Dr. Anastasia Hadjiyiannakou, Paul Pachalis, Maro Kakouri, Dora Papageorgiou

The relationship between parents of disabled children

and professionals. Is there burn out?

Dr. Anastasia Hadjiyiannakou, Paul Pachalis, Maro Kakouri, Dora Papageorgiou

Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, Institute of Education, University of London, 5-8 September 2007

1. Literature Review

“Teachers get exhausted where the rest of us merely tire” (Bridghouse and Woods 1999)

Few teachers would argue with this statement and few, when confronted with the challenge by non teachers concerning how lucky they are with regard to long breaks, have not suggested that that person should try first teaching then comment. Teaching has been found to be one of the most stressful occupations. Cooper (1997) found that, in the U.K. teaching ranked 4th most stressful occupation after prison officers, the police and social workers. These job types concur with those that the Mentor Program of Indiana University East (http://www.iue.edu/Departement/mentor/burnout.html ) states are most vulnerable to burnout, namely demanding professions which place a person in close contact with other people all day. An online poll conducted by Teacher TV in Britain found that 2/3 of teachers felt stressed and that ½ had considered leaving the profession (BBC news report, 18/2/2007) Burnout can be seen as the result of prolonged exposure to stress in the workplace. This stress has been seen as an imbalance between the demands of the job and ones resources, both personal and organisational. When demands and resources are balanced work can be deemed challenging. However imbalance will create stress. (Wood and McCarthy, 2002). Burnout can be characterised by:  Fatigue, exhaustion and loss of energy  Lack of motivation and diminished enthusiasm for work

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 A sense of alienation, ineffectiveness, hopelessness and failure  Psychosomatic symptoms (insomnia, headaches, anxiety etc.)  Emotional and behavioural symptoms (irritability, mood swings, absenteeism etc.) Maslach and Jackson, 1981 and Maslach and Schaufeli, 1993 (sited Wood and McCarthy, 2002) proposed that burnout can be characterised by one of three elements:  Depersonalisation; where one distances oneself from others leading to mechanical functioning.  Reduced personal accomplishment; where one devalues one’s work  Emotional exhaustion; where one feels emotionally drained leading to greater vulnerability to stress. The Indiana University East Mentor Programme refers to two personality types which are most vulnerable to burnout (http://www.iue.edu/Departement/mentor/burnout.html). The overly conscientious teacher, who is highly dedicated, is most likely to feel thwarted in his/her attempts to provide the best of them self and may experience stress and burnout, whilst the guilt motivated type will attempt to compensate for their perceived good fortune by constantly giving to others. They will however, never “repay their debt”. The causative factors of burnout can be broadly placed into two categories: Work related  Unbearable work load  Insufficient or ineffective supervisor and/or peer support  Boredom  Unclear limits of professional responsibility  Confused role definition  Increased stress due to promotion.  Disappointment through perceived lack of appreciation e.g. failure to be promoted or rewarded.  Working conditions (building, equipment, breaks etc.) Personal factors  Health issues

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 Losses or disappointments  Family changes or crises including loss of family support  Personal re-evaluation  Imbalance between work and non work life

1.1. Dealing with burnout Bridgehouse and Woods, (1999) refer to four factors that can assist a teacher to be effective and consequentially vaccinate them against burnout.  Responsibilities: these must be structured and defined such that the teacher knows the extent of their own responsibilities and those around them  Permitting circumstances: teachers must have the necessary tools to enable them to perform effectively.  New experiences: teachers require intellectual stimulation and the right to undertake logical initiatives.  Respect and recognition: whilst all people require respect and recognition the highly stressful conditions under which teachers work make them more vulnerable to lack of respect and recognition. As these closely mirror the factors found to be prime causes of burnout it is essential that mechanisms be developed to facilitate their positive influence as protection against burnout.

1.2. Other preventative or curative measures have also been suggested. Horn and Brown, 1997 suggest:  Staff mentoring: especially in the first year. This provides the necessary support for the new teacher whilst giving the older and more experienced teacher recognition of their skills.  Peer coaching: the sharing of skills and knowledge can assist in teacher improvement and prevent the feeling of being “an island in a hostile sea”.  Recognition of skills: recognition and respect are factors that are most frequently quoted as sources of stress and dissatisfaction. The school must put in place

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systems that provide recognition should this not be available from sources further up in the hierarchy.  Teamwork: the school must foster teamwork. This will prevent isolation of teachers and promote the sharing of difficulties and success’s.  External support: access to external support may be necessary for early intervention should a teacher feel the onset of burnout. Too often intervention is late because no support network inside or outside of the school is available. Many of the schools visited by the authors, have support hotlines for teachers. It is essential that systems and services designed to prevent or alleviate burnout be effective in there own right. A school that pays mere lip service to teamwork or recognition or provides an inadequate support service is possibly worse than no service as it will undermine an already stressed individual. A number of other factors have been suggested as ways of dealing with burnout. The following is an amalgamation of ideas put forward by the following sources. The Indiana University East Mentor Programme, Wood and McCarthy 2002, Surpuriya and Jordan 1997, Agnew 2002, Farber and Ascher1991. Within the work place at the service level it is suggested that:  Roles and boundaries be clearly set  Work loads be feasible and equal  Teamwork and support be fostered  Feedback exists that recognises success and alleviates difficulties  Personal growth and development is fostered At the personal level within the work place it is suggested that individual teachers:  Identify and review their personal goals setting reasonable targets  Learn to set limits on demands  Balance individual and team work  Seek out success in every day At the personal but non work level it is suggested that teachers:  Maintain a balance between work and home

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 Focus on today and tomorrow. Yesterday can be a lesson for today and tomorrow but yesterday cannot be changed  Give themselves decompression time to calm down before going home  Accept their limitations. 1.3. Burnout and special education Severe teacher burnout leading to teachers leaving the profession is more prevalent in special education than in mainstream education. (Nichols& Sosnowsky, 2002) with between 8-10% of special education teachers leaving the profession in the USA, (Whitaker, 2000, Washburn-Moses, 2005, Boe, et al., 1997 found a 20% turnover for special education teachers as compared to 13% for mainstream educators. (Fore, Martin and Carter, 2003.) Washburn-Moses (2005) states that the most commonly cited reasons for leaving are:  Large caseloads  High amount of paperwork  Behaviour management issues  Difficulties in relating to: o Mainstream teachers o Administrators o Parents Prather-Jones, (2006) reversed the question and studied why teachers of children with emotional and behavioural problems remained in the field. She found that sufficient support and the personal feeling that they possessed the special characteristics required for the job were the factors in retaining teachers. Washburn-Moses emphasises the central role of the principal or head teacher in minimising the effects of burnout. She suggests that principals:  be personally supportive  select mentors with care  emphasise continuing professional development  ensure that staff feel supported and valued

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Fore, Martin and Carter, (2003) reviewed a number of research projects regarding the high level of burnout and resignation from the field amongst special education teachers. They mentioned several factors which might cause resignation:  Stress  Poor school climate  Younger age of teacher  Large caseload  Paperwork and bureaucracy  Poor working conditions Factors involved in retaining teachers  Mentoring  Older age  Stress management programmes  Good support especially from principals  Continuing professional development  Good school climate and working conditions The authors stated that to increase retention of teachers in special education, apart from addressing the issues stated above, it may be necessary to make some more sweeping changes. Amongst those mentioned are differential salaries and workloads between mainstream and special education and also according to the type of special education field, e.g. sensory deficit, emotional and behavioural disorders etc. Some countries have introduced such incentives to recruit and maintain special education teachers. 1.4. The role of the family One of the factors frequently stated as a stress inducer for teachers is their relationship with the parents of the children they teach. Ainscow & Muncey, (1989) suggest that the parent teacher relationship may be seen as one of the following.  A hindrance: Teachers may view parents as thwarting their efforts either through lack of interest or by not providing the necessary home life for effective learning

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 A resource: Parents may be viewed as learning assistants through providing help with lessons at home  A partner: Teachers may remove the professional boundaries and view parents as equal partners in the education of their children.  A consumer: If parents view the school as a service then frequently they will undertake the role of the consumer often with the right to complain if the service is not adequate. Hopkins, Ainscow & West, (1994) state that a frequent complaint of parents is that teachers fail to give them credit for their personal knowledge concerning their child and that teachers feel uncomfortable in admitting that they do not know what to do with the child. Parents would like teachers to listen to them and be more frank in their exchanges. Lake and Billingsley,(2000) quote a common cause of friction between parents and teachers of children with special needs is the discrepancy in the perceived abilities of the child and the tendency of teachers to work focus on disability rather than ability. The relationship of parents of disabled children can be a reflection of how they themselves are coping with their situation (Lake and Billingsley, 2000). Hornby (1995) describes a model for how parents commonly come to terms with the fact that their child has some form of disability. The model describes a process of adaptation to the loss of a “normal healthy child” and can be viewed as a continuum of reactions.  Shock.  Denial or disbelief. This may also be associated with a search for a less painful diagnosis  Acceptance. Here the parent may accept the facts of the situation but not the “reality”. This form of acceptance may include a high level of anger with a search for a scapegoat. (often the medical services involved with the pregnancy and birth of the child)  Grief. As the reality of the situation begins to take hold parents often feel a great sense of sadness and grief.  Detachment. Following the sense of grief life takes on a mechanical and meaningless form.

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 Reorganisation. Parents can start to view the situation more realistically and have hope for the future.  Coming to terms. If parents are able to reach this stage then they can accept their loss and work positively to provide for the needs of their child. There is no hard timeline for passing through these reactions or any certainty that parents will eventually reach a situation where they can come to terms with the situation. It is also possible that the two parents of the child may be at different stages. One of the authors has noted that fathers tend to remain at the acceptance with anger stage much longer than mothers who, possibly because of their greater involvement with the daily care taking of the child, move forward more quickly. This model is not static. The stages can be encountered by parent not only with the initial diagnosis of their child’s disability but also at other significant stages (e.g. puberty and adulthood). Such a stage is the entry of the child into a special education establishment and even more so if this is a segregated establishment such as a special school. This puts an official stamp upon the difference of the child and rekindles the mechanism of disorganisation and the need to come to terms once more with the child’s disability. School entry is often one of the most critical stages for the reappearance parental confusion and crisis. Frequently parents place substantial faith in teachers as professionals who can make a difference in their child. All too frequently this investment of faith is ill met and resentment is felt. Discrepancies in the desired emphasis of education can also be a source of strain. Many parents wish for practical issues such as independent living to be at the core of education, or aspects of socialisation, (Coffey 1997). Coffey, (1997) found that a common complaint amongst parents was the lack of resources and especially staffing levels whilst a common fear was the graduation of their child from school. In summary it can be seen that teaching is a stressful occupation and that teachers of special education are at a higher risk of burnout than their mainstream counterparts. Stress factors include working conditions, lack of support, unclear role boundaries and

8 Dr. Anastasia Hadjiyiannakou, Paul Pachalis, Maro Kakouri, Dora Papageorgiou responsibilities, workload and bureaucracy and relationships with administrators and parents.

2. Methodology The research data was collected from three workshops that had been arranged by the Ministry of Education and Culture in co-operation with the three psychologists of three special schools in Cyprus. The participants were all the teaching staff of the segregated setting (special schools) in a specific province in Cyprus. Each workshop had a specific aim and the three psychologists who were responsible for running the workshops had to keep in mind the aims and the predetermined activities that had been decided for each workshop. All the participants were encouraged to express their opinions freely and openly. It was emphasised that all in the group were equal and to this extent head teachers and Ministry officials did not participate in the groups. The psychologists functioned as facilitators and not as therapists. The teaching staff of the special schools numbered in total 94 persons. They were divided into three groups with each group consisting of 30-32 professionals. The age and the educational background of the participants of each group varied. Whilst most were teachers for children with special needs, some were therapists working within the special education services. These included speech therapists, occupational therapists, music therapists and physical education teachers. The vast majority of the professionals were female. Finally their teaching experience varied from 1-30 years working for special education in Cyprus. Four schools were represented including a school for the visually impaired, a school for the hearing impaired, a school for moderate learning difficulties and emotional and behavioural problems and a school for severe learning disabilities and multiple handicaps. Additionally two teachers seconded to a day centre for physically handicapped children and a home for severely handicapped adults also attended. Since those workshops had been organized by the Ministry of Education and Culture, the professionals were expected to attend. The workshops usually started at 12.15 and finished at 2.00, even though there were several cases when the professionals stayed longer.

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During all the workshops the special education counsellor attended and kept detail notes in order to gather the data. After the completion of the workshops the three psychologists made detailed notes expressing their personal input-opinion.

3. Results The results presented below are results based upon grounded theory. Since its introduction in the 1960s, Grounded Theory has been progressively developed in a way that is consistent with its original formulation, such that it is currently the most comprehensive qualitative research analysis method available. Its purpose is to use the available data to systematically guide the generation of hypotheses and finally formulate a theory. It serves as a flexible guide for researchers to reflect on their data and to generate an effective theory that is consistent with the situation that generated the data. Grounded Theory provides an analytic qualitative approach explicitly concerned with seeking out theoretical explanations (Goodley et al, 2004). What most differentiates Grounded Theory from much other research is that it is explicitly emergent. It does not test a hypothesis. It sets out to find what theory accounts for the research situation as it is. In this respect it is like action research: the aim is to understand the research situation. The aim according to Glaser (1995) is to discover the theory implicit in the data. Grounded Theory is responsive to the situation in which the research is done. There is a continuing search for evidence which disconfirms the emerging theory. It is driven by the data in such a way that the final shape of the theory is likely to provide a good fit to the situation (Glaser, 1995). The first aim of this research was to investigate whether professionals who work in segregated settings experience the feeling of burn out. A second aim was to discover if parents were a major component in the creation of those feelings of burn out and how professionals experienced the involvement of parents in the education of their disabled child. The first results concerning the question whether or not professionals who work in segregated settings experienced the feeling of burn-out were gathered from a scale item. According to those results 50% of the professionals mentioned that they usually feel tired and they believe that their energy had been minimized. Also 40% of the professionals

10 Dr. Anastasia Hadjiyiannakou, Paul Pachalis, Maro Kakouri, Dora Papageorgiou mentioned that they count down the days until the vacations. Also a percentage of 35% admitted that they often felt anger emanating from their relationships with their colleagues. Finally 25% said that their emotional state as affected by their work also affected other relationships in their lives and also that work activities that were pleasant for them in the past were now drudgery. Having in mind all the above we can conclude that a large proportion of special education professionals experience significant feelings of burn-out. When the teachers were asked about the factors that they view as being responsible for those feelings, almost all of them expressed the view that the parents of disabled students were one of the leading factors in the creation of the burn out feelings. Professionals believe that parents of disabled students who attend segregated settings do not know clearly what their role is. Sometimes they believe that they are co-operators with the professionals whilst at other times the parents of disabled children act as if they are the teacher’s employers or they function as an opposition group. This conflict regarding parental role creates a high degree of difficulty and pressure on the professionals. They also believe that the Ministry of Education and Culture has no clear and common policy for the parents of disabled children with regard to the level of influence they can exert regarding the placement and educational program for their child. As such teachers frequently complain that their professional status is undermined. A common complaint is that whatever they say it is the parent’s wish that will be met. This produces a sense of helplessness and devaluation which provokes high stress levels. This problem appears to be pronounced in Cyprus where the Special Education law of 1999 provides substantial input for parents in developing an education programme for their child but does not lay down criteria and guidelines. Parents are considered to be a substantial link between the school administration and the Ministry of Education and Culture and experience has shown that if parents use their right to appeal against the placement decision of the Committee for Special education and Training, the appeal is always successful. Also professionals mentioned that there is a significant gap between the expectations held by parents of a child and those of the teacher. Parents seemed to have different aims for their disabled children which teachers often believe are not realistic. Parent’s

11 Dr. Anastasia Hadjiyiannakou, Paul Pachalis, Maro Kakouri, Dora Papageorgiou expectations are highly connected with the academic progress of their child and also with the security of their disabled child in the school It seems that there is confusion amongst parents and professionals regarding their particular roles and boundaries. This may lead to the creation of burn out feelings and affect the provided education to the disabled child. Parents may sometimes feel that they are in competition with professionals. In such cases friction between the two will inevitably lead to feelings of burn-out for the teacher

4. Suggestions Special Education professionals in Cyprus appear to experience the feeling of burn-out. We can not say for sure that those professionals who work in segregated settings may experience more readily, more intensely or differently the feeling of burn-out, when compared to their mainstream counterparts, as we do not have any research findings regarding this. What can be concluded is that professionals who work in segregated settings experience the feeling of burn-out and that one of the major factors that creates this is the parents of the disabled children they work with Parents seemed to have difficulties in understanding their role and the limitations of that role. Their role confusion sometimes causes them to believe that they can act as the employers of the professionals. There is no policy in order to minimize the appearance of such beliefs. Parents of disabled children in Cyprus receive little organised support, until there disabled child attends school. This may instil in parents a generalised negative feeling towards professionals which may spill over towards teachers. It is well known that the nature of the disablement may affect the belief and the attitudes of disabled parents towards professionals. Most disabled children in Cyprus attend mainstream schools. Parents whose disabled child attends segregated settings experience many negative feelings as such a placement emphasises the severity of their child’s condition. Those feelings may be transformed as anger towards the professionals who work with their disabled child. Professionals on the other hand face lot of difficulties, as they face greater challenges from the children themselves, frequently lack of recognition and respect from parents and perceived lack of support from the system. The failure of the

12 Dr. Anastasia Hadjiyiannakou, Paul Pachalis, Maro Kakouri, Dora Papageorgiou system to mesh together the component parts of special education is a daily reality for many teachers. So what must be done to alleviate this situation? Seminars and workshops for parents and for the professionals however admirable are not enough. Both groups need support and guidance. However a deeper structural approach is necessary to create the necessary foundation for a true partnership between school and parents. The creation of a specific policy with all the procedures in the case of the education of the disabled children is very important. This policy though must be the same for all the parents and the professionals. In essence the parents of disabled children and professionals want the same thing but from different perspective. They both want the resources to provide the best possible education for the disabled child. Parents are emotionally involved and they are often left alone to find the ways to cope with the various difficulties they face. On the other hand professionals have almost the same feelings of being left alone by the system, because of the absence of a clear and applicable policy. Negative feelings are felt by both sites. What must be done then is to support the parents of the disabled child from the outset so that their experience of professionals and the system is positive. Parents need guidance in order to overcome the various difficulties they will face. Programs in order to support parents must be organized and must be offered to all parents of disabled children. Also parents need to understand their role and how important this is in the everyday life of their disabled child. On the other hand teachers, especially though who work in segregated settings, need to be informed about the psychology that parents of disabled children have and they need to learn various approaches in order to co-operate with parents. Teachers often focus upon the difficulties that a disabled child has and not about the child’s abilities. This is a common phenomenon and one which parents often cite as annoying to them. This tends to be reflected in the Individual Education Plan (IEP) that is developed for a child. It may be useful to develop an IEP format that assists in focusing attention, at least equally, upon abilities. Also professionals need to have a regular and structured in-service professional development programme which will look at not only techniques and methodology for

13 Dr. Anastasia Hadjiyiannakou, Paul Pachalis, Maro Kakouri, Dora Papageorgiou working with children but also on working in partnership with parents. Counselling for teachers is also necessary. On the one hand this could be at the level for dealing with difficulties as an education provider i.e. a mentor system, whilst at a different level a counsellor could provide support for problems of burn out In Cyprus today the existing law needs to be revised in order to clarify and define the role of parents as a partner in the education of their disabled child. This law will support the professionals as well and it will make sure that the relationship between parents of disabled children and professionals will not lead to the creation of burn-out feelings either to the professionals, or to the parents of disabled children.

5. References  Agnew, T. (2002). The workplace stress epidemic. http://www.channel4.com/health/microsites/0-9/4health/stress/saw_work.html  Ainscow, M. & Muncey, J. (1989) Meeting individual needs in the primary school. London: Fulton  Boe, E, Bobbit, S.A, Cook, Lynne, H. (1997). Retention, reassignment, migration and attrition of special and general education teachers from a national perspective. Journal of Special Education, 30 (4). 371-389.  Boe, E. Bobbit, S.A. Cook, L.H. Whitener, S.D. & Miller, M.D. (1997) Predictors of retention, transfer and attrition of special and general education teachers from a national perspective. Journal of Special Education, 30(4), 390- 411  Bridghouse, T.& Woods, D. (1999) How to improve your school. London: Routledge  Coffey A. and Atkinson P. (1996). Making Sense of Qualitative Data- Complementary Research Strategies. London: Sage Publications.  Farber, B. & Ascher, C. (1991) Urban school restructuring and teacher burnout. Washington: ERIC Digest. http://ericdigest.org/1992-4/urban.htm

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 Farber, B.A. (1998). Tailoring treatment strategies for different types of burnout. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, 106th, San Francisco, California, August 14-18.  Fore, C. Martin, C. and Carter, J. (2003). Why do special education teachers leave the field? Possible methods to increase retention. Paper presented at: Hawaii International Conference on Education 2003.  Glaser B. and Barney G. (1995). Grounded Theory 1984-1994.. Volume 2. Mill Valley, Ca: Sociology  Goodley D. Lawthom R. Clough P. and Moore M. (2004). Researching Life Stories :method, theory, and analysis in a biographical age. London: Routledge and Falmer Press.  Hopkins,D, Ainscow, M. & West, M (1994) School Improvement in an Era of Change. London: Cassell  Horn, H. & Brown, S. (1997). 500 tips for school improvement. London. Kogan Page  Hornby G. (1995). Working with Parents of Children and Young People with Special Educational Needs. London. Cassell.  Hornby G. (1995). Working with Parents of Children and Young People with Special Educational Needs. London. Cassell  Lake,J. and Billingsley, B. (2000). An analysis of factors that contribute to parent- school conflict in special education. Remedial and Special Education, vol. 21 (4), pp. 240-251.5  Many Teachers stressed in class. BBC news report, 18/2/2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/uk_news/education/6369867.stm  Maslach, C and Jackson, S.E.(1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Occupational Behaviour 2, 99-113.  Maslach, C. and Schaufeli, W.B. (1993). Historical and conceptual development of burnout. In C. Maslach, W.B. Schaufeli and T. Marek (Eds.) Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (p.p. 1-16). Washington DC. Taylor and Francis.

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 Mentor Program of Indiana University East http://www.iue.edu/Departement/mentor/burnout.html  Nichols, A.S.& Sosnowsky, F.L. (2002) Burnout among special education teachers in self contained cross-categorical classrooms. Teacher Education and Special education, 25(1), 71-86.  Prather-Jones, B (2006) the role of personal characteristics and job support in retaining teachers of students with emotional and behavioural disorders. Presented at 19th Annual ICSEI Congress, Jan 3-6 2006  Surpuriya, T. & Jordan, M. (1997), Teacher Burnout. Memphis Flyer. http://weeklywire.com/ww/10-27-97/memphis_cvr.html  Troman, G. and Woods, P. (2001). Primary Teachers’ Stress. New York: Routledge and Falmer.  Washburn-Moses, L. (2005), How to keep your special education teachers. National Association of Secondary School Principals Jan 2005  Whitaker, S. (2000). Mentoring beginning special education teachers and the relationship to attrition. Exceptional Children, 66 (4), 546-566.  Whitaker, S.D. (2000) Mentoring beginning special education teachers and the relationship to attrition. Exceptional Children, 66(4), 546-566  Wood, T. & McCarthy, C. (2002). Understanding and preventing teacher burnout. Washington: ERIC Digest. http://ericdigest.org/2004-1/burnout.htm

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