Ø at the End of This Training the Student Will Be Able to Show the Ability To

Rope Rescue Technical Rescue Incidents Student Handbook

 Objectives:

 At the end of this training the student will be able to show the ability to:  Identify various ropes, their construction and limitations.  Identify equipment associated with rope rescue.  Identify conditions for utilizing rope rescue.  Construct single and multiple point anchoring systems.  Construct raising and lowering rigging used for rope rescue.  Construct a belay device.  Tie Knots presented in class  Raise/Lower a victim utilizing rope rescue techniques.

What is Rope Rescue? A system of affecting rescue from above or below grade using ropes, harnesses, rope hardware, belay systems, an anchoring system and litters. This handbook is not intended to provide complete rope rescue instruction but to provide a basis of instruction that, when accompanied by hands-on training, will re-enforce rope rescue training. Requirements for Training NFPA 1670 requires the establishment of operational capability at Technical Rescue Incidents safely and effectively. Operations to the, Awareness level is a minimum. Rescuers at the operations level shows the capability of using rope rescue equipment. Technician level rescuers show the ability to coordinate rescue operations. Awareness level in Rope Rescue. In this level the rescuer should be able to, size up existing and potential conditions for rope rescue and identify resources available for rope rescue. The

1 firefighter should also be able to develop and implement procedures for emergency response such as site control and scene Management (ICS). Also he should be able to utilize PPE associated with rope rescue and recognize general hazards associated with rope rescue. Operations Level in Rope Rescue. The rescuer should already be at the awareness level. The rescuer should also be able to develop and implement procedures for, selecting, construction and use of rope based mechanical advantage systems. Determine the need, selection and use of edge protection. Safely construct and use single and multiple point anchoring systems, selection and use belay systems, select and construct lowering and raising systems in low angle environments. Properly tie any knots used for rope rescue and assure safety. Be able to package a patient in a litter. Know the use and maintenance procedures of ropes and associated equipment. Be able to ascend and descend a fixed rope. Technician Level in Rope Rescue. The rescuer achieving the technician level should already have awareness and operations levels. The rescuer should be able to construct load distributing anchor systems. Be able to select and construct a high-line rope system, as well as, select and construct rope systems used in high-angle environment. Show knowledge of passing knots through a rope rescue system and acting as a litter attendant in high- angle environment.

 Definitions:  Ascent device- auxiliary system component, friction or mechanical device utilized to ascend a fixed line.  Belt- a device that fastens around the waist only. (Escape, Ladder, Ladder/Escape)  Belay- Method by which potential fall distance is controlled to minimize damage or injury.  Descent device- a system component that is friction or mechanical utilized with rope descent.  Edge Protection- a means of protecting software components from damaging effects of rough or sharp edges.  Hardware- rigid mechanical auxiliary rope rescue component.  High-angle- an environment where the load is predominantly carried by the rope system.

2  Highline System- a system using rope suspended between two points, equal or unequal, to move persons or equipment.  Life Safety Harness- System component that is used to secure the body and support persons during rescue.  Life Safety Rope- compact but flexible rope that supports a load or transmit a force from the point of origin to the point of application.  Load- that which is being lowered or raised in a rope system.  Low Angle- an environment in which the load is predominately supported by itself not the rope system.  Lowering System- a rope system used to lower a load under control.  Multipoint Anchor System- Load distributed over two or more anchor points. 2 types, Load Distributing and Load Sharing Anchor systems.  Single Point Anchoring System- Anchoring system utilizing a single anchor point.  Software- Flexible fabric component of rope rescue systems.  Technical Rescue Incident- Complex rescue incident requiring specially trained personnel and special equipment to complete the mission.  Webbing- woven material of flat or tubular weaves in the form of a long strip.

Section 1: Introduction to Ropes, Webbing, Harnesses and Hardware Ropes There are two types of rope used in the fire service, utility rope and Life safety rope. Utility Rope There is no standard in fire service for utility rope. The main purpose of utility rope is for hoisting equipment, and/or securing objects in place. It is made of various materials, most commonly of braided or laid nylon. But most importantly it is NOT TO BE USED FOR RESCUE OF VICTIMS.

3 Life Safety Rope NFPA 1983 states that Life safety rope is dedicated for the sole purpose of supporting people in rescue, firefighting, and emergency operations or training. There are two classes of Life Safety Rope. They are: One Person- Maximum working load 300 lbs, Minimum Breaking Strength 4500 LBF. Diameter 1 1/8” to 1 ½”. And, Two Person- Maximum working load 600 lbs, Minimum Breaking Strength, 9000 LBF, Diameter 1 ½”- 2 ¼”. Life safety Rope is the only rope to be used for rescue procedures. It should not be used as utility rope.

Rope Construction- There are different construction techniques for rope. They are: Laid - a twisted or laid bundle of strands around one another. Laid rope can be stretched 1/3rd is entire length. Its’ spiral construction causes rope to spin when untwisted. And the open design allows dirt to enter exposed fibers.

Solid Braid- This rope does not contain a core. It is unacceptable as life safety rope and should only be used for a utility rope.

4 Kernmantle- this rope has a high strength inner core (kern) of braided or straight fibers with a tightly twisted sheath (mantle) outer layer. The kern is the load- bearing element of the rope. There are two types of Kernmantle Rope; they are Dynamic Kernmantle that has load-absorbing ability because the kern is twisted or laid. And, static Kernmantle, which has little, stretch, high abrasion resistance and is an excellent rescue rope.

Almost all rescue rope is made of Dupont Nylon. As per NFPA rescue ropes are made of Bloc and creel construction, which means virgin fiber (no Knots and Fiber which has never been used).

Rope Care and Inspection Inspect rescue rope before and after each use. Using your bare hands run it down the rope and inspect for: Visual damage to the rope (cuts, burns heat damage, FOD), loose mantle, kinks, soft spots and frayed areas. Always store rope away from heat, sunlight and chemicals. If the rope gets dirty wash in cold water with mild non-detergent soap and air dry.

Do’s and Don’ts- Always use the rope for its intended purpose and always use edge protection. Always use proper rappelling techniques, which means no fast rappels, no bounding, and no swinging from the rope. Never step on the rope; this will grind dirt into the fibers. And again, Never use the rope for anything other its intended purpose Webbing

5 Webbing is used to construct anchor points and harnesses and to package and secure patients. It comes most commonly in 1-2" sizes. The 1" used for lashing and has a breaking strength of 4000 LBS. NFPA 1983 specifies any load bearing webbing making body contact be at least 1 3/4" wide and 6000 LBS breaking strength. There are two types of web construction: Flat webbing which is a single layer of fabric that is stiff and difficult to tie knots in. It is mainly used for straps and harnesses.

Flat Webbing (locking straps) Adjustable Litter Strap And, Tubular webbing which is easier to tie and is more commonly used in rescue. There are two types of tubular webbing. They are edge stitched formed from flat webbing folded and stitched together or spiral weave formed by weaving the tube as a unit.

Tube Webbing All webbing should be inspected as you do rope as well as washed in cold water and air-dried. Harnesses Harnesses are used to secure rescuers in place on a rope as well as provide support during rescue operations. There are three classes of harnesses they are: Class I- that is fastened around waist and around thighs and intended for emergency escape, one person only.

6 Class I Class II- that is fastened, as a Class I but the load rating is different. This load difference can be determined by label.

Class II Class III- that is fastened around waist as Class I and II but has a shoulder harness unit that is either integrated or as an assembly.

Class III Finally there are improvised harnesses which are fashioned with webbing or rope the common types are the rescue knot, Swiss seat, and Swiss seat with shoulder harness.

Hardware Hardware are the mechanical devices needed to utilize rescue rope and construct advantage systems. They must withstand 1200 LBS tensile strength test without

7 distortion and 5000 LBS test without failure. The act as load bearing fasteners, as well as, hold rope or webbing together and support the weight of rescuers, victims and equipment involved. Common hardware used in rope rescue are:

Carabiners- which are open metal loops with hinged gates. The "D" Shaped carabiners are recommended for rescue. Carabiners should always use locking style gates. The rescuer should always load a carabineer vertically along spine. To protect the carabiner from damage handle aluminum carabiners with care because of possible stress fractures forming in bends. As a RULE OF THUMB- if a carabiner is dropped from waist height or higher take it out of service until it can be tested.

Locking Aluminum Carabiner Locking Steel Carabiner Other types of hardware are rescue rings, which are used when load is multi- directional, and anchor plates. Anchor plates are braking devices used to slow or stop descent, as well as, used as an anchor point for multi-directional load.

Anchor Plate Rescue Ring Hardware for ascending and descending rope comes in two types, ascenders and descenders. Ascenders allow for climbing of a fixed rope. They are not designed to stop a fall. When used as intended, they do little damage to rope. There are two types of Ascenders, The cam or Gibbs that has a serrated cam that is pivoted into rope under a load to grip the rope, and the handle. The Handle is not to be used in hauling systems and only supports the weight of one person and should always be used in pairs. A specialized ascender used for rescue is the Rescuescender.

8 Gibbs Ascender Descending devices are sometimes called rappelling devices. They create friction in the rope as it passes through. They allow for safe descent of a fixed rope. Common types are Figure 8’s, that are double "o" ring of steel or aluminum. Some have ears to prevent rope from slipping out of place and forming a Girth hitch thus stranding a rescuer in place. Also there are rappel racks, sometimes called break bars. These are superior to Figure 8's because they apply more tension and less chance of rope to twist. They also generate less heat on rope.

Brake Bar

Figure 8 Descender

Other types of hardware are pulleys. These are used in hoisting and mechanical advantage systems to raise or lower a load. They most commonly come in single or double sheaves (one or two wheels). Finally edge rollers, these pulley like devices are used to protect rope from damage caused by passing over roof edges of rocky ledges. A hose roller acts as a good edge roller.

Assorted Pulleys Edge Roller

Section 2: Considerations for Rope Rescue Types of environments in Rope Rescue There are two types of environment in rope rescue, low angle and high angle.

9 Low Angle- this is where the load is supported mainly by itself such as on slopes, hillsides and ravines. Locally, low angle environments are the jetties and dunes. High Angle- This type of environment is where the load is carried by the rope system such as buildings, cliffs, tall structures, and confined spaces. Locally these are hangers, buildings, barracks, radio antenna towers, etc. Tactical Considerations According to IFSTA there are four phases of Rescue rope operations. Phase I- Assessment As with all incidents, primary and secondary assessments are done by the first arriving officer. Primary assessment begins with the dispatch where a picture is formed in the mind of the area and the situation. On arrival, continue the primary assessment. Gather information on the number of victims, their location and condition. Then the decision making process, can units on scene handle, should you start ICS, and are special rescue personnel needed are some of the questions needing to be answered. Next is scene control, This is done by cordoning off area and setting up staging for units and equipment.

Then the secondary assessment should be done. A Recon of the area should be done to determine the type of elevation you are dealing with. A hazard assessment must also be done to determine special hazards of the area.

Phase II -Pre-rescue Operations The rescuers should make the scene safe. Start the development of action plans. Regardless of the incident there should be an action plan. For large incidents the action plan should be in writing. The original plan should be flexible enough to accommodate unexpected changes. There should always be a back-up plan. Be prepared for changes. Don’t “tunnel vision” in on one mode of operation. Regard all input, there may be better of more feasible ways of handling the situation. The IC should determine his resources. Are there enough personnel for the plan of action? Does the department have the right equipment for the situation? Are the personnel on scene able to operate the equipment safely? Next the rescuers should prepare the scene. Get whatever special equipment they may need such as lighting, do Lock-out/Tag/out, handle any shoring that may be needed.

10 Communication modes need to be set. Voice, done face-to-face, is the preferred method. Remember the signals for rope work learned in confined space training, OATH. You may need hardwired phones for use in buildings or Confined Spaces. And finally radios. Make sure everyone on radios knows the frequency or channel you are on and use Clear Text voice. Rescue team needs to be assembled. First the Team Leader. This is the person who will run the rescue at the site. Then the Rescue Team or the ones do the rescue. And the Belay Team who operate the belay system chosen. And the back- up team who will back-up the rescue team if needed.

INCIDENT COMMAND STRUCTURE

INCIDENT COMMAND

SAFETY

OPERATIONS

Staging

RESCUER(s) RIGGING

Medic(s) Anchor(s)

Main Line

Belay Line

Mechanical Advantagae

Edge Protection

Equipment

Phase III- Rescue Operations Before initiating the operation personel accountability must be done. To do this, utilize staging and record personnel on scene. The rescuer should determine if raising or lowering the victim is more appropriate. After doing this, the rescuer will have to build a Raising/Lowering System. A belay system will have to be used. The plan will have to be given to the rescuers. And the plan will have to be initiated. Upon reaching the victim the rescuer may need to stabilize things such as the victim to keep the victim from falling any further. The rescuer may need to stabilize the location to make it safe for rescue of the victim. The victim will have to be packaged. There are different ways to package the victim. The rescuer may use a litter or a harness. EMS may have to be performed. Phase IV Termination

11 Before leaving equipment retrieval will need to be done. In some cases the equipment may need to be abandoned in place if it is not safe to retrieve. An investigation will have to be done as to determine what happened to cause the incident. The IC will have to release control of the scene to the owner or other authorities. A debriefing will need to be done before leaving the area. And in some cases, Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) will need to been considered.

SECTION 3: Anchoring Systems, Mechanical Advantage Systems and Belay The rescuer will need to know how the put together anchoring systems, Mechanical advantage systems, belay systems and raising and lowering systems. Anchoring systems are limited only by the situation, the equipment on hand, and knowledge of the rescuer. An anchor must be safe and dependable. Common anchor systems are single point and multi-point. Single point systems should be secure. Some common single point systems are Tensionless anchor (hitch), Two bight anchor and Multi-wrap anchor.

The tensionless anchor (Hitch) is best if used around large diameter anchor points (trees, poles). The fewer the angles the better. To make a tensionless hitch the running end of rope wrapped around anchor point at least 4 times this should be secured with a Figure 8 and carabiner. The hitch will snug around the anchor point and be secure.

To make a Two-Bight Anchor the rescuer should use webbing wrapped around anchor point with a carabiner used to connect webbing to rope. To make a Multi-wrap anchor point the rescuer uses webbing that is wrapped loosely around an anchor point. Then a water knot is tied into the webbing. Two wraps are pulled from the middle to snug the anchor and the rope is attached with a carabiner.

12 There are two types multi point anchors, load sharing and self-adjusting. In a load sharing anchor two anchor points are used. If the load shifts one anchor will take the entire load. With a self-adjusting anchor the anchor points are similar to the load-sharing anchor, but if the load shifts, two points will still hold the load. There are commonly two types of self-adjusting anchors, two point and three point.

Multi-point self adjusting Anchor Angles on anchor system have an effect on the anchor points. Mainly, the wider the angle between the anchor points, the greater the weight or stress on each leg of the anchor. There are also mechanical advantage systems used in rope rescue. These are systems of pulleys and other rigging used to reduce the force needed to raise and lower a load. In mechanical advantage systems the ones most commonly used in rescue are the simple systems. In simple systems the advantage is the number of pulleys used plus 1 (example: 3:1 system is 2 pulleys plus 1 = 3:1) A 2:1 is used on light loads one pulley in system. A 3:1 or “Z” rig is the system of choice in rescue situations. A 4:1 is for heavy loads.

13 2:1 MA

3:1 MA 4:1 MA

A belay system is used in all rope rescue situations. Anytime a person is on a line there will be a belay used for protection from falls. There are different types of belay devices. They are Prussik Knots, Brake bars, Figure 8’s, and Munter Hitch. Hitch.

14 Tandem Prussik Munter Hitch

Section 4 Raising/Lower Victims and Knots In low angle environments the rescuers and victims do not need to be supported solely, only assisted. If the victim is to be transported via litter, 4 rescuers should be used to bring litter up. In high angle environments the rescuers and victims supported by rope system. High angle may be above or below grade. If victim is not injured, a “pick-off” maneuver may be used. Never attach the victim directly to your harness, use a strap or other device. Lowering a rescuer to the victim with a class II or III harness to assist the victim form the scene does this. On the other hand an injured victim may be raised/lowered by litter. Litters come in two types. Metal with molded wire basket (Stokes) and molded plastic. Litter patients should be lashed into the litter securely by using webbing, rope or pre-made strapping. Pre-rigged lifting slings or rigging slings should be made.

Stokes Litter The use of carabiners to attach the slings to the litter has been disputed. Carabiners used to link a litter may form cracks at the point of loading. The carabiner will slide along tubing, wearing the carabiner and the litter tubing. For safety, use short sections of webbing to make attachment points for the carabiner and litter.

15 Litter Spider Assembly Raise and lower the litter in the horizontal position if at all possible. For vertical raising such as a small opening or hole, use the SKED. When a litter is used litter attendant should be used if possible. This rescuer is raised/lowered with the litter to protect victim. The attendant is attached to the litter sling point from the working rope with a strap. Keep in mind this will add to the possibility of load shift.

Tripods and winch devices are used in certain rescues such as Confined Space. These devices are designed to assist in the raising and lowering into the confined space as well as provide safety in case of rope or winch failure.

SKED Evac System Knots There are various knots used in Rope Rescue. These knots are mostly the same as those used in the fire service for other situations, but with some added specialty knots. They are joining and connecting knots used to connect or join rope or webbing together. The joining knots are the Becket/Sheet bend, Double

16 Fisherman (Essential for making a Prussik), Fig. 8, Water Knot, Clove Hitch, Girth Hitch and Prussik.

Double Fisherman

Water Knot

Prussik Knot

Figure 8 Knot

Clove Hitch

Butterfly Knot

The other knots used are the loop forming knots that are used to make loops in the middle of or at the end of ropes or webbing. These are the Fig. 8 with follow through, Fig. 8 on a bight, Double Fig. 8, Bowline and Loop.

17 Bowline

Figure 8 on a bight

Common placement of knots in a rig.

Section 5: Safety Devices, Specialty Equipment and PPE

18 All operations involving rope rescue are dangerous by the fact they take place in elevated environments. These elevations put both victims and rescuers in danger of falls and injury. Therefore safety is of main concern. Safety includes inspecting the raising/lowering system before anyone uses it. This inspection should be done by the safety officer and the rescue team leader. They should inspect each element of the system by touching or pointing to each as they go. Safety also means utilizing the proper PPE. The PPE for rope rescue includes, but is not limited to, helmets, gloves, boots with ankle support and eye protection. The helmet could be the structural fire helmet or more appropriately a special rescue helmet. The gloves should be leather with re-enforced palms. The gloves should always be used when on the rope or setting up rope except when inspecting the rope. Boots should be leather with ankle support to protect against rough landing or insecure footing. Eye protection is used for protecting against debris falling into eyes from above. Specialized Rope equipment comes in many forms. Some are: Load release hitches made for relieving stress on the line in case of “hang-up” during descent. Shock absorbing devices that break apart or tear during a fall to absorb the shock the force of the fall places on the body. Larkin Frames- which are designed to reach over the edge of an escarpment or building ledge and bring a person back over while pivoting on its legs. Summary We have determined what is rope rescue. We determined the requirement for training. We discussed types of rope, their construction and uses. Talked of rope inspection and care. Discussed the types of webbing, Harnesses and Hardware used in rope rescue. The tactical considerations in Rope Rescue were examined. We discussed anchoring systems, raising/lowering systems, belay systems. We discussed litters and knots. Finally we discussed safety, PPE and some specialized equipment. Now let’s go put this to work on the training ground.

19 References: IFSTA Rescue, Chapter 4, 6th Edition, 1996

NFPA 1670, Operations and Training for Technical Rescue Incidents, 1999 edition.

NFPA 1983, Fire Service Life Safety Rope and System Components, 1995 edition

Considerations for Rope Rescue, Kenneth N. Laidlaw, 1999, (Internet)

Ropes and Knots, United States Search and Rescue Task Force, undated (Internet)