later in terms of narrow- mindedness and stereotype. It is in this circumstance in which women’s aspirations are made and pursued. Hence, the risks take shape in this milieu and can be expressed in these terms.

It is helpful to structure this analysis with an approach such as strength weakness opportunities threat (SWOT) analysis (Humphrey 2005) or strengths, opportunities, aspirations, results (SOAR) analysis (Stravos, Cooperrider and Kelly 2003).

Ph II - Understand

Understanding risks involves three distinct steps, identification, analysis and evaluation. This should be done in relation to the risks faced by oneself and others.

Identify risks

Rigorously identify the risks most likely to impact one’s capability to achieve this aspiration and the sources and impacts of that capability. Risk treatment strategies will be determined based on these sources and impacts. 2006 RMIT Women and Work Conference P. 5 Conference Version 2006-11-28

Analyse risks

Identify those controls currently being used to deal with the risks identified in the previous step and assess effectiveness. To conduct this assessment, it is common to use a risk analysis tool that subjectively assigns numbers between 1 and 10 for likelihood and severity see Figure 2. From this analysis determine the risk intensity, which is a multiple of likelihood and severity.

Figure 2. Risk Likelihood Severity Matrix Severity 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10

d 1-2 Medium Medium High High High o

o 3-4 Medium Medium Medium High High h i l 5-6 Low Medium Medium Medium High e k

i 7-8 Low Low Medium Medium Medium L 9-10 Low Low Low Medium Medium

Evaluate risks

It is necessary to ask whether or not current risks are acceptable or unacceptable. Record the record of how this decision was made; Figure 1 provides subjective rating between low, medium and high. Further subjective consideration needs to be made to contextualise that rating. Acceptable risks are to be monitored and periodically reviewed to ensure it remains acceptable. These periodic reviews include the initial decision and are also recorded. Unacceptable risks are to be treated as determined in Ph III

Ph III - Treat

Determining an appropriate treatment involves preventing situations from occurring or correcting (or reacting to) situations that have occurred. Sources identified indicate the need for preventive treatments to take place, while impacts indicate reactive treatments.

The following categories of treatments might be applied:

 Discontinue the activity that generates the risk  Reduce the likelihood of occurrence  Reduce the consequence of occurrence  Transfer the risk  Retain the risk

With consideration of cost and effectiveness develop potential options according to the treatment strategy selected. Document the responsibilities, implementation timetable and monitoring for each strategy. Repeat the understanding phase for each option. This is an iterative process that is repeated perhaps annually and whenever a new strategy is being considered. 2006 RMIT Women and Work Conference P. 6 Conference Version 2006-11-28

Summary of Risk Management Process

There is a continuum between superior planning and poor planning along which any individual or group will find themselves. However, it has been shown here that the complexities inherent in coping with a range of risks require superior planning. Control is required on various fronts, and it should become clear that consideration about risk involving all stakeholders is most important if superior outcomes are to be produced.

With a clear risk management framework, communication about risk becomes more natural and the true nature of risks becomes clearer. Furthermore, with a clear understanding of risk, appropriate treatments become more apparent as does the ability of a woman to control these. With that, boosted confidence enables women to be more likely to entertain a broader range and quantity of risks.

A PERSONAL APPLICATION OF RISK MANAGEMENT

Risk management is already being applied to personal finance. Introducing her web- based system for calculating an individual’s personal financial risk, Chan (2006) explains “a personal risk management plan can help you assure that you are protecting the people you most care about and give you peace of mind.”

Some insurance businesses require brokers to be able to provide personal risk management analysis to their clients. In the interest of providing a “truly professional client service” and “increased uncertainty”, it is necessary to identify, evaluated and control risks (Santam).

Obstructions to realising personal opportunities have been referred to earlier in this paper. Such uncertainty implies risk and a need for personal risk management (Hillson 2006). The balance of this paper will explore several categories of risks facing women and work and apply a risk management framework.

Some Personal Risks Facing Women

As demonstrated in the introduction Mansfield (2006), there remains an underlying or predisposed risk of rejection by men of women’s aspiration to be accepted on an equal basis with men. This is also explored by Williams (2003, p. 24) in terms of stereotypes, “people seem to be unaware that they are estimating higher salaries for men than for women”. That is, there is a risk of receiving a lower salary simply by being a woman.

Indeed, uncertainty refers to threats, but as well as opportunities. Uncertainty in career development objectives has been discussed by Hillson (2006) in both positive and negative terms. Some positive uncertainties:

 Being assigned to a job that absorbs too much time  Training invested in may not provide required skills or knowledge  Expectations set may be unrealistic  A better opportunity may arise  Someone may offer a new job with better pay 2006 RMIT Women and Work Conference P. 7 Conference Version 2006-11-28

Spender (1980, p. 5) has raised the need to take up feminist causes “without [the] use of imposition, control or devaluation.” She could be taking up an appreciative stance. Nevertheless, citing Kanter (1977) and Morgan (1986), Linstead, Brewis and Linstead (2005, p. 544) warn that feminists “run the risk of being stereotyped by males into one of the four deviant roles — ‘Queen Bee,’ ‘Token woman,’ ‘Seductress’ or ‘man- hater’.” In her non-academic, anecdotally informed social commentary, Dowd (2005) reflects on the ways that men punish women for being successful and the ways in which women punish themselves. That is, women’s efforts can be defeated by their own self-absorption, an attitude that reacts badly to harrying by those unable to accept the equality of women. Here the challenge is perhaps to create oneself without threatening others while at the same time neutralising any denigration that may occur.

Rejection by men of acceptance of women on equal terms with men is further confounded by two other factors:

 Indirect discrimination.  Reluctance to negotiate.

Dainty and Lingard (2006, p. 117) point out that, while women may successfully “cope with … overt discriminatory mechanisms”, they may be “stymied by indirect forms of discrimination which are rooted in the traditional male career model”. Bowles, Babcock and Lai (2005) conclude that women are less likely than men to choose to negotiate, suggesting that stereotypes and other gender schema are the cause (p. 34). They go on to say that “the gender gap … cannot be resolved simply by encouraging women to speak up more”. Rather, “an understanding of the situational circumstances” is necessary. As discussed previously, developing such a contextual understanding is the first step of risk management (Intergon 2006).

In some quarters, it is understood that there is an increasing tendency for people to have unrealistic expectations. Unskilled and unaware of it by Kruger and Dunning (1999) explores how those scoring low on basic skills have the most inflated self- analysis. This may be compounded by management schools that, as Ghoshal (2005) suggests, cause excess behaviour and expectations. Considering that some people are inclined to accept failure most of the time in order to succeed just a few times (Coutu 2006), some women with great aspirations may be at risk of failing to deliver what they propose. Macomber and Howell (2001) suggest that there is a tendency for some people to promise more than they can deliver. That is, as Rock and Schwartz (2006) explain, some people do not realise the difficulty of achieving change and the need to impose a regime of repetition and concerted effort. Howell (2006) explained in an email with the author:

“ I have served as an expert in cases aimed at resolving differences on some very large very screwed up projects. More and more I see these failures arising internally by the way the parties found their interests and pursued them using models of performance and responsibility that defy simple common sense”

Howell’s comments reflect those of Wilson (1991, p. 127), that “Intellectual laziness and common sense are the same thing. Common sense is just the tradename of the firm”. Perhaps not appreciating and dealing with risk is a matter of personal laziness. 2006 RMIT Women and Work Conference P. 8 Conference Version 2006-11-28

Managing These Risks

Hillson (2006) suggests it is wise to “identif(y) and manag(e) uncertainties that could affect achievement of our personal objectives”. He describes the first step is to contextualise and “specify our personal objectives”. Then he describes subsequent steps as “identify risks”, “assessment”, and “response development”. Finally he reminds that it is necessary that the response is “implemented” and “monitored”.

It has been shown that risks to women realising their aspirations have been identified in the literature, but are these risks being dealt with appropriately? Might there be a benefit in managing risks to women’s ability to achieve their aspirations? Once understood, might discursive action be the best way to treat these risks? In this section the risk management framework introduced earlier is fused with positioning theory to produce a discursive approach for dealing with these social risks.

Discursive action might be helpful to cultivate more appropriate commitment making (Macomber and Howell 2001). By making such a conscious effort, “(w)ith enough attention density, individual thoughts and acts of the mind can become an intrinsic part of an individual’s identity” (Rock and Schwartz 2006, p. 8), thereby realigning the underlying mood (Boxer 2005).

CASE STUDY

Discursive data available from interview transcripts of an interview with a woman manager provides data to explore the risks that person faced and risks faced by the broader organisation. The woman aspired to introduce sweeping social and technological changes to a large organisation. While there were initial successes, the technological changes failed causing a threat to organisational survivability and there were multiple unhelpful social situations created.

Discursive Data

These five utterances will be considered in this paper:

1. “ At the end of the day your success as a change agency is whether you survived.”

2. “ Sabotage or undermining of it happens. You do have managers who participate, but who will actually distort understanding or deny the understanding of others.”

3. “I threw that style clean out the window and said no it is all yours to define. They were bereft of a script they were bereft of the skills in which to construct, as opposed to critique, and it caused huge anxieties such that they came to me in quite demonstrable distress in the middle of a six month process.”

4. “Because the workplace has been going on at the same time, it is seen as a bureaucratic and checking up on people.” 2006 RMIT Women and Work Conference P. 9 Conference Version 2006-11-28

5. “ Clearly people resent the workload imposition and the issue is one of persistence; persistence in continuing to make the logic, continuing to show how the information will be used.”

Risk Issues Raised

It appears there may be more than one side to this woman’s situation with the shocked reaction of a subordinate manager, “she said that?” In light of later developments, it may be that it was not the woman who was at risk. The organisation faced a debilitating risk from following this woman’s strategy.

Each of the utterances from the previous section is represented by a short vignette in the following paragraphs.

Survivability. The woman realised that her survivability was an issue and this appeared to have guided her actions. However, as will be seen the risk of not surviving the planned changes may not have been perceived as a high risk. Perhaps the likelihood of this risk was not realised. It appears that that the intensity of this risk was not appreciated.

Sabotage. The woman acknowledged that some of her subordinate managers would distort her message. Whether or not this was an attack against her being a woman, against her ideology, or against her change plans was not clear. Regardless, she understood this as high risk as she explained, “I am very assiduous at picking influence leaders, who are conducting debates on their own right.” The influence of people would be harnessed to communicate her plans. However, she may have placed too much hope in relying on these people to engage in the new discourse required to realign the underlying mood. There may have been other elements of risk not considered.

Distress. The woman realised that she had placed many people in situations that caused them significant distress. She later realised that her “job as a leader (was) to get them to address the issues, to frame the discussion, to moderate their distress.” This discursive responsibility cannot be delegated of hoped to occur. She referred to this as “talk based work”. Without reassurance of one’s leader, people may well assume the worst and retreat to unproductive defensive positions. This risk was not considered early in the process, a negligence that may have been costly.

Gaze. Given the history of the organisation, the woman realised that people would react to her “being there” and interest as her attempt at “checking up”. In terms of Foucault’s (1973 and 1977) gaze, this adverse positioning (Harre 1991) of people by a leader’s action in such a situation was not perceived as a high risk. It may have been appropriate to reduce that risk by adopting a different approach to showing interest.

Resentment. The woman appeared to have realised the resentment that would occur with the additional workload introduced by the change. She appears to have introduced practices of thanking contributors and providing explanation that their effort was benefiting the organisation. However, this may not have been enough and the broad resentment might have led to possible sabotage discussed previously. 2006 RMIT Women and Work Conference P. 10 Conference Version 2006-11-28

Appropriate Discursive Response to Risks

It has been suggested (Boxer 2004, 2006a, 2003b) that aspects of underlying mood or culture can be altered by introducing an alternate discourse. As shown in Figure 3, the framework involves realigning the underlying mood by adjusting one or all of:

 RIGHTS  DUTIES  MORAL ORDER  ACTIONS

Figure 3. Social Constructionist Framework

Underlying Mood

Story-line Positions Sel Othe Moral Agent Conversatio Moral Agent f n r

Knowledge personal force personal force Knowledge (truth) (truth) Speech Acts

(ethics) (ethics)

Field of Power

A culture embracing principles of Appreciative Inquiry (AI) Promoting Hope and Opportunity

Discover

Deliver AI Dream

Design

Local Duties System & of Rights Obligation s Underlying Mood

Local Public & Moral Private Actions Order

This realignment can be achieved by engaging in an alternate discourse or, more simply, a new sort of conversation that is supported by non-verbal behaviour. Figure 3 shows that this can be done by changing:

 STORYLINE  SPEECH ACTS  POSITION (of self or other) 2006 RMIT Women and Work Conference P. 11 Conference Version 2006-11-28

For each vignette introduced in the previous section a new discourse is suggested that could be introduced to change the underlying mood.

Survivability. Having acknowledged the intensity of the risk of not surviving, the woman might have engaged in conversations that reinforced her positive contribution to the organisation and POSITIONING herself as such. If such contribution was in doubt, perhaps she could have made an effort to find ways that she could have made more positive contributions through different ACTIONS. Perhaps the intensity and pace of change combined with her determined approach needed to be scaled back.

Sabotage. Realising the risk that some subordinate managers would distort her message, the woman needed to prevent this from occurring. A direct approach would have been to engage in conversations with her managers exploring whether or not they had RIGHTS to sabotage or undermine her efforts. While introducing SPEECH ACTS in such a head-on confrontation may have been unpleasant, it may have been necessary to head off destructive recalcitrance. Indeed, her indirect approach of harnessing influence leaders may have been too passive an approach; while these people had assumed DUTIES to support and be loyal to her, the unmanageable element needed to be controlled or eliminated.

Distress. Had a more thorough risk assessment been conducted, unnecessary distress may have been prevented. This could have been achieved by introducing a different STORYLINE that included the new MORAL ORDER required in the organisation and why such a change was necessary. Engaging in discussions about why old rules of behaviour had become inappropriate and how the new rules would enable the organisation to grow, stabilise and survive. With such an understanding, people would realise that their personal situation were not being threatened. Such appreciative prevention may have eliminated a need to react by moderating distress.

Gaze. As demonstrated by in the previous section, the risk of being perceived in a way other than intended is real. While announcing one’s visit may be too contrived, too abrupt an appearance may create an unnecessary shock. A worker described her reaction to her CEO’s practice of surprise visits, “I would turn around and I would see this smiling face; it was creepy.” Conversations may need to be regular and contact needs to be built gradually for appropriate POSITIONING to occur. Perhaps this is a trust issue. A boss needs to realise that their ACTIONS may not be perceived as intended and that they do not have RIGHTS to wander into their subordinates’ space.

Resentment. Having realised the resentment that would occur with the additional workload introduced by the change, the woman needed to fully understand the degree of this reaction. A risk with such intensity would have warranted a more robust reward process. For example, in the occupational health and safety (OH&S) context, it has become a common practice for organisations to reward staff when no OH&S incidents occurred. In this different STORYLINE, the rationale appears to be that the organisation saves considerable money if OH&S incidents do not occur, which they can use to purchase gifts for staff. Such a discourse that demonstrates managements ACTIONS of appreciation can reduce or eliminate resentment. 2006 RMIT Women and Work Conference P. 12 Conference Version 2006-11-28

CONCLUSION

While women can plan to achieve great aspirations, they face are obstacles that both men and women face as well as others particular to women. There remain prejudices against women that may present themselves as risks. Personal characteristics and specific context will produce other risks. Hence, there is a need to understand the context of each situation, identify the risks one faces, and manage those risks in an appropriate way. Many of the risks faced by women are grounded in the discursive formation or underlying mood, which can be changed by focused and repeated discursive action.

In this paper, a broad discussion of the risks faced by women has been presented and the need to manage those risks has been introduced. Following a primer of risk management, a discussion of the particular risks facing women led to a case study of a woman manager who encountered great personal and organisational difficulty. This case study demonstrated that the situation may not have been so difficult had been multiple risks understood better and then eliminated or reduced. This case study provided an opportunity to demonstrate the risk management process at a personal level. However, the brief application of the risk management approach presented in this paper is insufficient to fully understand risk management.

Risk management, as practiced at an organisational level has an application at a personal level. Those who set out to achieve lofty aspirations may be wise to consider potential risks and whether or not they should proceed as planned. Elimination or reduction of the risk can occur if a simple approach is followed. To not follow a risk management process may be a result of personal laziness and be interpreted as negligence if other people are affected.

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