CHAPTER 4 LEARNING: THEORIES AND PROGRAM DESIGN

To facilitate training effectively, it is critical to understand learning and how it occurs. In this chapter, learning is defined and specific learning outcomes, e.g., intellectual skills and motor skills, are described. Major theories of learning and motivation are presented and their applicability to and implications for training are discussed. Goal orientation, mastery orientation, and performance orientation are explained in the chapter. The basic learning strategies of rehearsal, organizing, and elaboration are discussed. Learning processes are described as well as the implications of these processes for instruction. Generational differences were explained in the chapter. Major implications of andragogy or adult learning are explained in the chapter. Finally, this chapter outlines considerations in designing effective training programs, in terms of facilities, seating arrangements, and program design. Key terms are listed at the end of the chapter, as are questions for discussion and application assignments.

Objectives

After reading and discussing this chapter, students should be able to 1. Discuss the five types of learning outcomes. 2. Explain the implications of learning theory for instructional design. 3. Describe schedules of reinforcement. 4. Incorporate adult learning theory into the design of a training program. 5. Describe andragogy and discuss the major assumptions associated with this theory and its implication for training. 6. Describe how learners receive, process, store, retrieve, and act upon information. 7. Discuss the relationships between the processes of learning, external instructional events, and the forms of instruction. 8. Differentiate between goal orientation, mastery orientation, and performance orientation. 9. Describe the three learning strategies; rehearsal, organizing, and elaboration. 10. Describe Kolb’s basic learning styles of: diverger, assimilator, converger, and accommodator. 11. Discuss generational differences between: Nexters, GenXers, Baby Boomers, and Traditionalists. 12. Define the three components of a training objective. 13. Examples of overt objectives were given for each domain of learning. 14. Explain mass versus spaced practice. 15. Explain how information can be retrieved from long term memory. 16. Explain what is meant by the terms automatization and overlearning. 17. Be able to choose and prepare a training site. 18. Explain the four components of program design: course parameters, objectives, lesson overview, and detailed lesson plan.

20 I. Introduction

A. The introduction provides an excellent example of training a Exelon Energy Delivery. Exelon’s programs highlight a couple of conditions necessary for learning to occur: (10 opportunities for trainees to practice and (2) meaningful content.

II. What is learning? What is learned?

A. Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in human capabilities that is not a result of growth processes. B. Specific learning outcomes include 1. Verbal information, or names, labels, facts and bodies of knowledge, including specialized knowledge employees need to know to perform their jobs. 2. Intellectual skills , which include concepts and rules critical to solving problems, serving customers and creating products. 3. Motor skills, involving coordination of physical movements. 4. Attitudes, include a cognitive component (i.e., beliefs), an affective component (i.e., feeling), and an intentional component (i.e., how a person intends to behave). Work related attitudes include job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job involvement. 5. Cognitive strategies, which regulate the learning process, determine what information the learner will attend to, how he/she will remember and how he/she will solve problems.

III. Learning Theories

A. The basic premise of Reinforcement Theory is that individuals are motivated to perform or avoid behaviors because of past outcomes of those behaviors. In other words, behavior is controlled by its consequences. Behavior modification is a training method that is primarily based on reinforcement theory. 1. Positive reinforcement involves positively rewarding desirable behaviors. 2. Negative reinforcement means removing an unpleasant outcome to promote desirable behaviors. 3. Extinction involves withdrawing positive or negative reinforcers to eliminate a behavior. 4. Punishment involves decreasing a behavior by presenting an unpleasant outcome after the behavior. 5. The training implications of Reinforcement Theory include the importance of the trainer knowing which outcomes a learner finds positive and which are negative. 6. Behavior modification is a training method that is based on reinforcement theory by reinforcing appropriate behaviors. 7. Different schedules of reinforcement (see Table 4-2, p. 109) include ratio schedules and interval schedules. Ratio schedules include: fixed-ratio, continuous reinforcement, and variable ratio. Interval schedules can be either fixed or variable. B. Social Learning Theory suggests that people learn by observing other people (i.e., models) and attempting to emulate their behaviors.

21 1. Learning is also influenced by self-efficacy, which is an individual’s belief that he/she can successfully learn knowledge and skills and is an important factor in the readiness to learn. A person’s self-efficacy can be increased several ways: a. Verbal persuasion means offering words of encouragement to convince others they are capable of learning. b. Logical verification means creating a perceived relationship between a new task and a task already mastered. c. Modeling is having employees who have mastered the learning outcomes demonstrate them for trainees. d. Past accomplishment means letting employees build a history of successful accomplishments. 2. The theory suggests there are four processes involved in learning: a. Attentional processes must occur, for individuals cannot learn by observation unless they are aware of the important aspects of the model’s performance. They are influenced by characteristics of the model and the learner. b. Retentional processes are involved so that the learner can remember the behaviors or skills they observe and can recall them when appropriate. c. Reproductional processes involve the learner trying to reproduce the behaviors or skills observed. d. Learners are more likely to adopt the modeled behavior if it results in positive outcomes. C. Goal Setting Theory suggests that behavior results from a person’s conscious goals and intentions. 1. Goals influence behavior by directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time and motivating the person to develop strategies for goal attainment. 2. Specific, challenging, but not impossible, goals result in better performance than vague, non-challenging goals. 3. Goals lead to high performance when one is committed to them. 4. In training, goal setting theory suggests that learning can be effectively facilitated by setting specific, challenging goals and objectives with learners. D. A need is a deficiency that a person is experiencing at a given point in time. Need Theories suggest that needs motivate people to behave certain ways to satisfy the need or deficiency. 1. Maslow and Alderfer’s need theories focused on physiological or basic and safety needs, relatedness needs, and self-growth needs. Both believed that individuals are at first motivated to satisfy lower-level (i.e., physiological) needs, then progress up to higher-level needs. 2. McClelland’s Need Theory focuses primarily on the needs for achievement, affiliation and power, all of which can be learned. 3. Need theories suggest that trainers should attempt to understand learners’ needs and explain how the training will help them meet their needs. E. Expectancy Theory suggests that behavior is based on three factors: 1. Expectancy, similar to self-efficacy, is the link between trying to perform and actually performing. 2. Instrumentality is the belief that engaging in a behavior (e.g., attending training) will result in the desired outcome (e.g., mastering the behavior or skill).

22 3. Valence is the value that one places on that outcome. 4. In a training context, expectancy theory says that learning is best facilitated when trainees believe they can master the knowledge or skill, when learning is linked to outcomes such as improved job performance or a pay raise, and when the trainees value the outcomes they perceive. F. Adult Learning Theory also called Andragogy, as opposed to pedagogy or the theory of educating children, is the model of how adults learn. 1. The theory, most often linked to Malcolm Knowles, is based on the following assumptions: a. Adults have a need to be self-directed in their learning. b. Adults have the need to know why they are learning something. c. Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation. d. Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning. e. Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators. 2. This theory is particularly applicable to training because learning in the workplace involves adult learners. G. Information Processing Theory (see Figure 4-3, p. 115) proposes that information taken in by the learner undergoes several transformations in the brain: A message is received by the senses; registered; stored in short-term memory; transformed to be stored in long- term memory; and a response to the information is organized. This model highlights how external events, such as the following, influence learning: 1. Changes in the intensity or frequency of the stimulus that affect attention. 2. Informing the learner of the objectives establishes an expectation. 3. Enhancing perceptual features of the material (stimulus) draws the attention of the learner to certain features. 4. Verbal instructions, pictures, diagrams, and maps suggest ways to code the training content so that it can be stored in memory. 5. A meaningful learning context (e.g., examples, and problems) creates cues that facilitate coding. 6. Demonstration or verbal instructions help organize the learners’ response as well as facilitate the selection of the correct response.

H. Goal orientation refers to goals held by a trainee in a learning situation. Goal orientation can include a mastery orientation or a performance orientation. Mastery orientation relates to trying to increase or ability or competence on a task. Performance orientation refers to a focus of learners on task performance and how they compare to others.

23 I. Different learning strategies influence how training content is coded. Learning strategies include rehearsal, organizing, and elaboration. Rehearsal is the simplest learning strategy focusing on learning through repetition (memorization). Organizing requires the learner to find similarities and themes in training materials. Elaboration requires the trainee to relate the training material to other more familiar knowledge, skills, or behaviors. Trainees use a combination of these strategies to learn. The “best” strategy depends on the learning outcome. For knowledge outcomes, rehearsal and organization are most appropriate. For skill application, elaboration is necessary.

J. Kolb’s Learning Styles include: diverger, assimilator, converger, and accommodator. The diverger uses concrete experience and reflective observation. A diverger tends to be interested in people, culture, and the arts. An assimilator uses abstract conceptualization and also reflective observation. An assimilator is good at inductive reasoning, creating theoretical models, and combining disparate observations into an integrated explanation. A converger uses abstract conceptualization and active experimentation, and prefers dealing with technical tasks rather than interpersonal issues. An accommodator uses concrete experience and active experimentation, and is good at implementing decisions, carrying out plans, and getting involved in new experiences.

K. Age Influences on Learning – each generation may be characterized by certain characteristics that can influence learning. These groups are: the Millenium or Nexters (born 1980 - present), Gen Xers (born 1961 - 1980), Baby Boomers (born 1945 - 1960), and the Traditionalists (born 1920 – 1943).

IV. The Learning Processes are depicted in Figure 4-4, p. 117.

A. The processes include: 1. Expectancy refers to the mental state, including motivation to learn, basic skills and an understanding of the purpose of the instruction, that learners bring to the instructional process. 2. Perception is the ability to organize messages from the environment to be processed and acted upon. 3. In working storage, rehearsal and repetition of information occur so that material can be coded for memory. 4. Semantic encoding is the actual coding process of incoming messages in preparation for storage in long-term memory. 5. Retrieval refers to the identification of learned material in long-term memory to influence performance. 6. Generalizing is the ability to adapt what is learned to use in similar but not identical situations. 7. Gratifying refers to the feedback the learner receives as a result of using what is learned. B. Implications of the Learning Process for Instruction (i.e., the characteristics of the environment in which the learning is to occur).

24 1. The objectives refer to the purpose and targeted outcomes of the training activities. Individuals learn best when they understand the training objective(s). Learning objectives need to be measurable. 2. A Learning Objective has three major components: a. A statement of what the employee is expected to do or know (i.e., performance). b. A statement of the quality or level of acceptable performance (i.e., criterion). c. A statement of the conditions under which the learner is expected to perform the desired outcome (i.e., conditions). 3. Employees are more likely to learn when the training is linked to current job experiences and tasks, for that has meaning for them. 4. Employees need to have opportunities to practice for learning to “stick.” a. Practice is the opportunity for the learner to demonstrate the learned skill or behavior under the specified conditions and to the performance standard determined. It must be related to the learning objectives. b. Overlearning involves continuing to practice the new skill or behavior beyond the point at which the learner has demonstrated proficiency more than once. This maximizes the likelihood that what is learned will transfer back to the job. 5. Employees need feedback, or information about how well they are meeting the predetermined objectives. The feedback should be specific and should follow the behavior as closely as possible. 6. Employees learn by observing and interacting with others. a. Communities of practice are groups or teams of employees who work together, learn from each other and have a common sense about how to get work accomplished. 7. Employees need the training program to be properly coordinated and arranged. a. Training administration is the coordination of activities before, during and after the training program. b. Training administration involves activities such as enrolling employees in courses and programs, preparing instruction materials, arranging for the training facility, and evaluating the program and learner outcomes.

V. Instructional Emphasis for Learning Outcomes

A. Internal conditions are processes within the learner that are necessary for learning to occur (see Table 4-7, p. 128). B. External conditions are processes in the learning environment, such as appropriate physical equipment as well as opportunities for practice, feedback and reinforcement, that are necessary for learning to occur. C. Pre-practice conditions can be used by trainers to enhance learners motivation to learn and facilitate retention of training content. The trainer can provide information about the process or strategy, encourage trainees to develop a strategy (metacognition) to direct their attention to their own learning process, and also provide advance organizers i.e., outlines, texts, diagrams, and graphs that help trainees organize the information that will be presented and practiced.

VI. Considerations in Designing Effective Training Programs

25 A. The training site is the physical space in which the training will be conducted. An effective training site 1. Is comfortable and accessible. 2. Is quiet, private, and free from interruptions. 3. Has adequate space for learners to move comfortably in; offers adequate work space; allows learners to see each other, the facilitator and the visuals and materials well; B. Details to be considered in the training room: 1. Seating arrangements of the training site should be based on the desired type of trainee and trainee-trainer interaction (See Figure 4-5, p. 131). a. Fan-type seating enables trainees to see the facilitator and each other from each point, they can switch to group activities easily, and they can communicate easily with each other. b. A conference-type arrangement, on the other hand, is effective for total group discussion with no small-group activities and limited presentation. c. The horseshoe arrangement is appropriate when the training requires both presentation and total-group instruction and interaction. C. Program design 1. Course parameters are the general pieces of information about the training program, including the course title, target audience, statement of purpose, goals, location, time, prerequisites and the facilitator’s name. 2. Objectives a. Program objectives are broad summary statements of the purpose of the program b. Course objectives or lesson objectives are goals for the course or lesson and are more specific than the overall program objectives. 3. The detailed lesson plan is a guide used by the trainer that includes the course title, learning objectives, topics to be covered, the sequence of activities to be used, target audience, session time, prerequisites, and the facilitator’s and learner’s roles and activities. A sample appears in Table 4-10, p. 135 of text. 4. The lesson plan overview (For an example, see Table 4-12, p. 138.) matches major activities of the training program with specific times to prepare a schedule for the program.

CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY

Training is the facilitation of learning in the workplace. Learning must occur for training to be effective. Chapter 4 defines learning and highlights some major theories of learning, including reinforcement theory, social learning theory, goal setting theory, need theories, expectancy theories, adult learning theory and information processing theory. The learning process, involving internal processes and external processes, was discussed as was the basic process of instructional design. Important elements of instruction include making the learner aware of why he/she should learn, making the content meaningful, providing opportunities for practice and feedback, a logical program and an environment conducive to learning. Schedules of reinforcement, processes of learning, external instructional events, and forms of instruction were also presented in the chapter. Finally, the chapter addresses the preparation of the training site and program design, including developing course parameters, program and course objectives, a lesson plan overview and a detailed lesson plan.

26 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Compare and contrast any two of the following learning theories: expectancy theory, social learning theory, reinforcement theory, information processing theory. Answer: The answer will vary. See pages 108-116.

2. What learning condition do you think is most necessary for learning to occur? Which is least critical? Why? Answer: Considering that individuals have different learning styles, this answer will vary depending on the particular learner.

3. What value would it be to now that you were going to be training a class of persons between the ages of 20 and 35. Would it influence the approach you would take/ Answer: Yes, characteristics of the learner need to be taken into consideration. In general, “millenniums” are optimistic, willing to work and learn, and technologically-literate and they appreciate diversity. (p. 119)

4. Consider the ages of persons in the class mentioned in the previous question. What suggestions would you make to the instructor or trainer as to how to better teach the course given the generations represented in the class. Answer: Trainers who are aware of trainees’ learning styles can try to customize instruction to match their performance. This should maximize their learning. (p.118)

5. How do instructional objectives help learning to occur? Answer: Good training provide a clear idea of what the trainess are expected to do at the end of training. Training objectives need to be measurable. (p. 120)

6. Assume you are training an employee to diagnose and repair a loose wire in an electrical socket. After demonstrating the procedure to follow, you let the trainee show you how to do it. The trainee correctly demonstrates the process and repairs the connection on the first attempt. Has learning occurred? Justify your answer. Answer: The answer will vary. Obviously some form of learning may have occurred, or the learner may have already known how to accomplish this particular task.

7. Your boss says: “Why do I need to tell you what type of learning capability I’m interested in? I just want a training program to teach employees how to give good customer service. Explain to the boss how “good customer service” can be translated into different learning outcomes. Answer: Answer will vary. The boss needs to first define what is meant by “good” customer service.

8. How does practice aid in the learning process? Answer: Practice refers to the physical or mental rehearsal of a task, knowledge or skill to achieve proficiency in performing the task or skill or demonstrating the knowledge. For practice to be effective, it needs to actively involve the trainee. (p. 122)

27 9. What learning conditions are necessary for short- and long term retention of training content to occur? Answer: Various learning conditions including both internal and external are needed. See table 4.7 p. 128.

10. Under what circumstances might a traditional seating arrangement be superior to a fan-type seating arrangement? Answer: If a large number of individuals are to be trained at one time, traditional mseating may be more appropriate. (p. 130)

11. Detailed lesson plans have important information for trainers. List the different types of information found in a detailed lesson plan. Also indicate the importance of each type of information for learning. Answer: Detailed lesson plans include a variety of information including: course title, lesson title, lesson length, learning objectives, target audience, prerequisites, room arrangement, required equipment and materials, room arrangement, and the method of evaluation. (p. 135)

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