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A modified version of the article was published in the The Missouri Archaeologist, 2012, Vol. 73:43-77. The Moyers Site: An Early Woodland Settlement in Southeast Missouri Ozarks

By Terrell Martin

The site is situated at the east side of Twelvemile Creek valley at the toe of a gentle slope (Figures 1 and 2). Twelvemile Creek is a tributary of the St. Francis River. Portions of the St. Francis River drainage have been identified as containing a wealth of prehistoric cultural resources. At one time, the lower St. Francis River “had the reputation of being richer in aboriginal earthenware than any other river in the United States…. (Moore 1910:259)”; however, descriptions of prehistoric ceramics from the upper portions of the drainage where the Moyers site is situated have been limited. Wettstaed and Harpole (2002:2) commented that “The upper St. Francis River drainage is a poorly understood region in southeastern Missouri.” The Master Plan for Archaeological Resource Protection in Missouri lists the upper St. Francis River study unit as “essentially an archaeological unknown but numerous private collections exist that suggest the unit is rich in at least the Late Woodland/Mississippian, Late Archaic and possibly the Dalton periods” (Wright:1987:B-22-3).

Figure 1. Topographic map showing location of the Moyers site, 23MO1198, and other cultural resources in the vicinity (Cherokee Pass, Mo quadrangle 1980).

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Figure 2. A 1996 aerial photograph of the Moyers site. Springs southwest of the site are visible as dark areas while the natural mounds are lighter in color and oval to round shaped.

Environmental Setting The Moyers site, 23MO1198, is located in the southeastern part of the St. Francis Mountains Natural Section in the Ozarks Natural Division which is the area of greatest relief and elevation in the state (Thom and Wilson 1980). The region is described in the Original Land Surveyors’ Notes (United States Land Surveys 1817) as being a rich bottomland that is suitable for cultivation. The hill slopes and uplands that margin the valley were described as stony with large flint rocks, thin soil and unfit for cultivation. No prairies were reported within a 3km (2mi) area around the site. A total of 80 witness trees were recorded by the surveyors along sections lines that occur within a roughly 3 km (2 mi) area around the site (Table 1). The upland/hill slope included 71 tree citings, but only 9 were noted in the lowlands (the Twelvemile Creek valley and tributaries). Over half of the tree citings in the upland/hill slope were pine (525); short-leaf pine is the only Missouri native pine. Twenty of the trees noted were black oak and ten were white oak. Section summaries in the field notes record pine, black oak and white oak as the typical canopy cover. The section summaries list common under story plants as being scrubby oak, hickory, dogwood, sassafras,

2 hazel and vines (grape, etc.). In the lowland Upland Lowland TOTAL Tree type citings citings S Pine 37 (52%) 1 38 (48%) Black Oak 20 (28%) 0 (11%) 20 (25%) White Oak 10 (14%) 4 (44%) 14 (18%) Hickory 2 (3%) 1 (11%) 3 (4%) Sugar Tree* 0 2 (22%) 2 (3%) Black walnut 1 (1%) 0 1 (1%) Spanish Oak** 1 (1%) 0 1 (1%) Gum 0 1 (11%) 1 (1%) TOTALS 71 (99%) 9 (99%) 80 (101%) setting, the only trees noted more than once were white and sugar tree. The section summaries for the valley settings list the predominant species as white oak, black oak, pine and sugar tree (sugar maple). Undergrowth was listed as hazel and spicebush. Occurring about 20 to 100 m to the southwest of the site are several low mounds that appear to be natural rather than cultural features (see Figure 2). These formations are variously referred to as “prairie mounds,” “prairie blisters,” “pimple mounds” or “Mima mounds” by geomorphologists. The Ozark Plateau is characterized by large and abundant springs and fast flowing streams with gravel beds. The site area is located in the upper St. Francis River drainage basin and to the east of the St Francis River in the Twelvemile Creek valley. Twelvemile Creek is a perennial stream that flows about 430 m (1400 ft) to the west of the site (see Figure 1). Five springs (Moyers’ Springs 1-5) are documented within 300 m to the southwest of the site (FHWA 2005:Figure 3-7). The site area occurs on the southeast flank of the St. Francis Mountains, an igneous uplift that began about 1.5 billion years ago. Bedrock formations associated with the Cambrian System and, to a lesser extent Precambrian System are present in Madison County. Hayes and Knight reported that bedrock exposures are “particularly striking in the St. Francis Mountain area where prominent ridges and knobs of Precambrian granite and felsites (rhyolite) in contact with Cambrian strata (1961:14).” Chert is not present in the Precambrian rocks and limited to two formations in the Cambrian strata. The Potosi formation has chert that occurs in very limited amounts, and Eminence formation has chert is generally very vuggy and unsuitable for knapping (Jack Ray 2007). While rock exposures in Madison County mainly represent the Precambrian and Cambrian systems, parts of the Gasconade formation of the Ordovician system outcrop in the extreme southeast corner of the county (Anderson 1979). Chert from the Ordovician, however, occurs abundantly throughout the site area in the form of residual float on slopes and as redeposited gravel in drainages. Most of this chert is primarily to be secondary material from the Gasconade formation, although as Ray (2007:83) noted it is often difficult to distinguish between Gasconade chert and material from the Roubidoux formation. The middle layers of the Gasconade contain white and cream-colored chert (Ray 1985:229) that is sometimes misidentified as Burlington by archaeologists working the upper St. Francis River drainage. The nearest Gasconade bedrock exposures to the site are about 11 km (7 mi) to the east and south, and the closest Roubidoux exposures are 13 km (8 mi) south (Anderson 1979). Another rock used by prehistoric groups for the manufacture of tools at the Moyers site and other archaeological sites in the area is rhyolite, which is limited to the St. Francis Mountains and peripheral areas. Rhyolite, which occurs in massive outcrops, is found in outliers within 2 km of the Moyers site (Anderson 1979). Much of the rhyolite debitage recovered during Madison County archaeological investigations was medium to dark shades of gray and occasionally black to red.

3 Rhyolite outcrops that show evidence of quarrying by prehistoric group are located about 5 km (3 mi) to the southwest of the Moyers site (Jack Ray, personal communication 2008). Field Investigations The Moyers site was identified on August 29, 2006 by MoDOT archaeologists during the Phase I survey for planned Route 67 expressway improvements (Weisman et al. 2007a). The Route 67 project involved construction of a divided four-lane facility from south of Fredericktown in Madison County to Poplar Bluff in Butler County. Screened shovel tests, of which eight of nine were positive, yielded 79 chert flakes and one projectile point fragment.

Summary of Phase II Testing Phase II test excavations began with the excavation of a 1-x-1-m test unit (Test Unit 1) for the purpose of controlled artifact recovery and for the examination of the vertical distribution of artifacts. Three backhoe trenches were excavated to evaluate the soil stratigraphy (including integrity) and geomorphological setting as well as to determine the presence of cultural features. Excavations were limited to the southern portion of the site on the Moyers parcel since permission to conduct the work on the Spain property had not been obtained. Test Unit 1 contained the greatest concentration of artifacts at 20-40 cmbs, although the 40-50-cmbs level produced five eroded sherds and a large chert biface. None of the test excavations identified cultural features.

Phase III Data Recovery Phase III mitigation was conducted during a two-week period in during October 2007. Data recovery included the hand excavation of test units totaling 21 m2 and the excavation of 370 m2 with heavy equipment. On the southern part of the site, grids of test units were placed along the sides of Test Unit 1, which was excavated during the Phase II testing (Figures 3 and 4). Fifteen test units in the grid were excavated. After excavation of the units commenced, a backhoe excavation (Block A) was begun about 3 m to the west of the test unit grid. An area approximately 26 m by 10 m or 260 m2 was excavated in Block A in order to locate cultural features and to further evaluate the soil stratigraphy (including integrity) and geomorphological setting.

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Figure 3. Excavations at the Moyers Site, showing profile of Test Unit 16. Figure 4. Plan view of the Moyers site investigations. Description of Features

Five possible features were identified at the Moyers site of which 3 were determined to be tree root castes, 1 animal burrow and 1 (Feature 5) a prehistoric cultural feature consisting of an artifact scatter in a possible pit context. Feature 5 was located in west half of Test Unit 26 at around 46 to 74 cmbs and is believed to represent an extension of a possible feature identified in the east half of Test Unit 1. The two test units were contiguous. Test Unit 1 contained an artifact concentration from 40-60 cmbs that included prehistoric ceramics, chert debitage and a large chert perform. No artifact clustering or changes in soil color or soil texture were noted in the 40-60- cmbs levels in Test Unit 1, and a feature designation was not given to the artifact concentration. In contrast, the artifact assemblage from Feature 5 in Test Unit 26 is limited to a few chert flakes. Feature 5 was identified based on the presence of a two small basin-like discontinuities identified by pale brown silt loam hat extended into the more compact yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) heavy silt loam and by what appeared to be several linear stains that margined the basin. The basins were 46 to 74 cmbs. Nine areas of hardened clay were identified around the edges of the basins. These areas differed in color and hardness from the basin fill but were more friable than the 15 clay fragments recovered during Phase II testing that were identified as eroded sherds. The fragile and friable nature of the areas of hardened clay made recovery difficult. Each ‘piece’ was carefully removed and placed in foil after mapping in plan view. When examined in the lab, the fragments of hardened clay material from Feature 5 could not be positively identified as prehistoric ceramics. The hardened clay had a texture that was generally similar to the surrounding soil matrix, although it appears to contain greater amounts of sand and, to a lesser extent, crushed rock. These areas may have cultural origins and might be the remains of poorly preserved low-fired prehistoric pottery or the walls of a baked basin feature. It is also possible that these soil anomalies could be the result of some unknown natural process.

5 Artifact Analysis

The vast majority of the artifacts recovered during the Phase III mitigation at the Moyers site are chipped stone. The sample of 4038 chipped stone artifacts (weighing 11,472.7 g) consisting of 3984 made from chert (weighing 11,102.9 g), 50 from rhyolite (weighing 290.4 g ) and 5 from quartzite (weighing 79.4 g). The ground stone sample is limited to two artifacts of quartzite and two of sandstone. Sixteen artifacts are classified as fire-cracked rock (FCR), and 29 are unmodified rock. Also recovered were samples of the linear stains found in Feature 5 that are tentatively identified as fire-hardened clay. Historic material is limited to 3 colorless glass fragments from the upper levels n Test Units 12 and 23. Informal tools---discussed separately from patterned tools---are expedient tools that have minimal modification. This analysis attempts to present artifacts in morphological groupings based on physical characteristics such as “proximal portion of a biface” or “thermally altered decortication flake” whenever possible. Functional terms, such as “projectile point” or “scraper” are also used with the understanding that such tools, categorized from ethnographic correlates, could have other functions.

Chipped Stone Tools

The chipped stone artifact sample is comprised entirely of locally available material. Ordovician chert, which is primarily from the Gasconade formation, represents about 99% of the chipped stone sample. Other Ordovician artifacts, which include five quartzite flakes or shatter, are from either the Gasconade or Roubidoux formations. Although no nonlocal lithic material was recovered during the Phase III excavations, one flake of Burlington chert was found during Phase II testing at the site. The artifact samples include several flakes of a reddish brown, translucent material that resembles nonlocal St. Genevieve chert of the Mississippian system. However, after locating several nodules of similar material in local creek beds, it appears that the reddish brown material is a color variant of the locally available Ordovician chert. A total of 2778 or 75% of the chert artifacts (excluding shatter and potlids) recovered during the data recovery at the Moyers site are thermally altered, including 75% of the debitage, 74% of the informal tools and 73% of the patterned tools. Two of the five chipped stone artifacts of quartzite were thermally altered.

Projectile Points

Fourteen projectile points were recovered during the Phase III mitigation of the site and two were found during earlier investigations. All sixteen of the points are made from Ordovician chert that appears to be from the Gasconade formation with the exception of one contracting-stemmed point made from rhyolite (Figure 6a). All examples are thermally altered except for one contracting-stemmed point, one side-notched point and the rhyolite point. Most of the points have blades that have been extensively reworked, resulting in brief shoulders or short blades. Contracting-stemmed points ((N=11) were the predominant point type recovered from the site during Phase III mitigation (Figures 5-6; Table 2). Another contracting-stem point was found during Phase II testing. Similar contracting-stemmed points are associated with Early Woodland phases in the Midwest, although they continued in use during the earlier part of the Middle Woodland

6 period as well. Six of the contracting-stemmed points were found during the excavations of the test units east of backhoe Block A. A broad-bladed point (Figure 6a) has a thin blade that displays

Figure 5. Contracting-stemmed points from the Moyers Site: (a) Cat. #112; (b) Cat. #56; (c) Cat. #19; (d) Cat. #111-1; (e) Cat. #111-2; (f) Cat. #71; (g) Cat. #32; (h) Cat. #62; (i) Cat. #112.

7 Figure 6. Contracting-stemmed points from the Moyers site: (a) Cat. #71; (b) Cat. #107-1; (c) Cat. #1-1 (recovered during Phase II testing). Table 2. Projectile points from the Moyers site (23MO1198).

Table 2. Projectile points from the Moyers Site.

8 Thermal Thickne Referenc Provenienc Type of Length Width Weight Type of point ly ss e e material (mm) (mm) (g) altered (mm) Figure 5a Block B Contracting-stem Ordovician chert Yes 52.3 3.1 7.8 12.4 Figure 5b TU17, L3 Contracting-stem Ordovician Yes N/A 33.6 7.7 9.4 chert Figure 5c TU11, L4 Contracting-stem Ordovician Yes N/A 27.9? 7.3 8.1 chert* Figure 5d Block A Contracting-stem Ordovician chert Yes N/A N/A 7.8 7.3 Figure 5e Block A Contracting-stem Ordovician chert Yes N/A 36.8 7.7 8.5 Figure 5f TU22, L1 Contracting-stem Ordovician Yes N/A N/A 7.0 4.9 chert* Figure 5g TU13, L4 Contracting-stem Ordovician No N/A N/A 9.5 11.6 chert Figure 5h TU18, L3 Contracting-stem Ordovician Yes N/A N/A 7.7 4.7 chert Figure 5i Block B Contracting-stem Ordovician chert Yes N/A N/A 7.0 2.3 Figure 6a TU26, L2 Contracting-stem Rhyolite No 71.1 52.6 7.9 22.9 Figure 6b Block A Contracting-stem Ordovician Yes 39.1 34.4 7.0 8.0 chert* Figure 6c Trench 1 Contracting-stem Ordovician Yes N/A N/A 7.0 7.1 chert* Figure 7a Block B Side-notched Ordovician chert Yes 37.1 28.6 9.7 10.4 Figure 7b Block A Side-notched Ordovician chert No N/A 32.3+ 7.2 7.9 Figure 8 ST 7 Expanding-stem Ordovician chert Yes N/A N/A N/A 1.1 *Made from Ordovician chert that is heavily oolitic (>50%) rounding of the blade margins suggesting use as a cutting, scraping or whittling tool. The specimen was made from weak red (10Y 4/3) non-porphyritic rhyolite Test Unit 11 yielded a point at 30-40 cmbs with blade and stem margins that have been extensively reworked creating steep edges and a plano convex cross section (Figure 5c). The narrow blade retains only a hint of the shoulders. A contracting- stemmed base with a small portion of a shoulder was found in Test Unit 18 (Figure 5h). The haft element has been lightly dulled. A contracting stem point, with a diagonal distal fracture, was found in Test Unit 17 (Figure 5b). The specimen lacks one of the shoulders due to reworking of the blade. The reworked blade margins display use-wear. The fifth contracting-stemmed point (Figure 5f), which represents the base and one shoulder, was found in Test Unit 22. The sixth point, recovered from the 30-40 cm-level in Test Unit 13, has a transverse fracture and lacks the base and one shoulder (see Figure 5g). The classification of this specimen as a contracting-stemmed point is based on attributes such as upturned shoulders and a broad blade which occur on many of the contracting-stemmed points from the site, but the determination is tentative due to the missing base. Three of the contracting-stemmed points were recovered from backhoe Block A. One of the points has a narrow stem, rounded base and broad shoulders (Figures 6b and 17). The abbreviated blade has a triangular form, distal impact fractures and smoothing of the margins from use. The two other points classified as contracting-stemmed were recovered from the back dirt from Block A. The first point has the blade extensively reworked into a short, narrow “spike” suggesting use as a graver or drill (Figure 5d). One shoulder is missing and the other appears to be barbed, although the single flake that has been removed to form the barb appears to be incidental (i.e., lacks the patina present on the rest of the artifact). The second point has a U-shaped notch on one blade edge suggesting use as a spokeshave (Figure 5e). This latter specimen is classified as a contracting-stemmed point based on traits such as the broad blade and upturned shoulders which are attributes of many of the contracting- stemmed examples, but the determination is tentative due to the missing stem.

9 One of the four points recovered from the northern part of the site is contracting-stemmed point that displays small impact fractures as well as evidence of use wear in the form of a rounded distal tip and smoothing of the blade margins, especially near the tip (Figure 5a). Also recovered from Block B was a contracting-stemmed base (Figure 5i). An eleventh contracting-stemmed point recovered from the Moyers site was found in the back dirt from Trench 1 during Phase II testing (Figure 6c). The point is damaged along one blade edge and the distal portion missing. The stem edges are lightly dulled. None of the contracting-stemmed points have beveled blade edges. The blade shoulders, when present, are upturned except for example with a short barb (Figure. 5d). Side-notched points (N=2) include a specimen that has a slightly concave base and a shallow side notch (Figure 7a). The opposite side has been reworked and does not display a shoulder, notch or basal tang. The edges of the blade have been heavily dulled from use, especially toward the distal end. The side with the notch has a beveled blade edge that appears to have been used as a scraping tool based on interior blade polish on the ventral side. A second point is a proximal fragment with a straight base and a shallow side notch (Figure 7b). Although a diagonal blade fracture extends to near the base, the point appears to lack a notch on the opposing side. Neither specimen has a dulled haft element. The two points were recovered from the plowzone and are tentatively placed in the Middle Archaic Raddatz cluster (Justice 1987:62-67). Although Chapman (1975:172) had reported no solid evidence of a Middle Archaic occupation in the upper St. Francis River drainage, Raddatz points recently have been recovered from several sites in the drainage (Weisman et al. 2007a; 2007b). Site 23WE262 yielded full-grooved axes as well as side-notched points. It should be noted that affiliating the side-notched points from the Moyers site with a specific cultural period or point type is problematic due to the small sample (N=2) and fragmentary nature of the artifacts. Miscellaneous points (N=2) includes two specimens that are fragmentary to be temporarily diagnostic. One specimen has a straight base and may have been broadly side-notched or expanding- stemmed. An expanding-stemmed point recovered from the shovel test at the west edge of the site is not complete enough to determine cultural affiliation (Figure 8).

Bifaces The biface sample includes two complete and 35 fragmentary examples. The fragmentary examples represent bifaces in various stages of reduction including several examples that probably represent projectile points. Complete bifaces (N=2) include one with angled shoulders and a sharp tip (Figure 9a). The specimen resembles a preform for an Afton point, although the thick, uneven cross section is atypical of the type. The biface was found at the base of the plowzone and 80 cm to the east of a contracting- stemmed point (Figure 10). The “needle tipped” distal end may indicate the biface was modified for use as a graver or penetrating tool.

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Figure 9. Miscellaneous chipped stone artifacts from the Moyers site: (a) complete biface, Cat. #32; (b-c) distal portions of bifaces, Cat #107; (d) complete biface, Cat. #11; (e) graver, Cat. #115; (f) graver, Cat. #107; (h) end/side scraper, Cat. #45; (g, i) end/side scrapers, Cat. #107; (h) end/side scraper, Cat. #45.

Figure 10. Excavation of Backhoe Block A showing the location of a contracting-stemmed point

11 (see Figure 6b) and a complete biface (see Figure 7a).

The other complete biface---recovered from TU17---has a broad, vaguely square blade. The specimen has rounding on the blade margins indicating use as a cutting or scraping tool (Figure 9d). Biface fragments (N=35). The sample includes 6 distal portions of bifaces (Figure 9b-c) and 29 examples classified as miscellaneous bifaces. Nineteen of the miscellaneous biface fragments are from large, thick asymmetrical bifaces that vary from 9.5 to 21 mm in thickness. Nine are generally small fragments, less than 9.5 mm in thickness, that appear to be from late stage preforms or projectile points.

Scrapers A total of 34 scrapers was recovered from the Moyers site, including seven bifacial disk scrapers that are believed diagnostic of the Early Woodland in the northeast Ozark border. Discoidal scrapers (N=7) were shaped by steep marginal retouching (Figure 11) (Table 3). These unique disk scrapers are bifacially flaked (including the generally flat ventral surface), have peaked dorsal surfaces and strongly plano-convex cross sections. Two scrapers have cortex on the

Table 3. Discoidal scrapers from the Moyers site, 23MO1198. Widt Referenc Provenienc Type of Thermall Length h Thickness Weight e e material y altered (mm) (mm (mm) (g) ) Figure TU24, L2 Ordovician chert Yes 42.7 40.8 16.6 33.6 11a Figure TU24, L2 Ordovician chert No 49.6 48.5 16.2 44.2 11b Figure TU10, L1 Ordovician chert Yes 44.8 40.6 19.1 39.4 11c Figure TU14, L 2 Ordovician chert Yes 41.2 39.5 15.9 29.6 11d --- TU15, L7 Ordovician chert No 50.5 4.4 21.0 50.5 --- TU18, L3 Ordovician chert Yes 49.5 43.2 16.5 38.0 --- TU18, L3 Ordovician chert Yes 49.5 43.2 16.5 38.0

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Figure 11. Discoidal scrapers from the Moyers site: (a-b) Cat. No. 79; (c) Cat. No. 10; (d) Cat. No. 36. ventral surface, suggesting that the scrapers were manufactured from early stage performs. A scraper from TU15 was recovered from 60-70 cmbs, the deepest level excavated in any of the test units End scrapers (N= 7) have steep marginal retouch over one end. Five of the scrapers are bifacial (Figure 9g), one is bifacial and one has about 25% of the ventral surface retouched. Three specimens are thick, randomly flaked bifacial tools that have one of their irregularly shaped edges rounded Side scrapers (N= 8) have scraping edges that were typically formed by steep marginal retouch that extend over at least one of the blade margins. Six examples are thermally altered and three have cortex over one of the faces. The other two examples are not thermally altered and have no cortex. These eight scrapers are unifacial in contrast with the discoidal scrapers which are bifacially flaked. Side/end scrapers (N= 10) have scraping edges were typically formed by marginal retouch and extend over at least two of the blade margins. Five scrapers are unifacial, two have flaking over about half of the ventral surface and three are bifacial (Figure 9h-i). One specimen has marginal retouch along the ends and both sides (Figure 9h). Denticulate scrapers (N=2) are retouched flakes that have a serrated side margin. Gravers/perforators (N=11) are various size flakes that have one edge modified into a short projection for graving, incising or perforating (Figure 9e-f). Some of the gravers also have additional retouching of the side margins. Several other flakes have edges that terminate in a point that could have been used as a graver or perforator but lack retouch or evidence of use. A spokeshave (N=1) recovered from the site has the distal end modified to form a U-shaped notch.

Informal Tools

Retouched/utilized flakes (N= 96) comprise a majority of the tools from the Moyers site. Retouched flakes generally display non-continuous retouch along one or more blade margins. Utilized flakes may either be those with use-wear such as smoothing evident along a retouched edge or step fracturing along a non-retouched edge. Very few of the latter artifacts were recovered from

13 the site, and a more intensive analysis probably would have increased the number of utilized flakes (they were examined with the naked eye or a 10x hand lens). Retouched core/shatter fragments (N=8) display evidence of edge retouch. Five have cortex over more than 25% of the surface.

Debitage

Most of the artifacts (N=3810) recovered from the Moyers site are classified as debitage which includes flakes, shatter, blades and cores (Tables 4 and 5). The entire sample of chert debitage recovered during site mitigation is from locally available Ordovician material, although one flake of nonlocal Burlington chert was recovered during Phase II testing (Weisman et al. 2007a). The debitage is largely comprised of chert from the Gasconade formation. Also present in the inventory is rhyolite from the Precambrian system and quartzite (which could be classified as orthoquartzite) from both the Gasconade and Roubidoux formations of the Ordovician system. Thinning flakes (N=469) comprise 13% (5% by mass) of the flake debitage, including 455 from chert and 8 from rhyolite. Thermal alteration was evident on 70% of the chert flakes and one of the two quartzite flakes. Interior flakes (N=773) comprise 22% (34% by mass) of the flake debitage, including 756 from chert 2 from quartzite and 11 from rhyolite. The chert flakes were 71% thermally altered.

Table 4. Flake categories by type of material from the Moyers site (23MO1198).

Type of material* TOTALS Artifact Ordovician chert Ordovician Quartzite Rhyolite type No. (%) Weight (%) No. (%) Weight No. Weight (%) No. Weight (%) (%) (%) (%) Thinning 461 230.2 8 11.6 g 469 241.8 g ------flake (13%) (5%) (18%) (13%) (13%) (5%)

Interior 760 1520.8 g 2 27.6 g 11 25.9 g 773 1574.3 g flake (22%) (34%) (33%) (54%) (25%) (29%) (22%) (34%)

Broken 1990 1663.2 g 2 22.7 g 23 42.0 g 2015 1727.9 g flake (57%) (36%) (67%) (46%) (50%) (46%) (57%) (36%)

Decortication 282 1131.1 g 3 11.0 g 285 1142.1 g ------flake (8%) (25%) (7%) (12%) (8%) (25%) 4 3542 3493 4545.3 g 50.3 g 45 90.5 g 4686.1 TOTALS (<0.01% (100 (99%) (97%) (1%) (1%) (2%) (100%) ) %) *Includes cores and shatter Broken flakes (N=2015) comprise over half of the flake debitage by count (57%) and about 36% of the mass. The sample includes 1989 from chert, 2 from quartzite and 22 from rhyolite. Thermal alteration was evident on 75% of the chert flakes and one of the two quartzite flakes. These flakes typically lack the bulb of percussion. Decortication flakes (N=285) comprise 8% (25% by mass) of the flake debitage, including 279 from chert and 3 from rhyolite. The chert flakes were 82% thermally altered. Chert shatter (N=256) consists of a variety of chert angular fragments without any salient percussive features such as a bulb of percussion or platform. Shatter resulting from the chert working process, fragmentary flakes without flake features and shatter from thermal fracture are all included in the category. Larger specimens (>30g) were classified as core fragments. The 256 pieces of chert shatter are 87% thermally altered; the quartzite shatter fragment is not thermally altered.

14 Table 5. Other debitage by type of material from the Moyers site (23MO1198).

Type of material TOTALS Artifact type Chert Quartzite Rhyolite No. Weight No. Weight No. Weight No. Weight Shatter 254 2425.6 g 1 29.1 g 1 8.0 g 256 3084.6 g Core* 8 605.2 g -- --- 1 127.0 g 9 732.0 Blade 3 21.1 ------3 21.1

*Includes core fragments, but excludes three retouched cores

Chert potlids (N=27) are thermal spalls removed without percussion or pressure, leaving a concave scar. Chert with potlidded surfaces was included in the shatter category, and only the potlids themselves are included here. The sample of 27 potlids from the site had a mass of 22.3 g. Cores (N=4) include four moderate sized examples (weight is 37.1 to 134.4 g), including three made from chert and one from rhyolite (see Appendix B). The rhyolite core has cortex over about half of the surface. One chert core and one has a broad, cortical striking platform. The fourth specimen is not thermally altered and lacks cortex. Core fragments (N=5) are made from Ordovician chert and weigh from 34.1 to 50.8 g. Three are thermally altered and have 15 to 40% cortex on an exterior surface. Blades (N=3) are elongated flakes that are at least twice as long as they are wide, have parallel or nearly parallel edge and dorsal flake scars that run parallel to the lateral edges

Miscellaneous

Ground stone (N=6) artifacts include two sandstone nodules with a small depression of one face,, one quartzite hammer stone with battered edges and polished quartzite nodule. The fire cracked rock (FCR) (N=39) sample is small, and several examples were probably discarded in the field as unmodified rock. FCR includes 16 pieces of quartzite (average weight is 43.g) and 23 examples from other types of material (average weight is 505 g), primarily grainy chert. Unmodified Rock (N=29) was discarded in the field except for only a small sample (N=29) from Feature 5. Fired clay stains were encountered in Feature 5 in Test Unit 26 were are only slightly more compact than the surrounding soil matrix and were simply identified as fired clay stains that may be natural or cultural in origin (see discussion under Description of Features and Conclusions). The feature is believed to extend into Test Unit 1---which was excavated during Phase II testing---where fifteen small sherds were recovered (see discussion under cultural affiliation). The material comprising the linear stains in Feature 5 was recovered for processing in the lab. However, separating the material in the stains from the surrounding soil matrix was found to be extremely difficult since the texture of both was similar. Therefore, no artifact weights or counts could be accurately obtained for this material. Botanical material includes small samples of charcoal that were recovered from several 10-litre bags of fill from Feature 5 (50-70 cmbs). A few small samples, each less than 0.1 g, were also taken from several levels in the test units.

Site Interpretations

15 Phase II testing at the Moyers site suggested the site was a multi-activity occupation during the Early Woodland period based on the presence of ceramics and a contracting-stemmed point. Phase III data recovery excavations yielded eleven more contracting-stemmed points, although no identifiable ceramics were recovered. Two side-notched points were also recovered which could indicate a second, smaller component (Middle Archaic) or represented curated artifacts. In addition a fragment from an expanding-stem point, recovered in a shovel test from the edge of the site, could also be indicating the presence at the site of another cultural group. The discussion below examines traits of an Early Woodland component in the Ozarks Highlands---an area where temporally sensitive attributes that differentiate the Woodland periods have previously been difficult to recognize.

Cultural Affiliation The contracting-stemmed points recovered from the Moyers site are similar to those associated with Early Woodland manifestations in Missouri including the Black Sand phase (Martin 1997; 2007) that has been identified in the Missouri River drainage and the Tchula horizon, an Early Woodland manifestation found in southeast Missouri and the Ozark border region (Phillips 1970:878; Price 1986). Contracting-stemmed point forms persist in the lithic assemblage during the early part of the Middle Woodland period. Farnsworth and Asch (1986:366) point out a confusing variety of names have been given to these contracting-stemmed points from the Woodland period. Contracting-stemmed points with rounded bases and brief shoulders, similar to the Moyers site examples, are often referred to as Gary points (Justice 1987:189-190; O’Brien and Wood 1998:173). Winters (1963) placed these myriad styles of contracting-stemmed points, including straight-based varieties, into the Belknap cluster. Later Justice (1987:181-196) grouped various contracting-stemmed forms into the Dickson cluster and stated that the Dickson contracting-stemmed point type was diagnostic of the Early Woodland. To avoid this confusion, Martin (1997) referred to these various Woodland types simply as “contracting-stemmed points.” Contracting-stemmed projectile point types associated with the Woodland period in Missouri are distinct from the Early Archaic Hidden Valley stemmed points of the Ozark Highland Region (Martin 2007:61). Kay (1982:439-443) described Hidden Valley stemmed points as typically having barbed shoulders, controlled flaking and a heavily dulled haft element; none of those traits are typical of Woodland contracting-stemmed points. Hidden Valley stemmed points often have a thinned, concave base and blade margins that may be serrated (Sandstrom and Ray 2004:51). Another contracting-stemmed point type has been associated with the Late Woodland and Emergent Mississippian. The Montgomery point is described by Sandstrom and Ray (2004:534-55) as having a long, narrow contracting stem that ends in a point and narrow blade which distinguishes them from the earlier Woodland contracting-stemmed points. Chapman (1980:313) referred to a similar point with a narrow blade and stem as the Table Rock pointed base type. McElrath et al. (2009:12) noted that contracting-stemmed points have been historically difficult to use as cultural markers because they seem to reappear often in the archaeological record from the Early Archaic to Mississippian periods. However, they observed that in specific areas they sometimes can be affiliated with narrow temporal periods and specific cultural associations. It should be noted that some archaeologists believe that the artifact types in the Belknap and Dickson clusters continued to be manufactured during the Late Woodland and Mississippian periods (e.g., Chapman 1980:308-310). Reeder (2000:188-189) included contracting-stem points in the lithic assemblage of the Maramec phase, a Late Woodland manifestation in the north-central and northeastern Ozark Highland. Although beyond the scope of this report, a comparative analysis of

16 contracting-stemmed points recovered in Late Woodland or Mississippian contexts with those from earlier Woodland components should reveal whether or not these later points have subtle attributes that distinguish them from the earlier Woodland forms. An analysis of these points for evidence of blade resharpening or use-wear could potentially determine if the Late Woodland and Mississippian groups were manufacturing these points or collecting and recycling earlier Woodland artifacts. Another problem with identifying and affiliating Early Woodland settlements in the northern Ozarks is that evidence has been limited to the cross dating of artifacts, since supportive radiocarbon dates are lacking. Three sites in the Gasconade River drainage of the central northern Ozarks region were considered by Kreisa et al. (2001) to have an Early Woodland affiliation based radiocarbon dates. These sites are located about 155 km (95 mi) to the west of the Moyers site. One of the sites, Big Freeman Cave (23PU58), yielded calibrated radiocarbon dates of 830 ± 80 B.C. and 770 ± 70 B.C. in association with two corner-notched points and one side-notched point. These three sites, however, may represent terminal Late Archaic occupations. Harl et al. (2001) recovered similar points and radiocarbon dates from the Callaway Farms site (23CY227) in the Missouri River floodplain in central Missouri. Thirteen radiocarbon dates obtained from features had a calibrated mean age of 780 B.C. to 830 B.C., a remarkably tight range of dates, which led Harl to affiliate the site with the terminal Late Archaic. Harl (personal communication 2009) described the primary point type from the Callaway Farms site as resembling the corner-notched Williams type.

The Black Sand Culture The Black Sand culture, which dates from around 2500 to 2100 years ago, is probably the most widely documented Early Woodland period manifestation in Missouri and the Midwest (Farnsworth and Emerson 1986). The Black Sand Culture has been recently identified in many drainages in Missouri, especially the Missouri River valley and the tributaries that flow into the valley (Martin 1997). The lithics assemblage of the Black Sand culture is distinctive. Projectile points associated with Black Sand assemblages are exclusively contracting-stemmed. The specimens are believed to have functioned as tips for projectiles since use-wear is confined almost exclusively to distal portion of the artifact. They are generally moderate sized points that often have an alternately beveled blade. A sample of 147 contracting-stemmed points from three Black Sand sites in the Missouri River valley is 69% alternately beveled (n=102), 6% (n=10) beveled from the same face and 24% nonbeveled (n=35). Martin (1997; 2007) believed that---based on the lack use-wear on the blade edges or interior flake ridges across of the blade---beveling of blade was not the result of resharpening. This observation gives credence to the theory proposed by O’Brien and Wood (1998:93) that such morphological characteristics “actually were primary engineering design features.” Also diagnostic of the Black Sand culture is a triangular-shaped knife referred to as the "Goose Lake knife" in the American Bottom of Illinois (Emerson 1983) or "Peisker Diamond" in lower Illinois River valley (Perino 1985). Specimens recovered from Missouri sites often exhibit smoothing of the blade edges and, to a lesser extent, smoothing of the interior flake scars indicating use as a cutting of whittling tool. Also present on Black Sand sites is a particular kind of tool described as the "turtle-back scraper.” These unifacial scrapers are often ovate in form and have a peaked dorsal surface. Black Sand ceramics have plain interiors and exteriors that are generally tempered with sand. The paste often has a distinct orange color. Typical decoration is in the form of fingernail impressions, chevron designs, and incisions running parallel to the rim or various punctuations and

17 incised lines. Similar pottery is associated with the Early Woodland Tchula complex identified in southeast Missouri lowland and the Ozark Border.

Tchula Period The Early Woodland occupation of southeast Missouri was first described by Phillips et al. (1951:431-436) during their extensive survey of the lower Mississippi Valley. This cultural complex was reported to be affiliated with the Tchula horizon of the southeastern United States based on sand- tempered, decorated sherds that were usually cord-marked (Phillips 1970:878). Archaeologists often use the terms “Tchula period” and “Early Woodland period” interchangeably for the same culture in the Mid-south and Lower Mississippi valley. Stephen Williams (1954:28-38) defined two Tchula-like manifestations in southeast Missouri, the Burkett and Pascola phases. The clay-tempered ceramics of the Burkett phase were identified in the Cairo Lowland and the sand-tempered ceramics of the Pascola phase were initially reported in the Little River Lowland to the west. Phillips (1970:877-878) noted a close similarity between the sand-tempered Pascola ceramics from southeast Missouri and the Alexander-series ceramics that are diagnostic of the Tchula period in the lower Mississippi Valley. Alexander ceramics are characterized by the decorative treatments of circular nodes below the rim and fingernail pinching/punctating or rectilinear incising (Jenkins et al. 1986:552). Some archaeologists were skeptical of the identification of a Tchula complex in southeast Missouri, as originally reported by Phillips et al. and Stephen Williams. Raymond Williams (1974:12) and Chapman (1980:18) concluded that insufficient evidence existed to support the use of the term Tchula period or phase and felt that the name should be discarded for southeast Missouri and the entire northern part of the lower Mississippi Valley. Subsequently, however, Price (1986) presented data on Early Woodland occupations in southeast Missouri that provided support for the concept of a Tchula horizon in the region. This evidence lends credence to the conclusions by Phillips et al. and Stephen Williams that the presence of decorated sand-tempered, cordmarked sherds--- similar to the Alexander ware from the lower Mississippi Valley---indicated a Tchula phase in southeast Missouri.

18 Price (1986:537-539) described Tchula-like materials that were recovered from numerous small sites in Ripley and Butler Counties, especially along the Little Black River in the Western Lowland area. This area is situated in the portion of the Southeast Lowland area that marks the extreme southern portion of Ozark Highland in Missouri. The Western Lowland occurs within 25 km (15 mi) of where the St. Francis River channel meanders through the Mississippi bottoms. Price determined that the Early Woodland ceramics from the Little Black River drainage have a close affinity to the Burkett and Pascola phases in the lowland drainages. These sherds from the Ozark border often have a decorative technique of pinching but exterior surfaces may also be fabric-impressed, net-impressed, smooth-over cordmarked, or impressed with various forms of punctations. Another common attribute is the presence of noding at the base of the rim which were created by punching a blunt object, such as a rod, into the interior surface of the vessel creating an extrusion (the node) on the exterior surface. Price (1986:537) has suggested that a Tchula horizon would have been documented years ago in southeast Missouri had not the abundance of the later Woodland Barnes ceramics (defined by Stephen Williams in 1954) confused the issue. The similarities between the Tchula-like (Pascola) pottery and Barnes ware are assumed to have resulted in both sand-tempered ceramic types being identified as the “better documented” Barnes ceramics. This fact was borne out by a re-examination of collections from southeast Missouri that are curated at the University of Missouri-Columbia (O’Brien and Wood 1995:58). Similarly Morse and Morse (1983) reported that identification of Tchula sites in the Central Mississippi Valley is difficult since affiliation is based primarily on a few rare ceramic decorative types. Cormorant cord-impressed and Tchefunte stamped are the major marker types. Since such a ceramic assemblage is also characteristic of the later Baytown phase, they also noted that many of the small Baytown sites recorded in the Central Mississippi Valley “may actually belong to the Tchula period” (Morse and Morse 1983:144). The paucity of Tchula period sites may also be the result of deeply buried deposits or destruction by Mississippi River channel meanders, levee construction or land leveling. Price (1986:537) also noted a similarity between the Tchula-like sherds of the Ozark Border region of Missouri and ceramics from further north, such as the Black Sand ware from Illinois. These early ceramics are primarily sand- or grit-tempered and share decorative surface treatments such as pinching and noding. Both Tchula and Black Sand ceramics often have a sandy orange to brown paste. A similarity has also been noted between the Tchula-like sherds from southeast Missouri and Black Sand ceramics from central and northern Missouri (Martin 1997). The lithic assemblage associated with early ceramic sites in the Ozark Border region---as identified by Price (1986)---includes contracting-stemmed points as well as small dart points with slightly expanding stems. Similar bifacial types, especially the expanding-stem varieties, are associated with the Tchula component identified at the McCarty site located near the Little River in northeast Arkansas (Morse and Morse 1983:147-157; Morse 1986:84-87). Discoidal scrapers are also reported to occur in the artifact assemblages from Early Woodland sites along the Ozark Border region (Price 1986:539). The Grimes site, located about 95 km (60 mi) southwest of the Moyers site, contains a well-defined Early Woodland assemblage that includes contracting-stemmed points and circular bifacial scrapers (Lynott et al. 1985; Price 1986:539). Early Woodland sites in the Fourche Creek drainage, which begins about 105 km (65 mi) to the southwest, yielded similar lithic artifacts (Price and Price 1981:479).

Early Woodland Evidence from the Upper St. Francis River Drainage

19 One of the few previously documented Early Woodland occupations in the upper St. Francis River Valley is the Savage Bliss site, 23MO138 (Wettstaed 1998; Wettstaed and Chalfant 1998; Wettstaed and Harpole 2002). The site is located along Twelvemile Creek about 7 km (4 mi) north of the Moyers site. Although the Savage Bliss site is multi-component, excavations resulted in the recovery of five sherds (Figure 12) associated with two contracting-stemmed point fragments. Wettstaed (1998a) considered the combination of sand-tempered ceramics and contracting stemmed points to be indicative of the Early Woodland period and suggested that the component was affiliated with the Pascola phase of the Tchula period. These from Site 23MO138 are described as having smoothed over cordmarked surfaces and being tempered with large particles of sand. Berry et al. (1940) reported pottery from sites along the St. Francis River in Wayne County that was sand-tempered and had gray paste. The exteriors were cordmarked or brushed, and the only decorated example was a body sherd with a row of punctuates or possibly fingernail impressions. Recent investigations in the upper St. Francis River drainage identified another site that can be affiliated with the Early Woodland period (Travis Tesreau, personal communication 2008). Backhoe trenching at site 23MO1265, located 5 km (3 mi) southwest of the Moyers site, yielded three diagnostic artifacts. The artifacts, all recovered below the plowzone, include a contracting-stemmed point with a reworked, rounded blade that could be functionally classified as a hafted scraper. A discoidal scraper with a peaked dorsal surface and a bifacially worked ventral surface is similar to those recovered from the Moyers site. A body sherd, which is heavily tempered with generally small grains of sand, has surfaces that are too eroded to determine surface treatment.

A Comparison of the Moyers site artifact assemblage to other Early Woodland sites

The primary diagnostic lithic artifacts from the Moyers site, contracting-stemmed points, share several attributes worth noting (see Figures 5-6). Points that have the blades intact tend to have broad, upturned shoulders. Dulling of the haft element on the eight examples with the stem intact is either light or absent. None of the points have alternately beveled blades, an attribute that is evident on about 69% of the contracting-stemmed points recovered from Missouri Black Sand sites (Martin 1997; 2007). Contracting-stemmed points from the Tchula sites are reported to lack beveling of the blade (James Price, personal communication 2008). The expanding-stemmed point recovered from the shovel test at the west edge of the site is not complete enough to determine cultural affiliation. The specimen appears to be a light duty point with weak side notches and a straight base. The point could represent a separate occupation at the site. The lithic assemblage from the Moyers site also includes bifacially flaked, discoidal scrapers with peaked dorsal surfaces. Discoidal scrapers with such surfaces have been observed by the author on Middle Woodland sites in Missouri but do not occur in Early Woodland Black Sand assemblages. These middle Woodland scrapers are typically unifacially flaked and called “Havana” scrapers in Illinois (Kenneth Farnsworth, personal communication 2007). Unifacial disc scrapers are diagnostic of Middle Woodland complexes in the American Bottom of Illinois including the Holding phase (Fortier et al. 2006:187) and Cement Hollow Phase (Fortier 2004:122-124). The bifacially flaked, discoidal scrapers---similar to those from the Moyers site---are documented in lithic assemblages from Tchula-like sites along the Ozark Border of southeast Missouri (Price and Price 1981:479). It is proposed herein that these are a tool diagnostic of the Tchula settlements in Missouri. Other scrapers from the Moyers site are bifacially flaked and appear to be less symmetrically shaped versions of the scrapers of the discoidal scrapers (see Figure 11). It

20 should be noted that the artifact inventory from the Moyers site also includes scrapers that are typically irregular in shape and unifacially flaked (see Figure 9). The ovate-shaped, unifacial scrapers (hump-back scrapers) that are associated with the Early Woodland Black Sand sites are not represented in the assemblage from Moyers. Triangular knives, also diagnostic of the Black Sand Culture, were not represented in the assemblage. These knives have not been associated with assemblages from Tchula sites along the Ozark Border (James Price, personal communication 2008). The small sample of highly eroded sherds identified during the Phase II testing includes 13 body sherds and 2 rim sherds that have a total weight of only 34.4 g (Figure 13). The sherds are too fragmentary and eroded to be easily affiliated with a specific cultural period. The presence of rounded sand grains and larger rock particles as the primary tempering agent is an attribute that would suggest these ceramics may represent an Early Woodland component at the Moyers site. The average thickness of Black Sand sherds from Missouri is between 7.2 to 7.6 mm (Martin 1998) and consistently falls in the 6.5 to 8 mm range. Due to the erosion of the surfaces, the thickness of the sherds from the Moyers site cannot be determined, although they appear to be between 6 to 10 mm. Other traits used to identify the Black Sand and Tchula-like complexes in Missouri are a distinct orange-colored paste and cordmarked exterior surfaces. When examined in the field, some of the ceramics from the Moyers site were believed to have cordmarked surfaces, but the sherds were later found to be too eroded to determine surface treatment with any degree of certainty. The sherds from the site have cores pale brown which contrast with Black Sand and Missouri Tchula ceramics, which are often described as having “a color-saturated orange” paste. A similarity is noted, however, in the pale brown pastes of the Early Woodland Florence phase pottery from lower Illinois valley (Farnsworth and Asch 1986) and the American Bottom (Emerson and Fortier 1986). These ceramics however are grog-tempered. The two artifacts classified as rim sherds also lend little to the determination of temporal affiliation of the sherds since their small size and eroded condition makes it difficult to determine the rim form. One of the rims appears to be vertical with a somewhat thickened lip and the other appears to be slightly recurved. A final insight into the cultural affiliation of the prehistoric occupants at the Moyers site can be gleaned from traits of the lithic assemblage. The site contained very few cores or core fragments (less than 2 % of the debitage) which is typical of Early Woodland Black Sand assemblages in Missouri (Martin 1997; 2007). A low frequency of primary reduction debris is noted in the collection. oodland sites, including those affiliated with the Early Woodland, often display low percentages of primary reduction debris when compared to Late Archaic occupations (Martin 2007:56-57). The contracting- stemmed points---with the exception of the rhyolite point and one made from Ordovician chert---and 71% of the debitage is thermally altered. Similarly, Early Woodland lithic assemblages typically include a higher percentage of thermally altered artifacts when compared to Archaic assemblages (see Martin 1997; 2007). As discussed in the following section, these trends in technological behavior enhance our understanding of the Early Woodland cultural process at the Moyers site.

Site Function

The investigations at the Moyers site provided limited data regarding community organization due to the paucity of cultural features (only one prehistoric feature identified), the overall lack of preservation of perishable material (e.g., bone, , antler, and wood) and lack of easily identifiable patterning of artifact distribution. However, an analysis of artifact attributes provides insight into the site function. The previous artifact discussions have included limited use-wear analysis, and without a detailed analysis of wears patterns on all tools, a discussion of artifact functions is somewhat

21 speculative. Thus, this discussion attempts to focus on tool functions in broad classes of activities based, in part, on the artifact classes proposed by Winters (1969). Functional implications are general descriptions based on artifact morphology as well as implied uses based on ethnographic correlations. The majority of the artifacts from the Moyers site are associated with chert processing, principally middle and late stages of chipped stone tool manufacture and maintenance. The small size of the flaking debris, the infrequence of cores and moderate frequency of decortication flakes suggests that secondary and tertiary chert reduction as well as tool maintenance were the primary activities. The large numbers of chert waste and the correspondingly small number of cores (2 small complete cores and 4 core fragments) indicate that primary lithic reduction was not a major activity at the site. Other tools that could have been used for chert processing are limited to two hammer stones which display edge battering. The abundance of flakes with diffuse bulbs of percussion and no cone of percussion suggests the use of soft hammers, such as antler billets. Price (1986:539) noted that Early Woodland sites in the Ozark Border region yielded rather large, thin biface-thinning flakes that appeared to have been removed by a baton technique. The category of “weapons” as proposed by Winters includes “any implement designed for killing or procurement of fauna, or any object which is a component of such an implement” (1969:37). Hunting implements recovered during mitigation of the Moyers site include fourteen tools classified as projectile points. It should be noted that the morphological category of “projectile points” has been demonstrated to have multiple functions including use as cutting or whittling tools (see Ahler 1971; Ahler and McMillan 1976). A majority of more intact specimens from the Moyers site display extensive modification of the blade, resulting in brief shoulders or shortened blades. One blade has been reworked into a graver/drill and another blade margin modified into a spokeshave. A point with a broad, thin blade displays use-wear on the blade margins that suggests use as a cutting or whittling tool. One point displays small impact fractures, rounding of the distal tip and smoothing of the blade margins, especially toward the distal portion of the blade. This evidence suggests use as projectile point or thrusting tool. The contracting-stemmed points typically display use-wear patterns and blade resharpening that indicates the artifacts were general-purpose tools that had multiple functions. These “curated” projectile points apparently were often reworked until their use was exhausted, even though chert was readily available on hill slopes and drainages near the site for the manufacture of new tools. Similarly, Price (1986:539) noted that the contracting-stemmed projectile points on Tchula sites on the Ozark Border region were often resharpened until they were exhausted and then discarded. The most common formal stone tools on the site are classified as scrapers. Based on the area of the blade that was modified, seven were classified as circular (discoidal) and 24 as end or side scrapers. The site samples also included two denticulated scrapers and one spokeshave. Winters (1969: 32-37) included scrapers and knives in the category of general utility tools which could have been used for variety of activities. Other general-purpose tools in the assemblage are informal (expedient) tools such as retouched/utilized flakes (N=96), retouched shatter (N=5) and retouched core fragments (N=3). Retouched/utilized flakes account for over half of the total tool assemblage from the site. The author has noted a low frequency of expedient tools in Early Woodland assemblages from Missouri sites (Martin 1997), although 35% of the tools from the (Black Sand) Gill site in western Missouri were retouched or utilized flakes (Fishel 2002; Martin 2000) Lithic assemblages largely based on such informal tools have been associated with an abundance of readily available raw material for processing (Koldehoff 1987). The retouched/utilized flakes from the Moyers site have touched blade margins or, to a lesser extent, damage to the tool edges that consistently show limited evidence of use (such as rounding of the edges or polish on both the dorsal

22 and ventral surfaces). The fact that use-wear is generally not evident or, if present, in the form of low gloss suggests that these expedient flake tools were often discarded after initial use and a new expedient tool employed when needed. Determining uses for such artifacts with low polish is difficult and “interpretations have been based for the most part on speculation (Adams 2001:14).” Possibly the most meaningful functional interpretation of such tools is that flakes with sharp edges were used as cutting tools, compared with steep-edged flakes which were used as scraping tools. The samples from the Moyers site also include 11 perforators or gravers which occur on various sized flakes. Adams (2001:16) has associated both perforating tools and utilized flakes with hide processing at the Stemler Bluff site (11MO891) located 100 km (62mi) to the north. Domestic artifacts from the Moyers site, those relating to the processing, storing or consuming of food, are primarily limited to the pottery fragments recovered during the Phase II testing. No artifacts classified as manos or metates were found, although two pecked stone nodules are believed to be nutting stones. No hearth features were identified during the investigations and the sample of fire-cracked rock was comparatively small. Woodworking tools---such as axes, celts or adzes---are also absent from the site samples, although some of the scrapers, especially some of the larger adze- like scrapers, could have been used for woodworking. The miscellaneous tool category includes several denticulate scrapers which could have been used as tearing, sawing or shredding tools.

Settlement Context

The artifact assemblage is believed to represent short-term settlement, possibly over one season or several brief reoccupations. A vast majority of the diagnostic artifacts from the site are affiliated with the Early Woodland period. Settlement patterns of Early Woodland Black Sand groups are characterized by a pattern of transitory occupation of a single environment, the valley of a perennial stream (Martin 2007). Emerson and Fortier (1986:484) observed that the Early Woodland period in the American Bottom of western Illinois “is marked by a change to smaller social aggregates based on subsistence systems tied to short-term-extraction of seasonally available floodplain and riverine resources.” The distribution of cultural material on Black Sand sites is interpreted by Struever (1968:292) as recurring settlement in a specific environment without long-term encampments at a particular site locus. Further evidence of the shifting, short-term nature of the occupations is the lack of houses, storage pits and evidence of agriculture as well as the generally light scatter of artifacts. Other than the moderate concentration of chert debitage and tools, the site could readily fit into the Early Woodland settlement system of small, shifting lowland encampments. The location of the site within 50 m of two springs may have been a factor in site location. The presence of domestic artifacts (e.g., ceramics)---which are associated with food processing, consuming or storage or pottery manufacture---and the relative abundance of chert artifacts suggests a “degree” of permanence. The presence of only one cultural feature and the absence of faunal remains or residential structures evidence do not support the contention that the site was a multi- seasonal base camp. It is of note that Early Woodland Black Sand site are characterized by a lack of identifiable houses and a paucity of storage pits and rich middens (Struever 1968). The primary activity at the site appears to be the reduction of locally available Ordovician chert, especially during middle and late stages. The assemblage also contains an abundance of scrapers and utilized flakes which are often associated with hunting endeavors, such as the processing of hides, but can also be indicative of domestic, fabricating or woodworking activities.

Lithic Resource Procurement and Utilization

23 A primary activity represented in the artifact collection from 23MO1198 is the reduction of chert associated with biface manufacture or tool maintenance. This activity produced debitage (including flakes, shatter and cores) that is primarily from locally available Ordovician chert---99% by number and 97% by weight (see Tables 4 and 5). The rest of the debitage is made from Ordovician orthoquartzite (<0.1% by number and about 1% by weight) or rhyolite (about 1% by number and 3% by weight). The totals for the patterned tools are similarly 99% from Ordovician chert (also 99% by weight). The only tools not made from Ordovician chert are a projectile point (see Figure 6a) and two biface fragments from rhyolite. The chipped stone artifact samples from the Moyers site are comprised primarily of debitage (96% of the sample) from locally available Ordovician chert, and to a lesser extent, rhyolite. One flake of nonlocal Burlington chert was recovered during Phase II testing at the site. Characteristics of debitage provide insights into the form in which material was transported to the site and subsequently utilized (Morrow 2005). The debitage from the site includes flakes that were classified as thinning, interior, decortication and broken. Decortication flakes---especially larger examples---are an indication of primary or early stage reduction. Interior flakes are most prevalent during the middle stages of reduction and thinning flakes---especially small examples---are indicative of late-stage reduction. Broken flakes and shatter fragments are less indicative of the stage in the tool reduction process, although shatter is generally expected to be more abundant during early stages of lithic reduction. The site yielded twelve chert cores or core fragments, including three retouched examples, which represent less than 0.3% of the chipped stone samples and about 7% of the mass (see Tables 4 and 5). No tested cobbles were identified during the investigations. Seven of the cores display cortex, although two examples have the cortex limited to a broad striking platform. The paucity of chert cores, as well as the low frequency of block shatter, is believed to indicate that initial chert reduction was occurring primarily at an off-site location, possibly at the procurement source, or an area of the site that was not investigated. The abundance of thick scrapers and fragments from crude bifaces, however, could indicate that exhausted cores were being made into functional tools. If chert cores were, in fact, recycled, it would not be due to the scarcity of knappable material. Medium to fine- grained nodules of Gasconade chert occur in proximity to the site on eroded hill slopes to and in drainages beds. Decortication flakes comprise about 19%, or 282 out of 1514, of the complete flakes and have about 19% of the mass. The moderately high number of decortication flakes as well as crude preforms or quarry blanks suggests that primary lithic reduction was a more significant activity than indicated by the low frequency of chert cores. The abundance of interior flakes (63% of the complete flake sample and 56% of the mass) and the presence of 35 biface fragments suggest mid-stage biface reduction was a major activity at the site. The average mass of an interior flake is 2 g or 1/2 the weight of a decortication flake. Thinning flakes comprise about 30% of the complete flake sample and 8% of the mass. They are comparatively small with an average mass of a thinning flake is about 0.5 g or 1/4 the weight of an interior flake. These flakes may have a bifacial striking platform and are typically associated with late or, to an extent, middle stages of biface reduction. Heating-treating Ordovician chert resources. It is interesting to note the high percentages of thermally altered chert from the Moyers site (75% of the samples from the Phase III investigations). This is surprising since the author has previously observed that Ordovician cherts are not consistently thermally altered by prehistoric groups in Missouri. Heat-treating Ordovician cherts, such as those from the Jefferson City formation, often does not significantly improve their quality.

24 Seven of the twelve chert cores/core fragments and a majority of the fragments from large, crude bifaces are thermally altered which suggests that some of lithic material was being heat-treated early in the lithic reduction process. Several of the biface fragments display potlids. Several Ordovician chert nodules, believed to be from the Gasconade formation, were collected from the Twelvemile Creek drainage for knapping experiments by the author. The quality of the material ranged from coarse- to fine-grained, and many of the nodules were vuggy with incipient fracture planes that made the material less than desirable for knapping. Some of the nodules of finer- gained chert, however, allowed highly controlled flaking. A sample of the nodules was heated for 12 hours at 600O. The knapping quality changed to varying degrees with some of the finer-grained material showing improved workability. Color changes were significant after thermal alteration. For example, chert that was very pale brown (10YR 7/2 and 8/2) became light red (10YR 6/6) and white (10YR 8/1) chert often acquired streaks of reddish yellow (5YR 7/6). Rhyolite as a Resource. Rhyolite outcrops, comprised of porphyritic material, have been documented within 2 km to the northeast and northwest of the Moyers site (Anderson 1979). Artifacts of this igneous material were found at 22 sites during the survey of the Route 67 corridor in Madison and Wayne counties (Weisman et al. 2007a; 2007b). Rhyolite may also have been available to prehistoric groups in gravel deposits of local tributaries such as Twelvemile Creek, although none was observed in the immediate area during the survey for the Route 67 corridor (Weisman et al. 2007a:148). Rhyolite often has “a coarse crystalline or grainy texture and a relatively crude conchoidal fracture, causing it to be less desirable in knapping quality than most chert” (Ray 1985:227). However, examples of a fine-grained, non-porphyritic rhyolite---referred to as aphanitic---were found at sites in Madison and Wayne counties during the archaeological investigations in the Route 67 corridor. Although only a secondary resource for tool manufacture at the Moyers site, rhyolite is the predominant material used for tool manufacture on some sites in the upper St. Francis River drainage. The Allen 3 site (23MO1229), located 10 km (6 mi) to the southwest of the Moyers site, is a recently discovered rhyolite knapping station (Grantham 2008; Ray 2008). Mitigation investigations at this site yielded chipped stone assemblage that was 96% rhyolite (Grantham 2008) even though Gasconade chert nodules were abundant on gravel bars and hill slopes within 150 m of the site. Diagnostic artifacts from the Allen 3 site are primarily affiliated with the Late Archaic period. The artifact collection from the Moyers site includes 47 pieces of rhyolite debitage and 42 examples are from gray material that is primarily porphyritic. The other pieces of rhyolite include four from primarily reddish, non-porphyritic (aphanitic) material and one from yellowish brown porphyritic material. The projectile point and two biface fragments are made from reddish, non- porphyritic rhyolite. Since rhyolite has an igneous origin, heat-treating the material would not be expected to improve the quality of the material for knapping. To test this hypothesis, fragments of rhyolite were heated for 12 hours at 600O but produced no noticeable change in the color or texture. Exploitation of nonlocal lithic material. The inventory of lithics recovered during Phase III mitigation at the Moyers site is devoid of non-local material with the exception of one flake of Burlington chert was recovered during Phase II testing (Weisman et al. 2007a). The nearest source of Burlington chert is 55 km (34 mi) to the northeast toward Mississippi River bluffs (Anderson1979), although there is a possibility that isolated sources of this material could be found at closer locations. The absence of nonlocal material in the lithic assemblage suggests a seasonal cycle of limited range or the lack of contact with other groups, at least along the Ozark border to the north and east where cherts of the Mississippian geologic period are available. The assemblage from the Moyers site contrasts with lithic assemblages from Early Woodland Black Sand groups in the Missouri River

25 valley and its tributaries often contain significant quantities of nonlocal cherts even where local cherts are readily available (Martin 1997 and 207).

CONCLUSIONS The Moyers site is interpreted as a seasonally occupied base camp or several short-term reoccupations. The site is typical of the Early Woodland settlement system which is characterized by transitory caps in the valleys of perennial streams for the purpose of extracting seasonally available lowland and riverine resources (Martin 1997). Two springs located 50 m west of right of way may have attracted the prehistoric occupants. The investigations at the Moyers site provide information about a poorly understood stage in Missouri Prehistory---the Early Woodland period. Archaeologists in the Midwest have long noted a paucity of Early Woodland evidence being reported from Missouri. In his publication entitled Archaeology of Missouri II, Chapman (1980:20) observed that ”identification, dating and description of the cultures of the people initiating the earliest pottery sites is one of the most important problems still facing archaeologists in the area.” Farnsworth (1986:2, 640) noted that significant regional voids still exist in our coverage of Early Woodland occupations, and he cites the Missouri as an example that needs to be further interpretation. The Early Woodland “identity” is even more perplexing in the Ozark Highlands where archaeologists have often assumed that there is little change between the Late Archaic and Early and Middle Woodland. Historically, distinct and clear temporal markers that could distinguish these Woodland sub-periods have often not been identified in the Ozarks (Klinger et al. 1989:24). Understanding of cultural change is further complicated by the fact that the transition from one cultural stage to another was not uniform throughout the Ozark. How have MoDOT’s investigations at the Moyers site improved knowledge of the Early Woodland period? Certainly the investigations provide information regarding the prehistory of the upper St. Francis River drainage, an area that Wright (1987B-23-3) called “an essentially archaeological unknown” and Wettstaed and Harpole (2002:2) described as “a poorly understood Region in southeastern Missouri.” They further noted that, although archaeologists have conducted numerous small-scale cultural resource management investigations in the area, attempts to collate this data are lacking. The four general goals of the Moyers site mitigation are revisited for the conclusion of this article. The first two goals have been previously discussed in detail. Goal One of the Phase III mitigation was to confirm the chronology of the site through the analysis of diagnostic artifacts and, if possible, through radiocarbon dating. Although no organic material was processed for radiocarbon dating, the cross dating of artifacts provides insight into the prehistoric cultures that occupied the site. The artifact assemblage was compared to two Early Woodland manifestations that extend into Missouri: the Black Sand tradition which is found primarily to the north of the site and a Tchula-like phase which extends into Ozark border from the south. The lithic assemblage from the Moyers site is especially similar to Tchula material. Goal Two was to determine the range of activities that were conducted at the site. The site was hypothesized to be a field camp and lithic processing station associated with the Early Woodland period. Data recovery excavations supported the contention that a major activity was the processing of locally available lithic resources, especially during the middle and late stages of biface production. The site also yielded numerous scrapers and retouched/utilized flakes which can be indicative of hunting-related activities as well as fabricating, domestic and woodworking operations.

26 Goal Three was to determine how people used and organized space across the site. Reconstructing a detailed community plan was not a major part of the analysis since part of the site was not in right of way; only one feature (Feature 5) appears to be prehistoric and cultural in origin. The ability to identify activity areas was effected by historic disturbances (e.g., road, fence and pipeline construction) and soil deflation which probably exacerbated by past agriculture practices. Early Woodland diagnostics, including contracting-stemmed points and discoidal scrapers, were thinly scattered throughout the site. Chert debitage was found to be mostly concentrated around the central portion of the test unit grid, especially Test Units 13 and 14. Goal Four was to obtain specific information regarding subsistence activities and economic strategies , including seasonality . The only evidence of seasonality, suggesting a possible fall occupation of the site, was the presence of two pitted nodules that could have been used for nut processing and an occasional small fragment (< 0.1 g) of nut charcoal. The paucity of domestic artifacts or features associated with domestic activities (e.g., ceramics, storage/trash pits, hearths, manos, etc.) and absence of animal remains suggests occupation for a short duration (s), possibly during several settlement episodes. However, the comparatively high number of chipped stone artifacts and artifact classes indicates the site is more than a limited activity knapping station or field camp and may represent reoccupation by a small group of people during different seasons. Although located at a distance from Twelvemile Creek (400 m to the east), the site may have been occupied due to its proximity to springs located to the southwest.

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