Psychology GCE WJEC/CBAC

Glossary of key terms Term Definition Research that is intended to change behaviour Action research whilst investigating the outcome of this change. A hormone secreted by the adrenal gland, especially in times of stress or in response to Adrenaline fright or shock. It produces an increase in blood pressure and the release of glucose. These are important preparations for flight or fighting.

Affective To do with emotions, relating to our emotions Behaviour that is intentionally inflicting or Aggression threatening to inflict harm on another. This may be physical or verbal.

Aims The broad purpose of an investigation An objective statement of prediction in an Alternative investigation, another name for the experimental hypothesis hypothesis.

Altruism An act of kindness carried out with no expectation of reward, but at some cost to the individual. Evidence based on personal experience rather Anecdotal evidence than scientific investigation. Attributing human emotions and intent onto Anthropomorphism animal behaviour. Application of The extent to which psychological research can psychology to be used in everyday life everyday life Approaches in One particular idea or set of ideas as to why and psychology how we think, feel and behave as we do. The physiological and psychological state of being awake. It ranges from being ready for Arousal action to being asleep or comatose. The process by which individuals acquire the Assimilation characteristics of the group. An emotional bond between child and primary Attachment care giver, usually a parent. The process of explaining the cause of others' Attribution actions. A gradual reduction of strength due to constant Attrition stress Bar chart/Bar A graphical representation of the frequency of graph data in the form of bars.

1 Psychology GCE WJEC/CBAC

Glossary of key terms Term Definition The way in which we act or conduct ourselves in a given situation. Behaviour

2 Glossary of key terms The list of behaviours to be recorded during an observation. The observer uses the checklist to Behaviour checklist record the frequency or timings of the behaviours, such as incidents of aggression in a playground during break. Behaviourism is an approach in psychology that states that all behaviour is explained in terms of learning theory. It also states that the objective Behaviourism observation of behaviour, as measured by responses to stimuli, is the only proper subject for study and the only basis for its theory, without any reference to conscious experience. An inflatable plastic doll that rocks back and forth Bobo doll when hit. Used in research to study aggression. Where participants in an investigation become Boredom effect bored due to repeating the experimental tasks.

Box-plot A kind of graph used to represent dispersion. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) uses strong magnets and radio waves to manipulate Brain scan e.g. MRI the body’s own magnetic properties. It is used to scan scan the brain and spine, as well as the soft tissue of the body. A form of descriptive research in which an in- depth analysis is carried out on an individual, Case study group or event.

Categorisation To put into categories or groups. The dominance of one cerebral hemisphere Cerebral dominance over the other in the control of cerebral functions. Chemotherapy Treating illness using drugs. Learning by association, described first by Pavlov, where the unconditioned response is Classical conditioning paired with a conditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.

Closed questions Questions in an interview or on a questionnaire that has a limited range of answers. The internal mental processes such as memory, Cognition perception, attention etc Internal mental processes are used to explain Cognitive approach behaviours. A form of psychotherapy which focuses on Cognitive therapy changing thoughts and beliefs to treat maladaptive behaviours. Commisurotomy The surgical severing of the corpus callosum

3 Glossary of key terms A form of validity where two tests are compared to Concurrent validity see if they are measuring the same or related underlying behaviour.

A person who appears to be a participant in an Confederate investigation, but who actually is working for the researcher. Can also be called a stooge. The act of keeping information confidential, of not Confidentiality sharing it with anyone. This is particularly important in research of a sensitive nature. A variable that has not been controlled during Confounding variable an experiment that affects the outcome, by influencing the dependent variable. Whether a scale in a psychometric test or Construct validity questionnaire measures the underlying and unobservable behaviour it claims to. An observational study where behaviour is Content analysis observed indirectly in written or verbal behaviour. Continuous Where a behaviour is observed and recorded observation continually for the duration of the observation. Control A condition in a repeated measures experiment condition/control where no manipulation takes place, to allow a group base line comparison to be made The extent to which variables are held constant. Controls Uncontrolled variables become confounding variables The bundle of nerve fibres that send messages Corpus callosum between the two hemispheres of the brain. A statistical analysis that measures the extent to which two variables are related to each other. A positive correlation means that high values in Correlation one variable are associated with high values in (correlational a second. As one variable increases, so does analysis) the other. A negative correlation means that high values in one variable are associated with low values in the other. In this case, as one variable increases, the other decreases. This describes the strength of the relationship Correlation between two variables. A coefficient of +1 coefficient indicates a strong positive relationship, and –1 a strong negative relationship. A coefficient close to 0 indicates no relationship at all.

4 Glossary of key terms The outer layer of the brain, defined by it’s Cortex wrinkled surface. Balancing the order of each condition in an Counterbalancing experiment to overcome order effects. Research carried out in more than one culture to Cross-cultural allow a comparison of behaviours or attitudes research across these cultures. Explaining the purpose of an investigation after Debriefing the participant has taken part. Hiding the true purpose of an investigation from the participants. This should be kept to a Deception minimum to avoid causing distress to participants. Where participants unintentionally try to guess Demand the purpose of the investigation due to a feature characteristics of the experiment. A variable that is acted on or influenced by another variable; the independent variable. The Dependent variable dependent variable is measured to see the (dv) effect of the manipulation of the independent variable. Used to give a basic summary of the data in an Descriptive statistics investigation. Data can also be presented graphically in charts. The idea that our behaviour is not under our own control, but is controlled by factors such as Determinism our genetics, or our upbringing, or even our social environment. We do not get to choose our behaviour, as we lack free will. Dispositional Attributing the causes of behaviour to internal attribution factors. The extent to which a study can be generalised Ecological validity because the methods, materials and setting of the experiment reflect the real-life situation that is under investigation. The unconscious processes used to protect the Ego Defence ego from unwanted thoughts and anxieties mechanism brought about by the conflict between the Id and the Superego. Electroencephalogram A graphic record of the electrical activity of the (EEG) brain as recorded by an electroencephalograph A neurological disorder where electrical activity in Epilepsy the brain causes convulsions or seizures.

5 Glossary of key terms A set of rules from the British Psychological Society outlining the areas that psychologists Ethical guidelines must consider when carrying out research on human and non-human participants

Ethics What is acceptable human behaviour. The tendency to interpret human behaviour from Ethnocentric bias the viewpoint of our own ethnic, social or other group Counting the number of times a particular event Event sampling occurs when carrying out an observation of behaviour A controlled manipulation of events, designed to Experiment produce observations that confirm or disconfirm one or more rival theories or hypotheses. The condition in a repeated measures Experimental experiment with the independent variable. The condition Experimental treatment condition. The method of organising an experiment to control the effects of participant variables on the Experimental design dependent variable. Repeated measures, independent measures, matched pairs and single participant. The condition in an experiment where the IV is Experimental group being manipulated, in contrast with the control condition where no manipulation is made. Experimenter The researcher carrying out an experiment Where the outcome of an experiment is affected Experimenter bias by the expectations or behaviour of the experimenter. Generally the bias is unintentional. The extent to which the findings from an External reliability experiment can be applied to all situations and all populations. Extraneous variables are variables other than the independent variable that may bear any effect on Extraneous variable the behaviour of the subject being studied. If these are not controlled they can turn into confounding variables. Extravert An outgoing and impulsive individual.

Extrinsic motivation Motivation derived from external rewards, such as praise, money, and trophies. The extent to which a test appears to measure Face validity what the test claims.

6 Glossary of key terms The effect on the outcome of an experiment due Fatigue effect to participants becoming tired. This is particularly relevant to repeated measures designs. An experiment carried out in naturalistic settings Field experiment where the independent variable is still manipulated. A question often used in questionnaires in which Forced choice the respondent is instructed to pick the one question response that best describes his or her reaction Our behaviour is determined by our own will, Free will rather than by other influences. A type of graph that represents the frequency of Frequency polygon data. The degree to which the results of a study can be Generalisability applied to other circumstances. theory that the behavior of an individual or a group will change to meet the expectations of the Hawthorne effect observer if they are aware their behavior is being observed.

Heuristic Solving problems through trial and error. A bar graph that uses the width of the bars to Histogram represent the various classes and the height of the bars to represent their relative frequencies. An objective testable statement of prediction Hypothesis about the relationship between variables. Investigation of behaviour focuses on individual Idiographic approach cases rather than on generating general laws of behaviour. A way of organising an experiment where each Independent participant in each group in an experiment only measures design experiences one condition of the independent variable. The variable (thought, feeling, behaviour) a psychologist changes or manipulates when using Independent variable the experimental method of research. This is to (IV) try and discover a cause-effect relationship with the dependent variable. The statistical analysis of data from an Inferential statistics investigation allowing us to make conclusions related to our hypothesis. Participants are given sufficient information as to Informed consent the purpose and procedures of an investigation, to allow them to make a decision to take part.

7 Glossary of key terms Internal reliability refers to the extent to which a measure is consistent within itself. The internal reliability of self-report measures, such as psychometric tests and questionnaires can be assessed using the split half method. This Internal reliability involves splitting a test into two and having the same participant doing both halves of the test. If the two halves of the test provide similar results this would suggest that the test has internal reliability. Internal validity is related to what actually happens in a study. In terms of an experiment it refers to whether the independent variable really Internal validity has had an effect on the dependent variable or whether the dependent variable was caused by some other confounding variable. A level of measurement where the data units Interval data have equal intervals between them. A method of collecting data by asking questions. Interview It can be structured or unstructured. Where the outcome of an interview is changed Interviewer bias by the unintentional behaviour of the interviewer. Motivation that comes from inside an individual, Intrinsic motivation rather than from external rewards such as prizes or money. An individual who is shy, cautious, and has a Introvert tendency to be inwardly reflective more than overtly expressive.

Laboratory An experiment carried out in highly controlled and experiment usually artificial conditions. This refers to the uneven distribution of tasks carried out by the hemispheres. Lateral means Lateralisation of side. Any function, e.g. language, which is found brain function on one side of the brain is called a lateralised function. A question that puts words into people’s mouths, Leading question and particularly contains the answer that the interviewer is looking for. Where connections in the brain are severed, Lesions often used to investigate cortical function.

Level of The extent to which a set of results are due to significance chance factors rather than the manipulation of the independent variable. Levels of Different types of data that produce different measurement amounts of detail.

8 Glossary of key terms Attitude measurement used in research, where, in place of a numerical scale for answers, answers are given on a scale ranging from Likert scale complete agreement on one side to complete disagreement on the other side, with no opinion in the middle. A group of interconnected deep brain Limbic system structures, common to all mammals, and involved in olfaction, emotion, motivation, behavior, and various autonomic functions. The study of a group of individuals at regular Longitudinal study intervals over a relatively long period of time. An experimental design where different Matched pairs participants are used in each condition, but design matched on key characteristics. A measure of central tendency that shows the Mean average of a set of scores A descriptive statistic used to conceptualise Measures of central average values from a series of observations, tendency numbers, A statistical measure of the extent to which a Measures of set of observations, numbers, etc., cluster dispersion round a central value The midpoint of the range numbers that are Median arranged in order of value. The value or item occurring most frequently in Mode a series of observations or statistical data. An innate tendency to become attached to one Monotropy particular individual The extent to which an experiment is similar to Mundane realism situations encountered in everyday life. An experiment with a naturally occurring Natural experiment independent variable.

Naturalistic An observation carried out in a natural setting observation A traditional and long-standing disagreement Nature-nurture over whether heredity or environment is more debate important in the development of living things, especially human beings. Inverse association between two variables. As Negative one variable becomes large, the other becomes small. Negative correlation is correlation represented by correlation coefficients less than 0

9 Glossary of key terms Neurotics tend to be more easily aroused than stable individuals and may become over- Neurotic aroused in stressful situations such as a competition. In this type of measurement, names are Nominal data assigned to objects as labels. A non-directional hypothesis does not predict Non-directional which way the independent variable will affect hypothesis the dependent variable. A theoretical frequency distribution for a set of Normal distribution variable data, usually represented by a bell- shaped curve symmetrical about the mean. The hypothesis that the manipulation of the independent variable will have no effect on the Null hypothesis dependent variable, and any differences found would be due to chance. The extent to which an individual will follow the Obedience requests of another, usually an authority figure. Data is collected on the behaviour of individuals Observational study or groups of individuals through observation. Participants will change their behaviour as a Observer bias result of the behaviour of the observers, usually by their presence.

One-tailed A hypothesis that predicts the direction of the hypothesis outcome of an investigation.

Open question A kind of question that does not restrict the types of answers participants can give. Learning through having a behaviour or set of Operant conditioning behaviours rewarded or punished. Defining all variables being investigated in terms of its operations, to make it less Operationalisation ambiguous. For example thirst could be operationalised as the number of hours since a participant last had a drink.

Opportunity A sampling technique that chooses participants sampling to take part based on their availability. When participants take part in a repeated Order effects measures experiment they may perform differently in each condition. A level of measurement where data is ordered Ordinal data in some way, for example those most liked to those least liked, but the interval between them is unequal.

Participant A person who takes part in an investigation 10 Glossary of key terms The influence that the characteristics of a Participant effects participant has on an experiment

A type of observation where the researcher Participant takes part in the situation or activity being observation observed. The characteristics of the participant such as Participant variables their age, gender or social class. The process in which we turn sensory data Perception (input from our senses) into recognisable objects. A set of relatively stable individual Personality characteristics such as attitudes, behaviours and interests. A scan that uses radioactive tracers (glucose) PET scan in the brain to detect activity. An irrational and excessive fear of an object Phobia that is disproportionate. Physiological The biological study of an organism.

A small scale version of an investigation Pilot study carried out to check how well it works. A substance such as a pill or treatment that is Placebo prescribed for psychological reasons but that has no physiological affect. The group of people from which a sample is Population drawn for an investigation. A relation between two variables where when Positive correlation one increases the other does also. Participants improve their performance by Practice effect repeating a task more than once. The extent to which a test is valid by Predictive validity measuring how well it can predict behaviour. Protection from An ethical issue where researchers must endeavour to protect their participants from psychological harm harm as a result of their research. The diagnosis and treatment of mental Psychiatry disorders by a medically trained doctor.

Psychodynamic This approach explains behaviour in terms of the influence of our unconscious mind. approach A set of questions to measure an underlying Psychometric test psychological concept such as personality or intelligence. Psychosexual The developmental stages described by the development psychodynamic approach

11 Glossary of key terms A somatic way of treating mental disorders Psychosurgery where sections of the brain (usually the frontal lobe) are removed or cut. Research that emphasises the thoughts and feelings of participants. This type of research Qualitative data presents its findings in words rather than in numbers. Research that presents the findings in the form Quantitative data of numerical data. An experiment where some aspect of the study is not controlled by the researcher, such as the Quasi experiment allocation of participants into conditions or the true manipulation of the independent variable. Questionnaire A form of data collection that uses written or (survey) spoken questions. A procedure for selecting subjects or items for research on the basis of chance. The subjects Random sampling or items are chosen from the population in such a way that all of them have the same chance of being selected. A measure of dispertion which shows the Range distance between the lowest and highest value of a set of data. A level of measurement which is an interval Ratio data scale and has a true zero. In psychology this type of data is usually treated as interval data. A theory that reduces a complex set of factors Reductionist to a simple set of ideas or principles. Increasing the chance of a behaviour occurring Reinforcement again by giving a pleasurable outcome. The extent to which a study or means of Reliability measurement produces consistent findings over different situations or time. Repeated measures An experimental design where participants design perform in all conditions The repeating of a study to check the validity Replication and reliability of its findings. The extent to which the findings from a study Representative or the sample of a population represent the population as a whole. In psychoanalytic theory, the exclusion of distressing memories, thoughts, or feelings Repression from the conscious mind. Often involving sexual or aggressive urges or painful childhood memories, these unwanted mental contents

12 Glossary of key terms are pushed into the unconscious mind.

13 Glossary of key terms This is the ethical consideration where researchers must make sure participants can Right to withdraw withdraw from a study at any point in the process. A subset of a population drawn for testing purposes under the assumption that the Sample results derived from, or the behaviour of, a randomly drawn sample can predict the results or behaviour of the population. Where some participants have more or less Sampling bias chance of being selected from the total population. The method used to select a sample from the Sampling technique total population being investigated. A graph that shows the correlation between Scattergraph two sets of data. When participants deliberately sabotage the Screw you effect outcome of an investigation. A sample that chooses to take part in a study, Self selected either by volunteering, or in the case of an sampling observational study, by being present at the time the observation is occurring. Attributing the cause of a behaviour to the Situational attribution situation in which it occurs. The tendency for participants to give answers Social desirability on a questionnaire or in an interview to put bias themselves into a good light. A theory that proposes that behaviour can be Social learning theory explained in terms of both direct or indirect reinforcement. The investigation of patients who have had Split-brain research their two hemispheres separated by having their corpus callosum cut to treat severe epilepsy. A method of testing the internal reliability of a Split-half method psychological test by comparing the two halves of the test with each other. A measure of disperstion that measures the Standard deviation spread of data around the mean. Standardised The instructions used by a researcher for every instructions participant during an investigation. A sampling technique where participants are Stratified sample selected in proportion to their frequency in the population. 14 Glossary of key terms An interview where each participant is given Structured interview the same questions worded in the same way. Test-retest is a statistical method used to Test–retest examine how reliable a test is. A test is performed twice by the same participants reliability and if they perform in a similar way the test is said to be reliable. Behaviour in an observation is recorded at Time sampling set time intervals

Two-tailed A prediction that does not specify a direction hypothesis The division of the mind in psychoanalytic theory containing elements of psychic makeup, such as memories or repressed Unconscious desires, that are not subject to conscious perception or control but that often affect conscious thoughts and behaviour. A method of interviews where questions can Unstructured be changed or adapted to meet the interview respondent's intelligence, understanding or belief. Research is useful if it helps psychologists understanding psychological phenomena, if it can be used in applied psychology or if it Usefulness of helps the general public understand psychological themselves and others more. It is also useful research if it helps policy makers and politicians make decisions. The extent to which a test, measurement, or Validity other method of investigation actually does what it has been designed to do.

Variables Things that can vary or change. It is a statistic, which represents the extent to Variance which a set of data spreads about the mean. Where data are closely grouped, the variance is low. Volunteers may behave in ways which may Volunteer bias differ from non volunteers. Participants who volunteer to take part in an Volunteer sample investigation, who may also be referred to as a self-selecting sample. There is no (zero) relationship between two Zero correlation variables under investigation in a correlational analysis. Represented by a 0. AG/HJ/W3(08)/22 January 2008 15