Table of Contents s5

DRAFT July 2009 Table of Contents

Overview of Learning Outcomes ...... Page 5

Introduction to Learning Outcomes and Guiding Principles...... Page 6

Part I – Continuum of Developmental Domains Across Ages ...... Page 9

Physical/Health...... Page 9

Language/Communication...... Page 10

Cognitive (Thinking, Reasoning, Problem Solving) ...... Page 11

Social/Emotional Development...... Page 12

Self Help Skills...... Page 13

Part II – Learning Outcome Clusters ...... Page 14

Health and Well-Being ...... Page 17

Literacy ...... Page 19

Numeracy And Spatial Relationships ...... Page 21

Aesthetic/Creativity...... Page 23

Scientific/Conceptual Understanding...... Page 24

2 Self, Family and Community...... Page 26

Approaches Toward Learning ...... Page 28

References ...... Page 30

Inclusion of Children With Disabilities ...... Page 32

Assessment and Documentation ...... Page 34

1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to acknowledge the hard work and dedication of the following individuals who participated on the Learning Outcomes Task Force. The members represented early childhood education experts from throughout the state of New Mexico. They include:

Margaret Mactavish Contractor David Atencio University of New Mexico Debra Baca YDI Head Start Betsy Bennett Las Cruces Public Schools Gloria Clark University of New Mexico-Gallup Ann Chrestman Western New Mexico University Ellen Cromer Albuquerque Public Schools Julian Garza Birth to Five Gail Goldstein Southwest Indian Polytechnic Institute Kathy Gutierrez-Gomez University of New Mexico Tammy Hall Gallup/McKinley Early Childhood Education Pamela Henry Children, Youth & Families Department Judy Hudson San Juan Community College Eric Lopez New Mexico State University Susan MacIntosh Santa Fe Public Schools Judith Paiz Office of Child Development Carol Rapasardi New Mexico Child Care Association Pauline Rindone Legislative Education Study Committee Pam Sellers Office of Child Development, Layout Person Extraordinaire Kathleen Trumbull Preschool Network Polly Turner University of New Mexico Heather Vaughn Albuquerque Public Schools Peggy Warren Central Consolidated Schools Karen Ziegler PMS Head Start Gaye Gronlund Expert review and comparison to other state’s child outcomes

Spanish translations provided by Sonia Sanchez-Cuesta, Division of Policy & Performance, NM Department of Health with the assistance of Russell Ray, NM PreK Teacher.

2 3 LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR 4- TO 5-YEAR-OLDS

INTRODUCTION

The Learning Outcomes are a framework to guide educators in their efforts to make informed decisions about curriculum and assessment. They reflect current research on brain development and best practices. They represent the growing consensus among early childhood professionals that a greater emphasis be placed on young children’s conceptual learning, social and emotional development, and participation in relevant and meaningful learning experiences.

A growing body of research has focused on the importance of learning in the early years. Publications such as Eager to Learn, Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, and From Neurons to Neighborhoods have detailed research that supports the importance of the early years in future student achievement. The No Child Left Behind legislation focuses on the need for accountability in supporting student achievement for all children. The movement toward learning standards in the United States has articulated key benchmarks for student achievement at each grade level (K-12) in academic content areas. These standards have impacted the quality of educational programs and have improved student achievement across the country. Although there has been a focus on the importance of early learning, the standards movement has not included pre- kindergarten until now. Over the past few years organizations such as the National Association for the Education of Young Children, the International Reading Association, and the National Council for the Teachers of Mathematic, have provided forums and policy statements concerning the development of standards for pre-kindergarten learning. Many states have developed standards and others are in the process of development.

These pre-kindergarten learning outcomes describe what children at the end of their preschool experience need to know and be able to do for school success. Therefore, when reading the outcomes one should think in terms of the child’s learning in the year before entering kindergarten. They describe age appropriate understandings and behaviors related to the ways young children think, reason, create, and recreate as they engage in the learning process. As we focus on age appropriate expectations, it is imperative that individual appropriateness be considered. Young children vary in background experience, language spoken, abilities, health and nutrition status, and zest for learning. They may have a condition that limits the way they learn. The Learning Outcomes are guidelines to be used with all children in any early education setting, including childcare centers, family childcare homes, Head Start, preschools, and school district PreK programs.

In order to achieve expectations set forth in this document, the following recommendations are essential to realize the full potential of the learning outcomes.

(1) Provisions should be made to help personnel (many of whom have limited professional preparation) understand the role of outcomes as they relate to curriculum and assessment.

4 (2) Professional preparation opportunities, with accompanying financial support, should be provided to help teachers acquire the skills essential for the complex tasks of understanding individual growth and development, assessing each child's development, and planning experiences that support success.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES

Research has shown that children construct their own knowledge through physical, social, and mental activity (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). Children are active learners. Because children learn through first hand actions with objects and things in their world, their learning is mediated and linked to the sociocultural context (Vygotsky, 1986).

As active learners young children need opportunities to observe objects, people and events in their world, form their own hypotheses, try them out, observe what happens, and formulate their own answers (Dewey, 1944; Glassman, 2001). Play is the child’s mode of finding out about the world around them. All types of play – manipulative play, play with games, rough-and- tumble play, and socio-dramatic play – provide children with opportunities to try things out, observe what happens and learn (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998).

Organizing children’s learning spaces through centers of interest is an efficient and appropriate way to support children’s’ active mode of learning. Learning centers encourage children to make decisions, learn new skills, practice skills previously gained, as well as interact with others. Learning centers offer children and teachers considerable flexibility. Because they do so, learning centers support the diverse needs of children. For example, the needs of children with physical disabilities may be accommodated by providing pathways, low tables, or other necessary adjustments. Those children who need shielding from intrusion or stimulation can be offered quiet, protected centers, as well as spaces for active learning.

The following principles should serve as a guide in understanding and implementing New Mexico’s Pre-Kindergarten Learning Outcomes.

 All young children are capable of learning. Every child enters school eager to learn. Children who believe they can learn and expect to achieve, do so (Seefeldt, Denton, Galper & Younosai, 1999). Play is the fundamental vehicle through which children learn and construct their own understanding about the world around them. Meaningful learning occurs in a safe environment where children are actively engaged. Appropriate early educational experiences, offered in a safe and stimulating environment, can extend, expand, and clarify the ideas, concepts, language and social skills children gain spontaneously. Preschool teachers should hold high expectations for all young children.

 Knowledge of child growth and development is essential for program development and implementation. Decisions about appropriate curriculum for groups of children and for individual children should be based on knowledge of child development and on careful observation of children at play. 5  Developmental domains are highly interrelated. Development in one domain influences the development in other domains. This interrelationship must be considered in planning preschool programs. For example, children's language skills affect their ability to engage in social interactions. Children who can use language effectively to negotiate social situations or those who have the intellectual ability to consider another’s point of view are more likely to be those with strong social skills. Likewise, learning to write and read depends in great part on how children feel about themselves, development of fine motor skills and their ability to achieve (Bandura, 1997). Therefore, developmental domains cannot be considered in isolation from one another. Learning outcomes and indicators listed for one domain could also be cited in other domains.

 Children demonstrate individual differences in development. All children within an age group should not be expected to arrive at each indictor at the same time or master each outcome to the same degree of proficiency. Although children develop skills and competencies through a generally predictable sequence of milestones, they do not develop them in exactly the same way or at exactly the same time. Some children may have a developmental delay or disability that requires adaptations and modifications to the environment, materials and interactions.

 Development and learning are embedded in culture. Culture, the social context in which children learn, grow, and develop, is defined as a complex whole of language, knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, laws, customs, and ways of living that are passed on to future generations (Cole, 1999). Social groups, the family, neighborhood, religious or ethnic groups within a society, explicitly or implicitly pass on their customs, values, or moral principles to the young. Beginning at birth, the culture socializes children to become members of a society. But children are not just products of the culture they grow in. As children grow, they pick and choose selectively from the cultural influences they are exposed to, shaping their own cultural context over time (NRC & IM, 2001).

 Families are the primary caregivers and educators of their young children. The close attachment between young children and their families demands parent involvement. Consideration of each child’s unique circumstances, respect for each family, and cooperative involvement between families and preschools is also critical to children’s academic success and later school achievement (NRC, 2001a). Program staff must give families the information they need to support their children's learning and development. Creating partnerships with families is a way to insure that children are provided with the best learning experiences at home and at preschool.

 Young children learn by doing. Teachers should provide opportunities for children to explore materials, to engage in physical activities, and to interact with peers and adults. A balance of child-initiated and teacher-selected activities will maximize children's learning.

6 Part One – Continuum of Developmental Domains Birth to Five Years

This section provides a concise review of developmental milestones. These early years are critical in terms of foundational learning in every area of development. The domains are divided into age-related units of months and years but it is stressed that the age specifications are only approximate markers derived from averages or norms, as mid-points not intended to represent any one child. These age expectations vary from child to child in form and time of acquisition. The important consideration in assessing a child’s development is sequence not chronological age, or whether the child is moving step-by- step in each area of development. (Allen & Marotz, 1999.)

Physical/Health Infant (Birth – 12 mo) 2-3 Year Olds 3-4 Year Olds 4-5 Year Olds

Children have innate reflexes Children at this age walk upstairs Children are continually Children move with direction and refined (sucking, grasping), progress 2 feet on a step, sit on riding toys improving coordination, run at an coordination, walk forward easily, and from lying on stomach with head and push with feet, hop in place even pace, turn and stop well, backward with effort, along a wide beam, raised to sitting alone, develop and jump from low heights, climb, swing without being pushed, ride hop on one foot, ride a tricycle with speed pincer grasp, reach, learn to run, throw objects using forearms, a tricycle, begin to balance on a and control, climb and play easily on large transfer things from one hand to and are increasing their fine beam and stand on one foot. equipment with ramps, stairs, ladders, or the other, learn to crawl, scoot motor development. Children They throw, catch, and kick climbing boards, throw, catch, and kick and/or walk. develop eye-hand coordination, objects a short distance. with increasing direction and control. Children become aware of their prewriting skills, strengthen fine Children can also build block Children manipulate a variety of objects own bodies in the environment motor skills, and increase their towers, draw shapes and objects requiring increased control and and develop fine and gross motor gross motor skills. and hold writing instrument with coordination. They manipulate materials skills. fingers. They use scissors to in a purposeful way, planning and make snips. attending to detail; copy and draw simple Toddler (12 – 24 months) Children continue to perfect fine shapes, letters, and words including Children walk backwards, run, and gross motor skills and name; cut with scissors along lines, dance, turn pages of book one at develop competence and turning corners; cut shapes out of paper. a time, build block towers, push, confidence in their abilities. pull, throw, fill, empty, open, shut, squeeze, poke, and drop toys. Children are learning as they discover through physical development. Self-confidence develops as motor skills become better. Children enjoy repetition, such as dumping and filling. Eye-hand coordination is developing.

7 Language/Communication Infant (Birth – 12 months) 2-3 Year Olds 3-4 Year Olds 4-5 Year Olds

Children communicate through Children should engage and be Children use 3-4 word sentences Recognize and invent rhymes and crying, coos, gurgles, babbles, encouraged to begin to use to express wants and needs, can repetitive phrases; notice words squeals, laughs, facial expressions, language more in play, ask names follow 2-3 simple directions at a that begin the same way.Use and respond to human voices. of things, make negative time, can give simple accounts of longer sentences (5-6 words) to Infants will also imitate the sounds statements, and increase their their day/experiences, answer communicate, follow two step of others. vocabulary. simple questions with one or two directions, answer questions with They develop self-confidence as Children develop fine motor skills words, ask simple questions, complete thought, ask questions to they learn to communicate needs. and reading readiness skills respond to questions and further understanding, respond to Two-way communication teaches (turning pages right to left). comments from others, can say others’ comments in a series of children that words have meaning Vocabulary, memory and speech own name, begin to use plurals, exchanges. and people will respond to their are increased by labeling items in have difficulty taking turns in They participate in story time, retell sounds. books and asking questions. conversation, and enjoy finger familiar stories, show general plays, rhymes, and songs with knowledge of how print works, Toddler (12 – 24 months) repetition. recognize and name many letters, Children progress from saying first Children develop the ability to think make judgments about words and words to speaking in simple out loud and talk themselves text by noticing features (other sentences. They also point to and through situations. than letters and words). name objects, play with sounds, ask They can represent their thoughts They compare and predict story questions, imitate others’ speech, and feelings verbally. events, act out main events of a and by 24 months have a familiar story. Understand there is vocabulary of 24-50 words. a way to write that conveys Children learn to communicate their meaning. Write recognizable needs, learn that words have letters, especially those in own meaning and power, learn the name. importance of written words, and Use prepositions “on,” “in,” develop a vocabulary. and “under.” Produce elaborate sentence structure. Speech is almost entirely intelligible.

8 Cognitive (Thinking, Reasoning, Problem Solving) Infant (Birth - 12 months) 2-3 Year Olds 3-4 Year Olds 4-5 Year Olds

Children learn through 5 senses, Children respond to simple Children have short attention spans Notice and ask questions about actively use hands to explore directions, begin to imitate adults, (10 minutes), cannot deal with similarities and differences. environment. Infants will actively have a limited attention span, begin abstract ideas, are curious, Experiment with materials in new explore their environment when to sequence and match objects, inquisitive, and egocentric, are ways when first way doesn’t work. they feel secure, develop object identify objects and ask questions. aware of past and future, enjoy Continue to work on task even permanence (knows objects exist Children develop reasoning and stories, singing, numbers, quantity, when encountering difficulties. out of sight and will search for problem solving skills, begin to and art activities, are beginning to Wonder, “what will happen if” and them). They begin to be aware of think for themselves, problems mentally represent objects. test out possibilities. Apply new cause-effect relationships. Use of begin to be worked out mentally Children are able to symbolically information or vocabulary to an positive responses by adults when rather than by trial and error, represent objects. They focus on activity or interaction. infants seek out and perform new creativity and logical thinking are one aspect of a situation, and Sort a group of objects by one skills will help infants gain self- expanded. reason from particular to particular. property and then another. Use confidence in their ability to learn. Understands triangle, circle, comparative words related to square; can point to requested number, size, shape, texture, Toddler (12 – 24 months) shape. weight, color, speed, volume; Children can follow simple create simple patterns of own directions, name familiar objects, design. Understand and use understand relationships between positional words. Place objects in objects, clearly see cause- effect one-to-one correspondence, count relationships, and have an correctly (up to 10 or so) increasing desire to explore and when touching or handling object experiment. Explorations become for each number. Indicate if paired increasingly purposeful to find words sound the same or different: meaning in events, objects and sheet/feet, ball/wall. words as they attempt to discover Near end of year, can name 18-20 how the world works. They begin to uppercase letters and write several. understand the concept of parts and Print own name; recognize some whole. printed words (especially those that have special meaning to the child).

9 Social/Emotional

Children develop attachments, trust, Children are protective of their Children have difficulty sharing and Treat arrival and departure as learn to smile socially, recognize possessions, want to be taking turns, are beginning to show routine parts of day. Regard familiar people and their own self in independent, are self-centered, self-control, need help resolving parents and teachers as resources mirrors. Children will explore their they play near and watch other conflicts, express sympathy, enjoy and positive role models. Are able environment in the presence of children, occasionally joining in humor, begin to get bossy but also to describe feelings and their caregivers. Children become play with others, and they begin to learn to play cooperatively, want to cause. Assert own feelings and socially competent individuals. When engage in imaginative and please adults, show aggression, desires verbally without being a child’s needs are met consistently, dramatic play. They say no often. and love living things. Engage in confrontational. Complete multiple trust, love, and security develop. Children develop social skills make-belief play alone and with tasks of own choosing with some Children develop and maintain a (getting along with others). others. Children’s peers become adult assistance. Use self-help trusting relationship with the same increasingly important and they skills and participate in chores primary caregiver. need to develop a positive self- without reminders. Put away concept. They may continue to materials from one play activity Toddler (12 – 24 months) have a special blanket, stuffed before starting another. Children experience stranger animal, or toy for comfort. Understand and follows classroom anxiety, look for caregivers’ rules and procedures without response in uncertain situations, prompting. Outgoing, friendly, express affection to others, imitate overly enthusiastic at times. Moods others behaviors, engage more in change rapidly and unpredictably; parallel play and simple interaction laughing one minute, crying the with others, test limits, strive for next. May throw tantrum over minor independence, and are egocentric. frustrations (a block structure that Children develop identity and a will not balance); sulk over being sense of self. They also realize left out. Imaginary playmates are they are separate individuals from common; hold conversations and their caregivers and environment. strong emotions with invisible friend.

10 Self Help Skills Infant (Birth – 12 months) 2 – 3 Year Olds 3-4 Year Olds 4-5 Year Olds

Children’s needs are met by Children can feed themselves, Children can button and unbutton, Take care of own toileting needs; caregivers. Begin to encourage wash and dry their hands with zip and unzip, set the table and often demands privacy in older infants to feed themselves assistance, and are beginning to serve themselves. They are better bathroom. Dress self; can lace and drink from a cup. Children be or are toilet trained. Children at undressing than dressing. They shoes, button buttons, buckle belts. develop trust and security as develop self-esteem, take care of toilet needs in daytime. Get frustrated if problems arise in needs are met on a regular basis. independence and fine motor skills. Children develop self-confidence getting dressed while stubbornly Older infants develop self-esteem Children also learn to count objects as they are able to do things for refusing adult help. and independence. and follow simple directions themselves. (cognitive). Feed self independently. Can pour Toddler (12 – 24 months) milk and juice with fewer spills. Children are still working on feeding themselves with a fork and spoon and drinking from a cup. They can finger feed with ease. Children develop self-esteem, independence and a positive attitude on feeding themselves, as well as fine motor skills.

11 Part Two – Learning Outcome Clusters

Definition of readiness for success in school Readiness is built upon the foundation of early development and learning experiences that meet individual needs developmentally, culturally, and linguistically.

As a result of family nurturing and positive interactions with others, young children reach appropriate levels of general knowledge of physical and motor development, social and emotional development, language development, cognitive development and of a level of general knowledge that are essential for success in kindergarten and beyond. Kindergarten readiness as a philosophy acknowledges individual approaches toward learning, as well as the unique experiences and backgrounds of each child.

Definition of curriculum and assessment (summarized from NAEYC and NAESC/SDE):

Curriculum is an organized framework that delineates the content children are to learn, the processes through which children achieve the identified curricular goals, what teachers do to help children achieve these goals, and the context in which teaching and learning occur. The early childhood profession defines curriculum in its broadest sense, encompassing prevailing theories, approaches, and models.

Assessment is the process of observing, recording, and otherwise documenting the work children do and why they do it. It is the basis for a variety of educational decisions that affect the child, including planning for groups and individual children, and communication with parents. Assessment encompasses the many forms of evaluation available to educational decision makers. Assessment in the service of curriculum and learning requires teachers to observe and analyze regularly what the children are doing in light of content goals and the learning processes.

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) & National Association of Early Childhood Specialist in State Departments of Education (NAECS/SDE). (1992) Guidelines for appropriate curriculum and assessment in programs serving children ages 3 through 8. Young Children, 46(3), 21-38.

Purpose Learning Outcomes for New Mexico’s PreK programs have been developed to provide early childhood educators with a framework to use in planning quality curriculum. Identifying the needed skills (indicators) maximizes the potential for school success and promotes a smooth transition to kindergarten.

12 Rationale Children entering kindergarten come with a variety of preschool and home experiences, and accordingly, with varying levels of school readiness. Providing children with a strong start significantly contributes to their long-term development and learning success.

This document defines a vision for school success and describes the indicators appropriate for five-year-olds entering kindergarten. Current research on the important role of brain development, early literacy, and social-emotional competencies was used to set the indicators at a level to promote optimum readiness for school success. Using this document The indicators that accompany each outcome provide some of the many ways that growth, development, and learning can occur in the context of the concrete and meaningful learning experiences that characterize a stimulating learning environment for young children. The indicators should never be used to delay entry of children who are age eligible to participate in kindergarten programs.

Early childhood educators are advised to use the learning outcomes in combination with developmentally appropriate practice in order to make informed decisions regarding preschool curriculum and individualized learning needs. Appropriate early childhood assessment methods include observation, developmental checklists linked to curriculum, portfolios and parent interviews. Periodic assessment helps determine where each child’s skills are on a continuum of development. This provides early educators with the information they need in order to provide individualized learning. Educators can then plan high quality learning experiences designed to promote the development of school readiness skills, especially in programs that serve children at-risk, including those with disabilities.

The current focus on academic readiness has the potential to promote inappropriate instructional practice through “push down” of elementary school curriculum into preschool. Early childhood educators need an understanding of child development, the developmental continuum for birth to five year olds, developmentally appropriate curriculum and assessment practices as well as early childhood teaching pedagogy to ensure that appropriate methods are used to promote children’s development and learning. Structure of the Learning Outcomes The Learning Outcomes are organized into 7 clusters, which relate directly to New Mexico K-12 Content Standards. These learning outcome clusters are designed to be interdependent and must be considered as a whole for pre-kindergarten children.

. Health and Well-Being . Literacy . Numeracy and Spatial Relationships . Aesthetic/Creativity

13 . Scientific/Conceptual Understanding . Self, Family and Community . Approaches Toward Learning

Each cluster includes the following: . Learning Outcomes – competencies children should demonstrate as a result of high-quality PreK experiences . Indicators – skills, behaviors and abilities that assist children in achieving the learning outcomes Resources This document incorporates information and perspectives from a wide array of resources, including: . National Head Start Child Outcomes Framework . New Mexico’s K-12 Content Standards, Benchmarks, and Performance Standards . New Mexico Performance Standards and Benchmarks for Three and Four Old Children . Standards from other states, including Arizona, Connecticut, Florida, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Missouri, Nevada, Rhode Island and Wyoming . Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children, a joint position statement of the International Reading Association (IRA) and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) 1998 . Early Learning Standards: Creating the Conditions for Success, a joint position statement of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the National Association of Early Childhood Specialist in State Departments of Education . The Creative Curriculum for Preschool, Dodge, Colker, & Heroman . Developmental Profiles: Pre-birth Through Eight. Allen & Marotz . Early Childhood Education: Standards for Quality Programs for Young Children. National Association of Elementary School Principals . Starting Out Right: A Guide to Promoting Children’s Reading Success. Snow, Burns, and Guffin . Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs, NAEYC

14 Health and Well-Being

During the preschool years, children’s physical growth and maturation are important aspects of their overall development. Young children’s future health and well-being are directly related to the development and strengthening of their large and small muscles. During the pre-kindergarten period the development of gross and fine motor skills serve as the foundation for the development of future academic skills such as writing and reading. Motor development involves muscle control. Fine motor control or small muscle movement, refers to such abilities as manipulation of materials and tools, hand dominance, and eye- hand coordination. Gross motor control or large muscle movement, refers to such characteristics as balance, coordination, purposeful control, and stability of body movements and functions.

Children represent their thoughts and feelings through movement. They use their bodies to investigate people, places, objects, and events. They move just for the pleasure of it. As children explore, combine, and refine these physical movements, they develop the higher-order thinking skills necessary for future social and academic success.

Physical well-being, health, and safety activities should be integrated into all curricular areas. Activities should be structured to encourage pre-kindergarten children to explore their world, promote agility and strength, enhance neural processing, and develop general body competence and overall autonomy. Young children should be introduced to concepts that promote a healthy lifestyle, and should be provided adequate age-appropriate indoor and outdoor space and facilities that allow them to experience a variety of developmentally appropriate physical activities.

Physical well-being means that basic needs have been met: food, clothing, shelter, and regular health and dental care. A healthy child whose basic needs have been met is able to focus on, and/or engage in, experiences crucial to the learning process.

Both phases of this dimension are aided by a child's knowledge of dietary practices that promote good nutrition, for example, eating a variety of foods at regular meals. A child should also know how to use personal hygiene practices that result in cleanliness and good grooming, such as, brushing teeth, combing hair, and washing hands before eating. The goal for all children is full participation. Good physical health and motor development allow for full participation in learning experiences. Children with a disability receive specific accommodations, which permit them to participate fully at his/her own level.

15 Area Outcome Indicator

#1 The child independently uses gross 1.1 Exhibits body coordination and strength in activities such as climbing stairs with motor control including balance, spatial alternating feet, marching, running, jumping, hopping, dancing, riding tricycles and Physical awareness and stability. scooters. Development, 1.2 Exhibits balance and spatial awareness in many situations (running and Health and stopping, climbing, ball handling, and/or s i mple group games, i.e., "Duck, Duck, Well-Being Goose").

#2 The child independently uses fine 2.1 Is developing manual coordination to use cutting and writing tools and motor skills. demonstrate self-help skills such as buttoning and zipping. 2.2 Coordinates eye-hand movements us i ng beads, laces, pegs, puzzles and other manipulatives and small objects, and when dressing and undressing. 2.3 Holds writing tool in pincer grasp to draw, scribble write, make letter-like shapes and/or letters.

#3 The child's behavior demonstrates 3.1 Shows increasing awareness of hygiene in handwashing, toileting, and/or dental health and hygiene skills. hygiene. 3.2 Shows increasing awareness of healthy lifestyle practices (that healthy bodies need nutritious foods, exercise and physical activity and rest).

#4 The child demonstrates safe behaviors 4.1 Identifies potentially harmful objects, substances and behaviors.

in increasing numbers of situations. 4.2 Increasingly follow classroom, school and safety rules most of the time. 16 Literacy

According to the 1998 joint position statement of the International Reading Association (IRA) and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), pre-kindergarten children need developmentally appropriate experiences and teaching to support literacy learning. These include, but are not limited to:

. Positive, nurturing relationships with adults who engage in responsive conversations with individual children, model reading and writing behavior, and foster children’s interest in and enjoyment of reading and writing; . Print-rich environments that provide opportunities and tools for children to see and use written language for a variety of purposes, with teachers drawing children’s attention to specific letters and words; . Adult’s daily reading of high-quality books to individual children or small groups, including books that positively reflect children's identity, home language, and culture; . Opportunities for children to talk about what is read and to focus on the sounds and parts of language as well as the meaning; . Teaching strategies and experiences that form phonemic awareness, such as songs, finger plays, games, poems, and stories in which phonemic patterns such as rhyme and alliteration are salient; . Opportunities to engage in play that incorporates literacy tools, such as writing grocery lists in dramatic play, making signs in block building, and using icons and words in exploring computer games; and . First hand experiences that expand children’s vocabulary, such as trips in the community and exposure to various tools, objects, and materials.

Language and literacy are composed of listening, speaking, writing, thinking, and reading. The foundations of language and literacy are critical to all other curriculum areas as well as to the individual’s social and emotional development. Children develop the basis for communication in infancy, beginning with nonverbal and social exchanges, by developing spoken language, moving to an understanding of how oral language is translated into written symbols, and then finally learning to decode and create written symbols to develop literacy. A solid foundation in language development in the years before a child enters school will promote success in reading and writing in the future. Young children who have rich language and literacy experiences are less likely to have difficulties learning to read.

The ways in which children learn to read and write are similar to how they develop language. Just as children seem compelled to learn language, children become excited about pictures and letters to communicate. The printed word, whether it is in a storybook or in the environment, is the bridge that allows children to connect their own lives to distant places, quality children's literature, and to new ideas. Through natural exposure to books children discover that written words are another way to share ideas. A child who enters school having recognized the joy of a storybook, a developing awareness of letters of the alphabet, and/or the ability to write a few letters, is a child well prepared to learn to read and write.

Literacy #5 The child demonstrates development 5.1 Listens with understanding to directions and conversations.

and expansion of listening skills. 5.2 Follows directions with increasing complexity. 5.3 Hears and discriminates the sounds of language in words to develop phonological awareness. 5.4 Demonstrates understanding of new vocabulary introduced in conversations, activities, stories, or books.

#6 The child communicates 6.1 Converses effectively in his or her home language, English , or sigh language for a experiences, ideas and feelings through variety of purposes relating to real experiences and different audiences.

speaking. 6.2 Asks and answers relevant questions. 6.3 Engages in conversations that develop a thought or idea.

#7 The child engages in activities that 7.1 Demonstrates an interest and enjoyment in books, listening to stories read aloud, and/or promote the acquisition of emergent looking at books using illustrations or familiar text.

reading skills. 7.2 Demonstrates comprehension of a story read aloud by asking relevant questions or making pertinent comments. 7.3 Progresses in understanding and using conventions of reading (including holding book upright, identifying front and back, turning pages correctly, and recognizing that print proceeds from left to right). 7.4 Progresses in understanding and using concepts of print (including recognizing that letters of the alphabet can be individually named; recognizing letters in own name, classmates' names and environmental print; and/or recognizing words as units of print separated by spaces.

#8 The child engages in activities that promote the acquisition of emergent 8.1 Experiments with a variety of writing tools, materials, and surfaces. writing skills. 8.2 Demonstrates knowledge that writing and drawing are different and uses early stages of writing in the form of shapes and letter-like symbols to convey ideas. 8.3 Increasingly attempts to represent meaningful words and print in the environment using the early stages of writing. 18 Numeracy and Spatial Relationships

Numeracy is mathematical literacy that is necessary for people to navigate the mathematical situations presented in every day life. Young children are natural mathematical learners (NAEYC and NCTM, 2002). Children develop mathematical concepts through active engagement in meaningful and purposeful experiences that are broader in scope that numerals and counting. In an inclusive, developmentally appropriate play-based environment, pre-kindergarten children will have opportunities to acquire and understand mathematical skills and concepts using hands-on experiences. They should have access to a wide variety of tools and technologies that foster understanding in real-life situations.

Mathematics helps young children make sense of their world. Children are inclined to make comparisons, notice similarities and differences in objects, and explore relations within their environment. This ability to organize information into categories, quantify data, and solve problems helps children to learn about time, space, and number. Children’s exploration of mathematics should not be isolated, but rather imbedded in rich, authentic tasks that allow them to integrate new understanding with language development and other developmentally appropriate learning needs. Mathematics is integrated into all aspects of daily routines.

A child’s learning is facilitated by emergent and planned developmentally appropriate math experiences. When children play in the sandbox, cook applesauce. and complete a puzzle, they are engaging in activities that allow them to develop the thinking skills that are naturally used in daily life. Children learn the uses of mathematics to describe and explore relationships among objects and materials in the environment. They increasingly develop the vocabulary and skills to measure, describe patterns, and to express order and position.

Early childhood teachers must be flexible during daily routines and strive to capture teachable moments using open-ended questioning techniques to expand mathematical concepts. These teachers must also facilitate activities that address and extend young children’s developmental levels. Achieving and maintaining mathematical literacy is truly a lifelong quest in our world of ever advancing technology.

Numeracy #9 The child understands numbers, 9.1 Uses one-to-one correspondence in counting increasingly higher groups of ways of representing numbers and objects relationships between quantities and 9.2 Uses numbers and counting as a means for solving problems and determining numerals. quantity. 9.3 Recognizes some numerals.

#10 The child demonstrates 10.1 Recognizes, names, describes, compares and creates familiar shapes. understanding of geometrical and spatial concepts. 10.2 Describes and interprets spatial sense and positions.

#11 The child demonstrates an 11.1 Compares and uses language relating to time with increasing accuracy. understanding of non-standard units to measure and make comparisons. 11.2 Anticipates, remembers, and describes sequence of events with increasing accuracy. 11.3 Demonstrates emerging knowledge of measurement.

#12 The child demonstrates the ability to 12.1 Sorts, classifies, and groups materials by one or more characteristics. investigate, organize, and create representations. 12.2 Collects, organizes and begins to represent in some way information about self, surroundings, and meaningful experiences.

20 Aesthetic/Creativity

“The creative arts are our universal language, the language of our imagination, of musicians and dancers, painters and sculptors, storytellers and poets.” (Edwards, 1997)

Creativity is essential for life. During the early years, imagination and creativity are at their height. The arts mobilize the imagination and creative spirit as children seek meaning and reason about their world. The arts invite children to discover who they are and to develop a powerful repertoire of ways to express and represent their ideas, theories, and emotions, As they begin to appreciate the aesthetic dimension of their daily lives, they are inspired to create beauty and joy for themselves and others.

Investigating and appreciating the arts allows children to integrate a variety of domains. The arts provide each child with a vehicle and an organizing framework to express individual ideas, knowledge, and feelings. Music, movement, drama, and visual art stimulate children to use words, manipulate tools and media, and solve problems in ways that are aesthetically pleasing and simultaneously convey meaning.

Through experimenting with sounds, colors, forms, motion, and words, children communicate in ways that are distinctly their own and that reflect their unique approaches to learning. Each painting, dramatic play scenario, and improvised tune provides teachers and families with insights into a child's interests and abilities and allows children to express what they know. In an environment that fosters the arts, children learn to appreciate the contributions of other children and the works of others that reflect different experiences, cultures, and views.

Area Outcome Indicator Aesthetic #13 The child demonstrates 13.1 Communicates ideas and/or feelings through creative activities (for example, appreciation for the arts (movement, making up a song, acting out a story, creating a piece of art work or a set of Creativity music, visual and dramatic). movements).

21 Scientific/Conceptual Understanding

“Our world is a museum, a field trip, a laboratory, and a natural resource, just waiting to be discovered, explored and enjoyed.” (Barbara J. Taylor, 1991)

Young children are natural scientists. They easily become fascinated by everyday happenings. Pre-kindergarten science is a time for discovery (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). Their natural curiosity and sense of wonder lead them to observe, question, investigate, and interpret the infinite possibilities of the world around them. They are eager to discover all they can about the world in which they live. Children are immersed in science in their daily lives.

Science concepts need to be concrete, observable, and within the realm of the child’s experience and pre-operational thinking (Piaget & Inhelder, 1967). Through varied and repeated opportunities to observe, manipulate, listen, reflect, problem solve, make inferences, and respond to open-ended questions, pre-kindergartners form new understandings, gain interests, and become life-long learners. As they come to see, appreciate, and respect the interconnectedness of the universe, children are inspired to become responsible citizens of the earth.

Quality early childhood science programs require a balance of content and process, using multi-sensory experiences. In addition to science inquiry skills, pre-kindergartners can begin to acquire a foundation of scientific concepts and knowledge on which they can build a clear understanding of their world. Pre-kindergarten children learn science concepts through active play and exploration of the environment. Early childhood teachers can facilitate discovery by inviting questions, asking open-ended questions, encouraging hands-on experiences, and providing opportunities to experiment and observe the world. Teachers should look for opportunities to explore scientific concepts in all content areas.

Scientific #14 The child uses the scientific method 14.1 Uses senses to investigate characteristics and behaviors in the physical and Conceptual to investigate the physical and natural natural worlds and begins to form explanations of observations and explorations. Under- worlds and to hypothesize and make 14.2 Asks questions about the physical and natural worlds. predictions. Standings 14.3 Makes predictions and forms hypotheses. 14.4 Uses various tools to gather information (i.e., thermometers, magnifiers, rulers, and/or balances).

#15 The child acquires scientific 15.1 Explores, observes, and describes a variety of living things and distinguishes knowledge related to life sciences. from non-living things. 15.2 Explores, observes, describes, and participates in a variety of activities related to preserving the environment.

#16 The child acquires scientific 16.1 Investigates, compares, and contrasts seasonal and weather changes in the knowledge related to earth science. immediate environment.

23 Self, Family and Community

“How young children view themselves is as important as how children think.” (Mary Louise Hemmeter)

Social and emotional development is the critical foundation to lifelong learning and well-being. Research clearly indicates that children who develop self-confidence and positive social skills early in life are more successful learners later on (The National Academies, Eager to Learn, NRC, 2001a; Neurons to Neighborhoods, 2000; Katz & McClennan; Ladd, 1990). This competence is nurtured in an environment that affirms children as individuals and as participants in their community.

Social-emotional growth and learning develops through interactions with others and is interconnected to other domains of development, such as cognitive and physical development. Social relationships between adults and children exert a powerful influence on children’s development. Children initially learn about themselves and how to behave from their families, but they are also influenced by peers and other adults in early childhood settings (Kagan, 2000).

For young children the foundation for learning in social studies and history begins with the child’s personal experiences and understanding of the relationship of self to home and family. Their understanding then gradually expands to include the people they meet in their school, neighborhood, community, and the larger world. Teachers need to identify children’s current knowledge and understanding. The pre-kindergarten curriculum needs to focus on concepts that are related to the child’s immediate experience. The literature indicates that children need emotionally warm and positive environments with teachers who nurture self-concept, independence, and self-control in order to be successful learners (Berk, 2001).

Area Outcome Indicator

Self, Family #17 The child exhibits self-awareness. 17.1 Expresses needs and/or stands up for own rights. and 17.2 Makes choices and expresses likes and dislikes. Community 17.3 Identifies own gender, family and culture. 17.4 Expresses cultural influences from home, neighborhood and community.

#18 The child demonstrates self-control. 18.1 Adapts behavior to fit different situations (for example, accepts transitions, follows daily routines and/or incorporates cultural expectations). 18.2 Increasingly expresses feelings through appropriate gestures, actions, and language.

#19 The child demonstrates personal 19.1 Cares for personal and group possessions.

responsibility. 19.2 Begins to accept the consequences of his or her own actions.

Self, Family #20 The child works cooperatively with 20.1 Plays and interacts with various children, sharing experiences and ideas with and other children and adults. others. Community 20.2 Uses and accepts negotiation, compromise, and discussion to resolve conflicts.

#21 The child develops relationships of 21.1 Respects the rights of others recognizing their feelings and increasingly mutual trust and respect with others. responding with courtesy and kindness. 21.2 Accepts guidance and direction from a variety of familiar adults and seeks their support when needed. 21.3 Demonstrates an increasing understanding and acceptance of similarities and differences among people, such as gender, race, special needs, culture, language, and family structures.

#22 The child demonstrates knowledge 22.1 Identifies, discusses and dramatizes duties of a variety of common community of neighborhood and community. occupations. 22.2 Sees self as a citizen in a democratic classroom community and the community at large by increasingly contributing to group decisions and responsibilities.

25 Approaches Toward Learning

All children, regardless of innate abilities or the presence of disabilities are able to learn and be successful. How a child acquires and understands knowledge and applies that knowledge in meaningful ways depends upon the child’s unique approach to learning.

How a child approaches learning is influenced by the following:

. openness to and curiosity about new tasks and challenges, . willingness to take initiative, . ability for task persistence and attentiveness, . reflection and interpretation of experiences, imagination, creativity and problem solving skills, . individual temperament, and . family and community support for curiosity and children’s autonomy.

Each young child's approaches toward learning are unique. Cultural background and experiences contribute to a child's approach to tasks and should be validated and respected. A well-planned learning environment, carefully designed activities, and positive teacher/child interactions support children’s willingness to explore their environment, try new experiences and gain persistence in completing projects. Adults must insure that every child has the opportunity to develop their knowledge and skills to a new level of mastery.

Approaches #23 The child is open and curious to 23.1 Demonstrates eagerness to find out more about other people. to Learning learn new things. 23.2 Shows interest in exploring the environment, learning new things and trying new experiences.

#24 The child takes initiative. 24.1 Initiates interaction with peers and adults. 24.2 Develops increasing independence during activities, routines, and play.

#25 The child exhibits imagination and 25.1 Tries new ways of doing things.

creativity. 25.2 Uses imagination to generate a variety of ideas. 25.3 Role plays to express feelings, to dramatize stories, to try out social behaviors observed in adults, and reenact real-life roles and experiences.

#26 The child shows confidence. 26.1 Demonstrates increasing self-confidence through interactions with others.

#27 The child displays persistence and 27.1 Focuses and completes a variety of tasks, activities, projects, and pursues challenges. experiences. 27.2 Demonstrates resiliency and coping skills when faced with challenges (i.e., concentrates despite distractions and interruptions and/or increasingly manages own frustration levels).

#28 The child uses problem solving 28.1 Recognizes and solves problems through observation, active exploration, trial skills. and error, and interactions and discussions with peers and adults. 27 REFERENCES

Bandura, A. (1997). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bowman, B.T., Donovan, M.S., & Burns, M.S. (Eds.). (2001). Eager to learn: Educating our preschoolers. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Berk, L.E. (2001). Development through the lifespan. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (1997). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs. Washington DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Dewey, J. (1994). Democracy and education. New York; McMillan.

Fillmore, L.W., and Snow, C. (2000). What early childhood teachers should know about language. Eric Digest. US: District of Columbia. 11(00). 40 pgs.

Kagan, S.L. (2000). Early schooling: The national debate. New Haven, CT: Yale Press.

Katz,L., & McClennan, D. (1997). Fostering social competence in young children: The teacher’s role. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Ladd, G.W. (1990). Having friends, keeping friends, making friends, and being liked by peers in the classroom: Predictors of children’s early school adjustment? Child Development 61 (4), 1081-1100.

National Association for the Education of Young Children and the International Reading Association (1998). Learning to read and write: Developmentally appropriate practices for young children. Joint Position Statement. Washington, DC: Authors.

National Association for the Education of Young Children and the National Council for Teachers of Mathematics. Joint Position Statement. Early Childhood Mathematics: Promoting Good Beginnings.

National Research Council (2002). Helping children learn mathematics. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

28 Neuman, S.B., Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2000). Learning to read and write: Developmentally appropriate practices for children. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books.

Seefeldt, C., Denton, K., Galper, A., & Younousai, T. (1990). Fostering Head Start parent’s efficacy and the relationship between efficacy and children’s achievement. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 14, 99-109.

Trister Dodge, D., Colker, L.J., & Heroman, C. (2002). The creative curriculum for preschool. Washington, D.C.: Teaching Strategies

Turner, P., Rivera, O., Dudley, M., Stile, S., & Rinehart, N. (1999). A guide to best practices; Essential elements of quality. Office of Child Development, NM.

Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

29 Inclusion of Children with Disabilities

Teachers must promote the inclusion of children with disabilities and developmental delays with their peers in regular classroom activities. Emphasizing what children can do and enjoy doing builds their confidence. Children with disabilities and developmental delays need support just like their typically developing peers to participate as fully as possible in all areas of the preschool curriculum.

In inclusion programs, the classroom environment, teacher interactions, and/or materials and equipment may have to be modified to enable children with disabilities to participate with their peers. Classroom teachers need to plan and/or modify activities depending on the learning needs or strengths of each individual child. Thoughtful adaptation of activities will allow children with disabilities and developmental delays to participate with their peers to the fullest extent possible.

Adaptations for Children with Disabilities Note: These are just a few suggestions for adaptations. Consult more comprehensive resources to make sure the curriculum and classroom are adapted appropriately for children with different disabilities. Many of these strategies are also helpful for children without disabilities and for English language learners.

For children with vision disabilities:

. Place direct lighting over work areas and locate art area near bright indirect light to assist children with visual disability. . Make sure children identify themselves before speaking. . Use thick cord taped to the flour to mark children’s personal space. . Use art materials that provide texture (e.g., gel paint that dries with a raised surface; tempera paint with sand added); high contrast paper (light, dark, shiny, sparkling); bold colors that are easy to differentiate. . Provide materials with Braille and tactile symbols along with opportunities for development of tactile skills.

For children with hearing disabilities . Use visual pictures and symbols to illustrate words to songs. . Provide visual cues such as red and green cards to indicate that the drumbeat or music has started or stopped. . Face children and tap out the rhythm on a drum in their view; invite them to feel the drum. . Invite children to sit near the speaker or lean against the piano to feel the vibration as music is played. Also increase the bass. . Create “story boxes” for familiar stories. For example, place props of the story The Three Little Pigs in a box. When the story is read aloud, the props offer both tactile cues for the words being read, and the opportunity to act out story components. In this way concepts that might be available only by seeing or hearing will be made more meaningful while also allowing children more direct involvement with the story. These strategies enhance the activity for all children, not just those with a disability. 30 For children with language disabilities: . Provide good models of communication (in any language). . Use special or adaptive devices to increase a child’s level of communication and/or participation. . Use a favorite toy, activity, technology, or person to encourage communication and/or participation. . Use a variety of symbols (tactual symbols, object symbols, picture symbols such as Mayer Johnson pictures) around the room along with various printed materials that support children’s primary languages while they are learning English (e.g., books, newspapers, magazines in the dramatic play area). . Arrange the room to encourage language and conversations (e.g., tables pulled away from walls so that children sit or stand opposite each other).

For children with physical disabilities: . Use adaptive equipment and furniture so children can participate in all parts of the curriculum, small and large group activities, circle time, etc., along with their peers. . Ensure that room space allows for wheelchairs, walkers or other equipment so that children using them can move about the room safely and independently. . Use adaptive equipment on the playground so that children can play with their peers and benefit from physical exercise. . Make sure that the classroom is arranged so that toys, games, dramatic play and art materials are equally accessible for all children.

Suggested Resources:

Gould, P. & Sullivan, J., (1999). The Inclusive Early Childhood Classroom: Easy ways to adapt learning centers for all children. Beltsville, MD, Gryphon House, Inc.

Sandall, S. & Schwartz, I., (2002). Building Blocks for Teaching Preschoolers with Special Needs: Baltimore, MD, Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co.

31 ASSESSMENT AND DOCUMENTATION (Adapted from New Jersey)

Assessment of young children is an ongoing process that documents evidence of early learning, in order to make informed instructional decisions. This evidence may include anecdotal records of children's conversations and behaviors, small and large group situations, samples of art work and drawings, photographs, recordings or other records of children engaged in activities and play.

Documentation, a preliminary stage in the assessment process, focuses on identifying, collecting, and describing the evidence of learning in an objective, nonjudgmental manner. Teachers should, on a regular basis, take the time to track children's emerging skills, identify learning goals, and share the information with colleagues. Based on this information, new curriculum strategies may be generated or additional questions be posed. Careful documentation and assessment can increase the teacher's understanding of normal child development, assist in understanding the needs of the children in a specific class, and enhance the teacher's ability to reflect on the instructional program.

Purpose of Assessment in Preschool Education The primary purpose of the assessment of young children is to help educators determine appropriate activities for individuals and groups of children.

The documentation/assessment process should do the following:

• Build on multiple forms of evidence of the child's learning, • Take place over a period of time, • Reflect the understanding of groups, as well as of individual children, and • Reflect sensitivity to each child's special needs, home language, learning style, and developmental stage.

The information from the documentation/assessment process should do the following:

• Connect to developmentally appropriate learning goals, • Add to an understanding of the child's growth and development, • Provide information that can be applied directly to instructional planning, and • Be communicated with the child's family and special personnel, when appropriate.

32 Importance of the Documentation/Assessment Process for Teachers' Professional Development

Teachers who use the documentation/assessment process enhance their ability to do the following:

• Respond easier and more effectively to demands for accountability, • Teach more effectively, using interactive experiences that enhance children's development, • Make more productive instructional decisions (e.g., how to set up the classroom, what to do next, what questions to ask, what resources to provide, how to stimulate each child's development, and what external support systems are required), • Meet more of the children's special needs within the classroom. The ongoing process of identifying, collecting, describing, interpreting, and applying classroom-based evidence can help the teacher to become more aware of and develop a broader repertoire of instructional strategies, and • Identify the most appropriate learning experiences for children.

The documentation/assessment process can also help young children to perceive learning to be important and worthwhile as they see their teachers actively engaged in documenting their learning.

Portfolio Documentation

Portfolio assessment is the systematic and intentional collection and documentation of significant samples of children's work. The portfolio process should clearly indicate the learning goals, illustrate and document the children's development over a period of time, actively involve children, and reflect each child's individual development based on expectations of the child for the year.

Some strategies for portfolio documentation are as follows:

• Determine the developmental areas to be assessed (e.g., spoken language, art, early literacy, symbolic play, motor skills, math concepts, creativity, and peer relationships), • Identify the documents which best demonstrate development (e.g., drawings, paintings, other art work, photos, dictated stories, book choices, teacher's notes, audio/video tapes, graphs, and checklists), • Regularly create a collection of samples with children's input (i.e., record what the children tell you about a variety of things), • Develop a storage system for the samples of children's work, • Describe the documentation with colleagues in order to gain additional perspectives on the child's development. Study groups of teachers can be formed to collect and describe samples of children's work, • Connect the children's work to the learning outcomes, • Identify any learning gaps in the development story. Make sure the samples show the full range of what each child can do, and • Collect data that tells a clear story to the audience.

33 Observation

Observation of young children is critical in the documentation and assessment process. However, observation is a skill that must be developed and perfected by the teacher over time. In the process of observing children, teachers can make use of the following techniques: rating forms, photography, narrative description, anecdotes, videotaping, journals, and the conversations of individual children and groups. Observation must be intentional. As part of the daily classroom routine, it is probably the most authentic form of assessment. Observing children in the daily preschool experience is the best place to start when creating a real-life profile of the child.

What to observe:

• Dispositions (trends in behavior or activity that reflect particular learning styles and motivators); • Coping strategies (i.e., notice how the child solves a problem); • Social interactions, including withdrawal or isolation (i.e., determine the child's place in the group); and • Key attributes of the child (i.e., identify and list interests and play patterns).

How to observe:

• Regularly, with a specific purpose; • At different times of the day; • In different settings throughout the school or center; • The usual demeanor of the child, not the unusual behavior or bad days; and • For new possibilities. If a child is having trouble, could the environment or circumstances be changed to assist the child?

The Parents

Parents should be partners in the accurate and sensitive assessment of young children. The following practices help encourage parental involvement in child assessments:

• Accentuate the positive when discussing children; • Talk about child observations informally, during everyday conversations with parents; • Explain assessment approaches at a parent meeting or workshop. Be clear about the differences between standardized tests and authentic assessment; • Write about assessment in a newsletter or a special letter home; • Demonstrate that parents are respected partners in the documentation of behavior and progress of child, and • Support comments with documentation showing what the child has accomplished over time.

34 The Children

Everyone has a view of a child's abilities, preferences, and behaviors, including the child. To effectively involve the children in their own assessment do the following:

 Observe and document things the children say and do. Often random statements such as, "I was this big my last birthday, now I'm THIS big" are evidence that children are capable of assessing what they can do and how they are changing.  Ask children about themselves. Children will tell you what they do and do not like to do. Some children may be pleased by a conference-like situation in which they have your undivided attention, while others may respond to more informal discussions.  Ask children to assess their work. Ask children to help decide which work should be included in their portfolio. Respect their choices and responses about their work.  Let children take pictures of their most prized work from time to time. They can make a bulletin board display of their specially chosen picture portfolio.

Achievement Tests Individual and group-administered norm referenced tests are usually inappropriate tools for assessing young children's development. Such instruments are not typically designed to provide information on how children learn, how they might apply their learning to real life situations, or how the test results relate to the teacher's instructional goals and planning. Instructional planning should be grounded in the evidence of children's learning that reflects their activities as closely as possible, such as records of their language and samples of their work. Developmental Screening Measures At times, the typical preschool instructional program may not be adequate in supporting a specific child's development. Individual developmental screening measures may be used to identify children who have major impediments to learning, such as problems in the development of language, or with vision, or hearing. In such cases, the results of screening measures should be used to determine whether a child needs further more comprehensive diagnostic assessment. Referral for an Evaluation When a parent or a teacher has a concern and suspects a potential disability, a written referral to the district’s child study team should occur. The child may be eligible for special education. The parent, preschool teacher, and the team meet to determine the need for evaluation and discuss the assessments to be completed. After completion of the evaluation and a determination of eligibility, an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) will be developed. In addition to special education personnel, the team always includes the parent and the preschool teacher. The team will determine what types of support are necessary such as modifications in the classroom or special education services. To the maximum extent appropriate, preschoolers with disabilities should receive their preschool education with their peers. 35 Research Foundation of the Early Learning Outcomes and Indicators

Health and Well Being Outcome Indicator Research Annotation #1 The child independently 1.1 Exhibits body coordination During the preschool years, children develop gross motor control including balance, spatial uses gross motor control and strength in activities such as awareness, and stability. The development of motor skills allows children to explore, experience, including balance, spatial climbing stairs with alternating and consequently learn from their environment (Malina, 2004). Gross motor skills are important awareness and stability. feet, marching, running, for social, emotional, as well as physical development. Preschool children who have well jumping, hopping, dancing, developed gross motor skills are able to play games with other children and are more likely to be riding tricycles and scooters included in group activities with their peers. Inclusion in such activities will lead to the development of friendships while exclusion can lead to low self-esteem. Children who have gross 1.2 Exhibits balance and spatial motor problems may also develop health problems at a later age, as they may not engage in awareness in many situations physical activity (Needlman, 1996; Poest, Williams, Witt, & Atwood, 1990). (running and stopping, climbing, ball handling, and/or simple The appearance of motor skills reflects the development and maturation of the brain and the rest of group games, i.e., “Duck Duck, the nervous system (Adolph & Berger, 2006; Hughes, Noppe, & Noppe, 1996; Malina, 2004; Goose” Poest, Williams, Witt, & Atwood, 1990). While some variation does exist in preschoolers’ motor abilities (due to sex, culture, etc), failure to develop motor skills can indicate underlying neurological and/or developmental problems (Bayley & Espenchade, 1941; Malina, 2004). For 2.1 Is developing manual example, toe walking in preschool children is linked to delays in speech and language (Needlman, coordination to use cutting and 1996) whereas hoping and skipping in kindergarten are associated with achievement in first grade writing tools and demonstrate (Hughes, Noppe, & Noppe, 1996). Practice and instruction are also important for the self-help skills such as buttoning development of new motor skills (Hughes, Noppe, & Noppe, 1996; Poest, Williams, Witt, & #2 The child independently and zipping. Atwood, 1990). uses fine motor skills. 2.2 Coordinates eye-hand movements using beads, laces, Preschool age children should be able to use fine motor skills for academic and non-academic pegs, puzzles and other tasks and they should be provided with opportunities to practice these skills (Needlman, 1996). manipulatives and small objects, Fine motor skills are needed for kindergarten and for school readiness. They become more and and when dressing and more important as children advance in school (Marr, Cermak, Cohn, & Henderson, 2003). They undressing. are also necessary for communication, social interaction, academic tasks such as writing and pointing to words while reading, and non academic tasks such as eating and dressing (Hughes, 2.3 Holds writing tool in pincer Noppe, & Noppe, 1996; Marr, Cermak, Cohn, & Henderson, 2003). Fine motor skills are also grasp to draw, scribble write, predictive of school outcomes (Pianta & McCoy, 1997). Because fine motor skills reflect the make letter-like shapes and/or maturation of the nervous system, failure to develop these skills can reflect underlying letters neurological problems (Malina, 2004; Poest, Williams, Witt, & Atwood, 1990).

Outcome Indicator Research Annotation

36 #3 The child’s behavior 3.1 Shows increasing awareness It is important that young children learn the importance of hand washing at an early age. Hand demonstrates health and of hygiene in hand washing, washing can prevent the spread of diseases such as diarrhea, pneumonia, and the common cold hygiene skills toileting, and/or dental hygiene. (Luby et al., 2005; Rosen et al., 2005). Children who attend preschool, by virtue of being in contact with more children, frequently transmit and spread germs (Rosen et al., 2005). When children are taught about the importance of hand washing throughout the day, but especially before eating and after using the bathroom, they are more likely to wash their hands (Luby et al., 2005). 3.2 Shows increasing awareness of healthy lifestyle practices Dental hygiene in young children is also important for their health. Dental problems are one of (that healthy bodies need the top five reasons for emergency room visit (Barnett & Brown, 2000) and dental care is the nutritious foods, exercise and most commonly unmet health need in young children, especially for children in poverty physical activity and rest). (Newacheck, Hughes, Hung, Wong, & Stoddard, 2000). Nineteen percent of two to five year olds have untreated dental caries and untreated dental caries are more prevalent in low-income children (Vargas, Crall, & Schneider, 1998). When young children receive dental care and have proper dental hygiene, they are less likely to have dental problems as adults (Savage et al., 2004).

It is increasingly important today that preschool age children understand and practice healthy habits including eating nutritious foods and being physically active. Because diet and lifestyle patterns begin in early childhood (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003; Gordon-Larsen et al., 2004; Trost, Sirard, Dowda, Pfeiffer, & Pate, 2003), it is important to teach and model healthy habits early in life and early education programs can play a pivotal role.

It is crucial for preschoolers to understand the importance of and enjoy exercise because #4 The child demonstrates 4.1 Identifies potentially harmful individuals who understand the benefits of exercise are more likely to exercise (Kenkel, 1991). safe behaviors in increasing objects, substances and Preventions beginning in preschool aimed at healthy lifestyles could be more effective in numbers of situations behaviors. preventing heart related problems than interventions once heart problems begin (Hayman & Reineke, 2003). Children need to learn, at an early age, about healthy foods (Dalton, 2004). 4.2 Increasingly follow Children generally will not like a new food until they have tried it several times (Birch & Fisher; classroom, school, and safety Dalton, 2004). Therefore it is important to continually reintroduce new healthy foods to rules most of the time. preschoolers.

Research has shown that preschool-age children can understand causes of illness and that behaviors (eating something with germs) can lead to illness (Kalish, 1998). Young, preschool age, children must learn safe behaviors including following rules and identifying risky objects and situations. Preschool age children are at increased risk for injury because they are beginning to experiment with their new gross motor abilities (Needlman, 1996). Preschooler’s risk for injury increases during the first two years of life and peaks between two and four years of age (Del Santo, Goodman, Glik, & Jackson, 2004). Preschool age children need to develop problem- solving skills with regards to safety issues in order to avoid injuries (Bruce & McGrath, 2005). At this young age, they lack the cognitive capacity to make decisions about safety issues because they do not yet understand cause and effect relationships. However, they can learn about safety and will learn best from teachers modeling proper safety behaviors (Hillier & Morrongiello, 1998; Mobley & Evanshevski, 2000).

37 Literacy Outcome Indicator Research Annotation #5 The child demonstrates 5.1 Listens with understanding Listening and following directions are essential skills that young children develop. They are development and expansion to directions and conversations. necessary not just for conversation, social relations and safety, but are indicators of underlying of listening skills. 5.2 Follows directions with self-regulatory abilities. Self-regulation of behavior refers to controlled cognitive monitoring of increasing complexity. the actions and steps required to obtain a goal (Blair, 2003). Self-regulation has been shown to be linked to maturation of the prefrontal cortex area of the brain, which occurs during the preschool years (Blair, 2003; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Multiple aspects of self-regulation are 5.3 Hears and discriminates the essential to school readiness and among these is the ability to inhibit impulsivity and follow sounds of language in words to directions (Blair, 2003). Further, this self-regulation is related to the self-monitoring and strategic develop phonological awareness control over literacy activities, such as directing attention to the text, that is later needed to enable a child to learn to read by reading (Clay, 1991).

5.4 Demonstrates understanding Phonological awareness has strong scientifically based research support as a predictor of early of new vocabulary introduced in literacy success (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Strickland & Shanahan, 2004). Phonological conversations, activities, stories, awareness, the awareness of constituent sounds of words in learning to read and spell, consists of or books. skills such as identifying and making oral rhymes and clapping out syllables (Strickland & Schickedanz, 2004).

#6 The child communicates 6.1 Converses effectively in his Oral language is the foundation of early literacy (Dickinson & Tabors, 2002). Children learn experiences, ideas and or her home language, English, through their oral interactions with adults and other children and use these interactions to build feelings through speaking. or sign language for a variety of their knowledge of the world around them, describe events, and extend their vocabulary purposes relating to real (Strickland & Shanahan, 2004). Research has shown that young children’s oral language, experiences and different especially vocabulary development, has a strong relationship to later reading achievement (Hart audiences. & Risely, 1995; Clay, 1975; Duke, Pressley, & Hilden, 2004; Nagy & Scott, 2000; Dickinson & Tabors, 2001). If a child is able to recognize the printed words, comprehension of text depends 6.2 Asks and answers relevant heavily on the reader’s oral-language abilities because of the need to understand the meaning of questions words and the syntactic (grammatical) and semantic (meaning) relationship among them (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). 6.3 Engages in conversations that develop a thought or idea.

38 7. The child engages in 7.1 Demonstrates an interest and Children’s interest in and enjoyment of literacy activities provides a basis for developing literacy activities that promote the enjoyment in books, listening to skills, as early readers have been found to have shown an interest in reading and writing as young acquisition of emergent stories read aloud, and/or children (Clark, 1976; Durkin, 1966). An interest in literacy will motivate a child to actively reading skills. looking at books using engage in literacy experiences both independently and with others. These literacy-based illustrations or familiar text. interactions, as part of the emergent literacy perspective where children construct their own knowledge about reading and writing as a result of social interactions and meaningful engagements with print, will enhance the development of literacy skills including comprehension, 7.2 Demonstrates the knowledge of books, and concepts about print. (Vukelich & Christie, 2004). Print conveys a comprehension of a story read message and the basis of reading is to make meaning of this message. Children comprehend aloud by asking relevant stories by interpreting the story through their own lens of understanding that incorporates their questions or making pertinent background knowledge and experiences, their understanding of vocabulary and the connections comments. they make (Keene & Zimmerman, 1997). They demonstrate this understanding by commenting on stories, asking relevant questions, and demonstrating meaningful connections between the text 7.3 Progresses in understanding and the child, the text and other texts, and the text and the world. and using conventions of reading (including holding book upright, identifying front and Print knowledge is a broad category that has been shown to be linked to later reading back, turning pages correctly, achievement (Strickland & Shanahan, 2004; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). Specifically, in and recognizing that print order to make sense of print, one needs to understand directionality and comprehend the concept proceeds from left to right). of word and the concept of letter (Strickland & Schickedanz, 2004). One of the strongest predictors of later reading achievement on its own is letter identification and it is recommended 7.4 Progresses in understanding that at the end of preschool children can identify at least 10 letters, especially those in his or her and using concepts of print. own name (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). However, it is cautioned that this letter-learning should be provided within a larger literacy context (Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, Wilkinson, 1985).

Children need both the opportunity to engage in writing and the materials to do so in a meaningful way. Young children should freely experiment writing with various instruments such as pencils, pens, markers, crayons, paints, and chalk and various surfaces such as paper, chalkboards, on cement or in sand (Morrow, 1993; National Research Council, 1999; Mayer, 2007). Classrooms that encourage writing provide this variety of materials (Mayer, 2007) and include these writing materials around the room and not just in a writing center (Vukelich & Christie, 2004; Morrow, 1993). Given access to these materials to use to draw and scribble, most children will begin to bridge their oral and written worlds through drawing, scribbling, making lines, mock letters, actual letters, and various combinations of these in purposeful ways (Strickland & Riley-Ayers, 2007).

Outcomes Indicators Research Annotation

39 #8 The child engages in 8.1 Experiments with a variety Children need both the opportunity to engage in writing and the materials to do so in a activities that promote the of writing tools, materials, and meaningful way. Young children should freely experiment writing with various instruments such acquisition of emergent surfaces. as pencils, pens, markers, crayons, paints, and chalk and various surfaces such as paper, writing skills chalkboards, on cement or in sand (Morrow, 1993; National Research Council, 1999; Mayer, 8.2 Demonstrates knowledge that 2007). Classrooms that encourage writing provide this variety of materials (Mayer, 2007) and writing and drawing are different include these writing materials around the room and not just in a writing center (Vukelich & and uses early stages of writing Christie, 2004; Morrow, 1993). Given access to these materials to use to draw and scribble, most in the form of shapes children will begin to bridge their oral and written worlds through drawing, scribbling, making and letter-like symbols to lines, mock letters, actual letters, and various combinations of these in purposeful ways convey ideas. (Strickland & Riley-Ayers, 2007).

8.3 Increasingly attempts to Children need both the opportunity to engage in writing and the materials to do so in a represent meaningful words and meaningful way. Young children should freely experiment writing with various instruments such print in the environment using as pencils, pens, markers, crayons, paints, and chalk and various surfaces such as paper, the early stages of writing. chalkboards, on cement or in sand (Morrow, 1993; National Research Council, 1999; Mayer, 2007). Classrooms that encourage writing provide this variety of materials (Mayer, 2007) and include these writing materials around the room and not just in a writing center (Vukelich & Christie, 2004; Morrow, 1993). Given access to these materials to use to draw and scribble, most children will begin to bridge their oral and written worlds through drawing, scribbling, making lines, mock letters, actual letters, and various combinations of these in purposeful ways (Strickland & Riley-Ayers, 2007).

40 Numeracy and Spatial Relationships Outcome Indicator Research Annotation #9 The child understands 9.1 Uses one-to-one correspondence As early as preschool, there is variability among children in mathematical understanding numbers, ways of in counting increasingly higher (Young-Loveridge, 2004). Through early math experiences, young children learn one-to-one representing numbers and groups of objects. correspondence starting with one or two items, adding more items as their experience and relationships between understanding increases (Baroody & Benson, 2001). Initially, they can recite counting quantities and numerals. numbers but make counting errors such as skipping and double-counting (Gelman & Meck, 9.2 Uses numbers and counting as a 1983). Most older four year olds can enumerate objects correctly up to 10 but take longer means for solving problems and learning the unique names of the “teen” numbers. (Baroody, 1987) determining quantity. Once older 4s grasp the concept of “cardinality” that the last number enumerated represents the total quantity, they begin to solve everyday problems using math even simple addition and 9.3 Recognizes some numerals. subtraction (Bryant and Nunes, 2002; Rassmussen, Ho, and Bisanz, 2003) . They “enjoy using mathematics to explore and understand the world around them” (Baroody, Lai, and Mix, 2003). In classrooms where teachers embedded math learning into everyday activities children learned more math than those in control classrooms (Arnold, et al, 2002). 10.1 Recognizes, names, describes, Clements (1999) points out that young children can not only identify and name familiar #10 The child demonstrates compares and creates familiar shapes but are capable of understand the parts and attributes of shapes through the understanding of geometrical shapes. development of “representational space”. Children can thus compose and decompose shapes and spatial concepts. from other shapes. 10.2 Describes and interprets spatial According to the NCTM (1989), spatial understanding is important for young children. In sense and position learning about spatial relations children develop mental pictures of their environment through “dual representation” which again shows a conceptual understanding of space and position. #11 The child demonstrates 11.1 Compares and uses language (DeLoache, 2002) an understanding of non- relating to time with increasing Young children are capable of simple measurement and comparison of time, length, volume, standard units to measure accuracy. weight, and height, combining their growing understanding of counting, shapes, and spatial and make comparison relations (Greenes, 1999; Lang, 2001). In early childhood, children’s memory capacities 11.2 Anticipates, remembers, and increase dramatically which leads to the ability to develop more accurate and detailed describes sequence of events with “scripts” for everyday events (Bauer, 1997, 2002). increasing accuracy. Early in life children show an interest in the different attributes of items. By the end of 11.3 Demonstrates emerging preschool, they can use both general categories (animals) and specific categories (dogs) and knowledge of measurement. even finer subcategories (big dogs, tiny dogs) for sorting (Blewitt, 1994). According to Gelman & Koening (2003), they develop a conceptual understanding of the category that helps them identify new members. #12 The child demonstrates 12.1 Sorts, classifies, and groups the ability to investigate, materials by one or more organize, and create characteristics. As their fine motor and self-regulation skills develop, preschoolers are able to represent their representations newfound understanding of number, space, classification, patterns and other aspects of 12.2 Collects, organizes and begins mathematical knowledge (Toomela, 1999, 2002) to represent in some way information about self, surroundings, and meaningful experiences. Aesthetic /Creativity

Outcomes Indicators Research Annotation #13 The child demonstrates 13.1 Communicates ideas and/or appreciation for the arts feelings through creative activities For young children, creativity is not only a natural way to promote “academic” concepts, (movement, music, visual and (for example, making up a song, (Lim, 2004) but it is also a natural way to help children process their lives in a meaningful dramatic) acting out a story, creating a piece of way (Matlock and Hornstein, 2004). In allowing children to freely create and experiment art work or a set of movements). with music, play or art work, they are able to integrate preceding learning and experiences with new ones (Matlock and Hornstein, 2004). These experiences are valuable ones as they are the ones through which preschool children begin to identify themselves within the world around them (Hoffman, Kantner, Colbert and Simes, 1991). Through encouraging children to touch, feel, hear, see and discover themselves as part of the aesthetic world they are able to formulate ideas and to make judgments about them (Hoffman et. al., 1991). Most importantly it is crucial to consider that the creative arts are a meaningful way for children to engage cognitive and emotional experiences as the arts involve the expression of both feelings and ideas (Hoffman, et. al., 1991).

42 Scientific/Conceptual Understanding Outcome Indicator Research Anecdotes #14 The child uses the 14.1 Uses senses to investigate scientific method to characteristics and behaviors in the investigate the physical and physical and natural worlds and natural worlds and to begins to form explanations of hypothesize and make observations and explorations predictions. 14.2 Asks questions about the physical and natural worlds 14.3 Makes predictions and forms hypotheses Young children possess natural motivation to investigate and explore the world around them. 14.4 Uses various tools to gather Through teacher organized activities and independent play young children are able to begin information (i.e., thermometers, to create mental representations of experiences as they occur and then to rely on these magnifiers, rulers, and/or balances representations for future learning (Conezio & French, 2002). Science activities in preschool offer opportunities for children to construct knowledge and articulate observations through language both expressively and receptively (Conezio & French, 2002). Young children’s #15 The child acquires 15.1 Explores, observes, and ability to maintain sustained attention increases sharply in the preschool years and results in scientific knowledge related describes a variety of living things the ability to better explore, plan, and solve problems with familiar materials (Wellman, to life sciences. and distinguishes from non-living Somerville, & Haake, 1979; Siegler, 1996). things.

15.2 Explores, observes, describes, Research has shown that young children have the ability to distinguish between living and and participates in a variety of non-living things through a knowledge system called “naïve biology.” (Inagaki & Hatano, activities related to preserving the 2006; Wellman & Gelman, 1998) In addition they have also been shown to give causal environment. explanations for different biological phenomena based on their knowledge of plants and animals that may already exist (Inagaki & Hatano, 2006). As such, science activities afford children hands-on and engaging methods with which to approach problem solving tasks and #16 The child acquires 16.1 Investigates, compares, and to further expand on previous knowledge. scientific knowledge related contrasts seasonal and weather to earth science. changes in the immediate environment.

43 Self, Family & Community Outcomes Indicators Research Annotation #17 The child exhibits self- 17.1 Expresses needs and/or stands Once children are aware of themselves as individuals, and thus able to identify their own awareness. up for own rights. gender, family and culture, they become more sensitive to the ways people might see them. They also become more aware of how people think differently, and that other people might 17.2 Makes choices and expresses have feelings that are different from their own. This awareness provides a foundation for likes and dislikes. emotions like empathy and envy (Lewis, 2000). Additionally, an accurate self-awareness that allows a child to openly and honestly identify strengths, stand up for his/her own rights, and 17.3 Identifies own gender, family express needs, will serve to enhance a child’s resiliency (Hippe, 2004). and culture. Indeed, children without [self-awareness] "don't follow directions, continually go off-task, can't pay attention, and have difficulty working cooperatively” (Jonathan Cohen, president of 17.4 Expresses cultural influences the Center for Social and Emotional Education in New York). Therefore, it is not surprising from home, neighborhood and that a sense of self-awareness has been correlated with favorable outcomes such as academic community. achievement (Marsh, 1990). Further, a growing body of research indicates that unless children achieve minimal social competence, a large component of which is self-awareness, by about the age of six years, they have a high probability of being at risk throughout life. (Hartup, 1992).

#18 The child demonstrates 18.1 Adapts behavior to fit different Self-control ability frequently has been cited as necessary for children’s successful adjustment self-control situations (for example, accepts at home and in school (Rohrbeck, Azar, & Wagner, 1991). Indeed, children’s ability to transitions, follows daily routines concentrate on a task to follow the daily routine are determinants of their school achievement and/or incorporates cultural (Alexander et al., 1993). Empirical research indicates that self-control is as important as IQ expectations). and aptitude for success in school. For instance, Kendall, Zupan, and Braswell (1981) found that children who lacked self-control had deficits in social perspective taking. In addition, 18.2 Increasingly expresses feelings students with a lack of self-control often display aggression, impulsivity, noncompliance, and through appropriate gestures, actions, distraction that results in poor academic achievement (Carr & Punzo, and language 1993). Self-control strategies, such as an ability to adapt behavior to fit different situations, can produce improvements in academic productivity and on-task behavior (Reid, Trout, & Schartz, 2005). Murry and Brody (2001) found that children clearly demonstrating self- control tend to display greater academic achievement one year later. Clearly research continually shows that among the processes that have been associated with school achievement, children’s ability to engage in self-control is of particular importance during the early years (Kendall, 1993).

44 Outcomes Indicator Research Anecdotes #19 The child demonstrates 19.1 Cares for personal and group personal responsibility possessions. A child’s ability to demonstrate personal responsibility is not only valued in its own right; it is also a powerful predictor of academic performance. At a general level, responsible 19.2 Begins to accept the children allow teachers to focus their efforts on teaching rather than classroom management; consequences of his or her own therefore providing an environment for optimum learning. Further, teachers rate a child’s actions. ability to demonstrate personal responsibility as a chief factor for school readiness (Smith, 2005). Behaving responsibly has proven to make a direct and independent contribution to academic achievements and intellectual outcomes, even when other factors are considered (Wentzel, 1993). Feldman & Wentzel (1990) propose that responsible children who demonstrate consideration for personal and group possessions achieve more than students who have not learned such skills. While academic achievement is indeed sought after in its own right, added importance lies in the notion that poor school achievers are at higher risk for maintaining antisocial emotions, attitudes, and values (Tremblay et al, 1992).

A child’s ability to interact with others contributes greatly to overall learning. Johnson #20 The child works 20.1 Plays and interacts with various (1980) firms that experiences with peers are not simply luxuries to be enjoyed; rather they cooperatively with other children, sharing experiences and are an absolute necessity for healthy cognitive and social development. Being cooperative children and adults. ideas with others. and helpful can result in positive, academically relevant interactions with teachers and peers (Sieber, 1979). For instance, Damon & Phelps (1989) demonstrate that positive peer 20.2 Uses and accepts negotiation, cooperation can promote cognitive development and intellectual problem solving. Further, compromise, and discussion to children who cannot interact cooperatively in the early years often achieve poor school resolve conflicts. achievement in later grades (Hawkins & Lishner, 1987). Likewise, an inability to compromise and resolve conflicts results in a deprivation of valuable interactions, thus placing children at risk for academic failure (Wentzel, 1993). Bronson et al (1995) found that preschool children who spent more time involved in the classroom… scored better on a standardized cognitive achievement measure. In addition, Ladd et.al (1999) claim that children’s ability to cooperate and compromise with other children and adults results in early school achievement. Given that cooperative behavior has shown to be an independent predictor of children’s academic achievement (Wentzel, 1993), and that peer cooperation difficulties in childhood predict serious adjustment problems in later life (Parker & Asher, 1987), the demonstration of cooperative, sharing, and helpful behavior is crucial to overall development.

45 Outcomes Indicators Research Annotation #21 The child develops 21.1 Respects the rights of others Trust is a profound emotional milestone that is accomplished during the early years. The ability to relationships of mutual recognizing their feelings and form secure attachments during early childhood promotes a lifetime of emotional health (Honig, trust and respect with increasingly responding with 2005). Children who build secure, trusting relationships learn to be intimate and empathetic, and others courtesy and kindness. eventually to communicate their feelings as well as gain a moral sense of right and wrong. These relationships also form the foundation for most of a child’s intellectual activities, including 21.2 Accepts guidance and creativity and abstract thinking (Brazelton & Greenspan, 2006). Trusting individuals are more direction from a variety of familiar likely to play peacefully with peers rather than get into fights. Furthermore, children who are able adults and seeks their support to securely accept guidance and seek direction from adults work harder at learning tasks and when needed. solving problems (Honig, 2005). Pellegrini (1997) suggests that a climate of trusting children supports conflict resolution, and, in turn, affords opportunities for greater literacy learning. This 21.3 Demonstrates an increasing supports the claim that trust is an essential component of cognitive growth (Burrington et al, understanding and acceptance of 2006). Feshbach & Feshbach (1987) define trust as "the capacity to assume the perspective of similarities and differences among others and sensitivity to and sharing of others feelings.” They claim that young children who people, such as gender, race, possess a high degree of trust will have higher achievement scores than those who do not, and such special needs, culture, language, differences will persist over time. Similarly, children’s lack of trust development leads to poor and family structures. school achievement later on (Tremblay et al, 1992)

The development of citizenship skills and conformity to one’s social community has been a #22 The child demonstrates 22.1 Identifies, discusses and traditional and valued educational objective for U.S. schools (Wentzel, 1991). According to Lewis knowledge of dramatizes duties of a variety of and Morris (1998), research has shown that children need and deserve a basic sense of community neighborhood and common community occupations. in order to ensure success in academics as well as in life. As a result, those able to contribute to community. group decisions and responsibilities are better able to adjust and be successful in school (Church, 22.2 Sees self as a citizen in a E.B., 2006). Further, identifying and conforming to social expectations enables children to perform democratic classroom community a variety of tasks that are essential for learning (Mischel, Shoda, & Peake, 1988); many of which and the community at large by have proven to result in greater school achievement in later grades (Tremblay et al, 1992). In increasingly contributing to group addition, children who build a sense of community are better able to face life’s challenges (Levine, decisions and responsibilities. 2003). Maeroff (1998) contends that connectedness is strengthened through establishing bonds with the neighborhood and community, and those who develop a sense of connectedness are successful because they gain support systems and a feeling of belonging. Given the research supporting the development of knowledge of neighborhood and community, the US National Commission on Children (1991) maintains that enhancing a sense of community and invigorating informal systems of social support for children should be a primary goal of teachers.

46 Outcomes Indicators Research Anecdotes #23 The child is open and 23.1 Demonstrates eagerness to It is through curiosity that children learn to master their environments. Children’s motivation to curious to learn new things. find out more about other people. master their environment is shown by their interaction with toys and people, and this curiosity and motivation have been linked to children’s academic achievement (Turner & Johnson, 2003). 23.2 Shows interest in exploring Children who are motivated to learn show their curiosity by questioning and exploring their the environment, learning new environment. Research had found that children from all socioeconomic groups come to school things and trying new experiences. eager and motivated to learn (Stipek & Ryan, 1996)

#24 The child takes 24.1 Initiates interaction with peers initiative. and adults. Young children show their initiative by interacting with peers and adults and by making independent decisions. Children’s ability to effectively interact with the peers is an indication of 24.2 Develops increasing their social-emotional maturity (Fantuzzo, Bulotsky-Shearer, Fusco, & McWayne, 2005). independence during activities, Researchers have found that children’s social skills used when interacting with their peers is routines and play. related to their academic success in kindergarten and elementary school (Birch & Ladd, 1996; #25 The child exhibits 25.1 Tries new ways of doing Ladd, Kochenderfer, & Colemen, 1996). imagination and creativity things.

25.2 Uses imagination to generate Children who have active imaginations are better at understanding interpersonal relationships a variety of ideas. between their parents and peers (Gleason, 2002). Humor is important for young children because it allows them to enjoy life and it is related to their cognitive processes (Klein, 1987; Masselos, 25.3 Role plays to express 2003). feelings, to dramatize stories, to try out social behaviors observed in adults, and reenact real-life roles and experiences.

#26 The child shows 26.1 Demonstrates increasing self- confidence confidence through interactions Children’s self-concept is developing throughout childhood. As children become older their views with others. of themselves as competent become more differentiated because children learn view themselves as being good at one thing but not so good at another (Marsh, Ellis, Craven, 2002). #27 The child displays 27.1 Focuses and completes a persistence and pursues variety of tasks, activities, projects challenges and experiences. Children’s ability to persist during challenging tasks is related to their academic success (McWayne, Fantuzzo, & McDermott, 2004). Persistence is an ability that can be learned by 27.2 Demonstrates resiliency and children (Schaefer & McDermott, 1999). These abilities can be taught through learning activities, coping skills when faced with such as games and behavioral modeling (Barnett et al., 1996). challenges (i.e., concentrates despite distractions and interruptions and/or increasingly manages own frustration levels).

47 #28 The child uses problem 28.1 Recognizes and solves solving skills. problems through observation, Although systematic social problem-solving can be challenging for some young children, research active exploration, trial and error, has shown that children can successfully negotiate problems with other children when provided the and interactions and discussions appropriate scaffold from their teachers (McCabe & Frede, 2007). with peers and adults.