Topical Annotated Bibliography

Wilderness Adventure Programming Annotated Bibliography

Jesse Beightol Spring 2007

1. Social Psychological Benefits of a Wilderness Adventure Program Paxton, T. & McAvoy. L. (1999). Social Psychological Benefits of a Wilderness Adventure Program. In: McCool, Stephen F.; Cole, David N.; Borrie, William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. (2000). Wilderness science in a time of change conference—Volume 3: Wilderness as a place for scientific inquiry; 1999 May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proceedings RMRS-P-15-VOL-3. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.

Abstract Wilderness-based outdoor adventure programs are intended to produce positive change in participants. There are a significant number of these programs, with Hattie and others (1997) reporting that in 1994 alone, there were over 40,000 students participating in Outward Bound programs. Not all of these programs occur in wilderness, but significant portions of them do. A major goal of these programs is the improvement and development of participants’ self-concept and self-efficacy through wilderness-based activities. These activities provide opportunities for physical, emotional and cognitive challenges and opportunities for success. Research has demonstrated that these programs have an impact on participants’ awareness of themselves and others (Hattie and others 1997). Another goal of some programs is to create and foster a wilderness/environmental awareness that enhances the participants’ ability to perceive and identify with the environment and to generate concern and commitment to the continued preservation of nature and wilderness (McAvoy 1987). This research project examined how a wilderness adventure program (21 day Voyageur Outward Bound wilderness adventure course)influenced the self-efficacy of participants (n=68), how participants transferred their experiences from their wilderness program to their everyday lives and if these programs have a lasting impact on the participants’ attitude towards wilderness. Course formats were identical, but took place in different physical environments. There was a control group (n=50). The three instruments used in the first phase of this research were: the Self-Efficacy Scale (adapted for this research from Bandura 1995), the Sphere- Specific Measures of Perceived Control (Paulhus, 1983), and the Multattributional Causality Scale (Lefcourt and others 1979). In addition to the three instruments, each survey included a series of open-ended questions. Phase two of this research consisted of semi-structured telephone interviews one year after the completion of the subjects’ wilderness adventure course. Phase two interviews were conducted with 20 of the 68 subjects from phase one. This group consisted of 10 males and 10 females representing all the different courses that were involved in this study. These data were then complied and analyzed with phase one’s data.

The results show a significant and enduring increase in the participants’ self-efficacy from pre-test through posttest and to the six-month follow-up (table 1 and 2). There were no significant gains in the control group. Not only did the self-efficacy levels increase during the 21-day wilderness course, but also they kept increasing, even up to six months after the course.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 2  Case studies or clinical examples included 0  Experimental Design 3  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 1 *Authors cite Outward Bound Instructor Handbook and Course Materials  Power of Research Design 1-2  Instrumentation 2  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 3  Background Literature Support 1  Replication 4  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 3 2. The Effects of a Wilderness Orientation Program on College Students Gass, M. (1987). Journal of Experiential Education, 10(2), 30-33. refer to the doctoral dissertation

Abstract This article summarizes research conducted with the University of New Hampshire’s Summer Fireside Experience Program. The purpose of the study was to examine the effectiveness of a wilderness orientation program specifically designed to reduce student attrition and assist in the development of first year students at a university. A second purpose was to illustrate the use of multiple covariates and similar comparison groups to reduce internal and external validity threats. Researchers compared attrition/retention rates, grade point averages, and task/subtask areas from a shortened Student Developmental Task Inventory for participants in the Fireside Program (n=32), an orientation program called Freshman Camp (n=64), and a random control group (n=64) of incoming freshmen who did not participate in either program. With 5 covariate variables and three data collections, the author used ANOVA and ANCOVA analysis along with a Newman-Keuls multiple comparison procedure to analyze data. Results showed significant differences in GPA and attrition/retention among the groups after two semesters. While differences in the SDTI-2 results were significant, there was no significant difference in “Developing Purpose.” Results lead the author to conclude that the Wilderness Orientation Program positively influenced the retention of first year students at UNH. The delay in significant findings until the end of the second semester suggests that the success is partly dependent on transference and follow-up experiences.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 1  Case studies or clinical examples included 0  Experimental Design 3  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 0  Power of Research Design 3  Instrumentation 2  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 1  Background Literature Support 1  Replication 0  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 2 3. Beyond The Outward Bound Process: Rethinking Student Learning

McKenzie, M. (2003). Beyond The Outward Bound Process: Rethinking Student Learning. Journal of Experiential Education, 26(1), 8-23.

Abstract This article is based on a research study that explored the means by which students learn at Outward Bound Western Canada. For this study, data were collected from 92 students through questionnaires, interviews, and observation. Twenty-nine course components were found to influence course outcomes, including various aspects of course activities, the physical environment, instructors, and the group. Certain course components were found to be most influential in determining increases in students self-awareness, self- confidence, self-reliance, self-esteem, self-concept, motivation, self-responsibility, interpersonal skills, concern for others, and concern for the environment; while several course components impacted course outcomes in negative ways. The gender, age, and population of students were also found to play a role in determining the course outcomes students experienced and which course components caused those outcomes. The study is discussed in terms of how it supports, extends, and refutes existing adventure education theory, as well as in relation to contemporary theories on modernity. A model is proposed as an alternative to the well-known Walsh and Golins’ (1976) model of the Outward Bound process in consideration of the study’s findings and the need for a renewed commitment to compassion and service within Outward Bound.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 2  Case studies or clinical examples included 1 *Readily accessible information on Outward Bound participants  Experimental Design 1  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 2 *Many references to Outward Bound Curriculum  Power of Research Design 1  Instrumentation 0

 Cultural Variability 1  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 3  Background Literature Support 2  Replication 4  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 0

4. The Identification and Modification of Situational Fears Associated with Outdoor Recreation

Ewert, A. (1988). The Identification and Modification of Situational Fears Associated with Outdoor Recreation. In “Life Beyond the Walls: Proceedings of the 1988 National Conference on Outdoor Recreation.” Originally published in the Journal of Leisure Research, 20(2).

Abstract This paper examines the effect of participation in an Outward Bound course on participant levels of situational fears. Patterns of situational fears were studies with regard to: (1) fears before, immediately after, and 1 year following the Outward Bound course; (2) the intensity of these fears; and (3) relationship of fears to gender, age, and length of course. The sample included 311 students (74% male) and 53 instructors. Most of the 23 specific situational fears identified were sociological or psychological in nature, rather than physical. Results showed a trend toward reducing levels of fear at posttest and 1-year follow-up. Instructors typically overestimated how fearful their students were for most situations. Immediately after the course, older students and males reported lower levels of fear than did younger students and females. Results failed to show a noteworthy effect due to course length.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 2  Case studies or clinical examples included 1 *Brief description of Outward Bound students. Easy to find more information on typical OB participants.  Experimental Design 1

 Benefit-Cost Analysis 0

 Results Reporting 1

 Training Models 3 *Explains a typical Outward Bound experience. Readily accessible access to further information.  Power of Research Design 3 *ANOVA, t-test, MANOVA, Scheffe Procedure, (.05 sig.level), N=311 students and 53 instructors  Instrumentation 4 *Situational Fear Inventory (Chronbach’s alpha=.94)  Cultural Variability 1 *Gender and age  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 3  Background Literature Support 2  Replication 4 *Wide range of OB courses.  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 2

5. An Analysis of Outdoor Leaders’ Ethics Guiding Decisions

Mitten, D. (2007). An Analysis of Outdoor Leaders’ Ethics Guiding Decisions. Journal of Experiential Education, 29(3), 373-377. (SEER Abstract)

Abstract Because of the independent and isolated nature of practitioners’ work with people and the large number of people they influence, it is important to see what values and ethical frameworks guide outdoor leaders in their decision making. Fox and Lautt (1996) say that understanding ethical frameworks used by outdoor leaders helps practitioners move toward a congruency between values and behavior. Outdoor leaders have begun the important process of examining and helping to define ethical practices applied in their fields (Fox & Lautt, 1996; Fox & McAvoy, 1995a, 1995b; Fox, Parsons, Barnett, & Reed, 1995; Fox & Reed, 1994; Hunt & Wurdinger, 1999; Lehmann, 1995; Mitten, 1995). Concurrently, there is a lack of baseline research about outdoor leaders as they seek to define ethical standards.

The purpose of this study was to provide information about the ethical frameworks used in decision making by outdoor leaders. This research also helps in understanding whether the ethical frameworks outdoor leaders use in decision making differ due to gender, class, or parental status. This research is applicable to experiential education in that many experiential education programs occur in the outdoors and are led by outdoor leaders.

Used the Defining Issues Test (DIT-2) and the “Manning” instrument. 100 outdoor leaders were tested.

Link http://www.aee.org/customer/pages.php?pageid=10#Journal

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation NA  Case studies or clinical examples included 1  Experimental Design 0  Benefit-Cost Analysis NA  Results Reporting 1  Training Models NA  Power of Research Design 2 *N=100, Alpha .05, one-way ANOVA  Instrumentation 3 *Defining Issues Test & Manning Instrument

 Cultural Variability 2  Treatment/intervention Fidelity NA  Background Literature Support 2  Replication NA  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed NA

6. Study of Self-Efficacy in a Freshman Wilderness Experience Program: Measuring General Versus Specific Gains

Jones, J., & Hinton, J. (2007). Study of Self-Efficacy in a Freshman Wilderness Experience Program: Measuring General Versus Specific Gains. Journal of Experiential Education, 29(3), 382-385. (SEER Abstract)

Abstract: The purpose of this follow-up study was to further investigate links found between a wilderness program and the development of self-efficacy in first-year college students. The original study investigated global self-efficacy in 28 incoming freshman in a wilderness orientation program using the perceived Competence of Functioning Inventory (PCFI). The original study included a pre-,post-, follow-up test and qualitative assessment. Participants later completed a 9 month follow up test.

This secondary study was developed to ascertain whether the specific outdoor self- efficacy survey correlates with general self-efficacy results and see if the generalized PCFI scores continued to increase over time. It also attempted to measure the effect of the wilderness experience itself. This follow up study was mainly completed in a focus group format. This follow-up study only included 7 of the original 21 participants, limiting validity and reliability. Hope to incorporate an Outdoor Recreation Self-Efficacy Scale (ORSE) and included directions for future research.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 0  Case studies or clinical examples included 0  Experimental Design 0 *Single for this follow-up study. The original study had a pre-post-follow up test design.  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 0  Training Models 0  Power of Research Design 0 *N=7  Instrumentation 4 Follow-up study used focus group questionnaire. Original study used PCFI. ORSE has alpha over .9  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 0  Background Literature Support 1  Replication 0-1  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 2

7. The Life Significance of a Spiritually Oriented, Outward Bound-Type Wilderness Expedition

Daniel, B. (2007). The Life Significance of a Spiritually Oriented, Outward Bound-Type Wilderness Expedition. Journal of Experiential Education, 29(3), 386-389. (SEER Abstract)

Abstract This retrospective study, completed in 2002, examined the life significance of a Christian-based, Outward Bound-type, 20-day wilderness expedition offered by a private liberal arts college in western North Carolina. The purpose of the study was to discover what informants remembered about the experience, what they learned from it, and, subsequently, whether or not the trip played a role in their lives. Specifically, two aspects of the expedition were studied: the significance of the entire experience and the significance of its individual components. The sample involved 227 informants who participated in the Discovery Wilderness Program, or “Discovery,” at some point between the years 1976 and 2000. Informants from all 25 years were represented in the study. The study utilized the theoretical framework of significant life experience (SLE) framework and focused on autobiographical memories of past events. The study employed multiple methods, which allowed for triangulation among the various data sources. The findings revealed that 90% of informants believed that the experience had made a difference in their lives.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 0  Case studies or clinical examples included 0-1 *would be easy to access information about typical participants.  Experimental Design 0-1 *Two pilot studies involved pre-post tests (n=41). Then involved self-administered questionnaire (n=210) and focus groups (n=18).  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 0  Training Models 1  Power of Research Design NA  Instrumentation ? *Constant Comparative Method  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 1  Background Literature Support 1  Replication 1  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 4 8. Parental Reports of Adolescent and Family Well-Being Following a Wilderness Therapy Intervention: An Exploratory Look at Systemic Change

Harper, N., & Cooley, R. (2007). Parental Reports of Adolescent and Family Well-Being Following a Wilderness Therapy Intervention: An Exploratory Look at Systemic Change. Journal of Experiential Education, 29(3), 393-396. (SEER Abstract)

Abstract This research involves an exploratory, longitudinal study of adolescent and family outcomes from participation in Wilderness Therapy. Specific objectives of the study were to: (a) identify change in adolescent and family functioning over time; (b) explore how these changes manifest in family, school, and social contexts; (c) understand the constancy of these changes following treatment; and (d) provide recommendations for further investigation of family involvement in WT. The study sample consisted of 252 adolescent participants enrolled in 21-day wilderness therapy programs for treatment of emotional and behavioral problems, as well as substance use diagnosis between March 2001 and February 2002.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 1  Case studies or clinical examples included 1  Experimental Design 1  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 2  Training Models 0  Power of Research Design 1-2  Instrumentation 0 *Customized 60-item questionnaire  Cultural Variability 0

 Treatment/intervention Fidelity 1  Background Literature Support 1  Replication 1 *It is unclear how widely this has been replicated  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 2

9. Wilderness Orientation: Exploring the Relationship Between College Preorientation Programs and Social Support

Bell, B. (2006). Wilderness Orientation: Exploring the Relationship Between College Preorientation Programs and Social Support. Journal of Experiential Education, 29(2), 145-167.

Abstract This study investigated whether students differ in reported levels of social support by different types of preorientation experiences (i.e., wilderness program, community service program, preseason athletics, or no preorientation participation) measures by the Campus-Focused Social Provisions Scale (CF-SPS). Two colleges provided a sample (N=1,601) of first-year and sophomore students. Participants in the wilderness orientation programs reported higher levels of social provisions in all six subfactors of social support. Preseason athletes reported significant differences on the subfactor of social integration (p<.05). Service programs reported no significant differences. Students’ reported level of shyness and how easily they make friends were important variables for explaining the variance in social support scores. Women and sophomores were likely to report higher levels of social support, excepting the variable social integration. The study was exploratory and lacked controls for selection bias.

Link http://www.aee.org/customer/pages.php?pageid=10#Journal Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 1?  Case studies or clinical examples included 1  Experimental Design 0  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 1  Power of Research Design 1  Instrumentation 0 *However, SPS has a .94.  Cultural Variability 1  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 1  Background Literature Support 3  Replication 2  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 1

10. Effects of Outward Bound Experience as an Adjunct to Inpatient PTSD Treatment of War Veterans

Hyer, L., Boyd, S., Scurfield, R., Smith, D., & Burke, J. (1996). Effects of Outward Bound Experience as an Adjunct to Inpatient PTSD Treatment of War Veterans. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 52(3), 263-278.

Abstract There is a paucity of studies on Outward Bound Experiences (OBE) with adult psychiatric populations and, more notably, with trauma victims. This study evaluates the efficacy of OBE as an adjunct to specialized inpatient PTSD treatment with survivors of chronic combat-related PTSD (N=219) at two Veterans Administration Medical Centers. On several measures of PTSD and general adaptation, results showed that the five-day OBE did not differ from standard treatment of PTSD survivors. Two other issues were addressed: identification of successful and non-successful subjects as a result of OBE, and exploration of objective versus subjective measures among this chronic group. Finally, as a post-study analysis, inferred curative components of the OBE were discussed as each appeared to impact on the participants.

Link www.interscience.wiley.com Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 0  Case studies or clinical examples included 1  Experimental Design 3  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 1  Power of Research Design 3  Instrumentation 3  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 1  Background Literature Support 2  Replication 0  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 0

11. Perceived Change in Leadership Skills as a Result of the Wilderness Education Association Wilderness Stewardship Course

Hobbs, E., & Spencer, S. (2002). Perceived Change in Leadership Skills as a Result of the Wilderness Education Association Wilderness Stewardship Course. In Wilderness Education Association 2002 National Conference Proceedings Bradford Woods, Indiana, February 7-9, 2002).

Abstract A study examined the impact of a Wilderness Education Association Wilderness Stewardship course on students’ leadership skills development. Twelve students at Western Kentucky University completed the Leadership Skills Inventory (LSI) before and after a 2-week Wilderness Stewardship course that included ten days of field experience in camping, hiking, and canoeing. Each student assumed the leadership of the group for one day, including planning and communicating the day’s activities, teaching lessons from course texts in the field, and helping to debrief and process the experiences of the day. Students were required to keep journals, with specific mention of decisions made during the day, and to complete peer and self-assessments. All nine LSI categories showed increased ratings from pretest to posttest, but the changes were significant in only four categories: fundamentals of leadership, speech communication skills, character- building skills, and group dynamics. (SV).

Link http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.unh.edu/login.aspx? direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED468969&site=ehost-live

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 0  Case studies or clinical examples included 0-1  Experimental Design 1  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 1  Power of Research Design 0-1  Instrumentation 1  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 1  Background Literature Support 0-1  Replication 1  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 0

12. Environmental Outcomes of Wilderness-Based Programs of Different Lengths

Yoshino, A. (2005). Environmental Outcomes of Wilderness-Based Programs of Different Lengths. Journal of Experiential Education, 27(3), 314-317. (SEER Abstract)

Abstract: This study examined: (a) how long-term and short-term wilderness-based programs vary in their outcomes for participants' environmental feelings, wilderness attitude, and environmental attitude; and (b) how individual characteristics are related to program outcomes. University students (N = 105) participated in either a long-term (three-week) or short-term (five-day) wilderness-based program. Participants' environmental attitudes were measured before and after both programs using existing Likert-type self-report questionnaires scales: the Environmental Awareness Questionnaire for environmental feelings (Szagun & Pavlov, 1995), Wilderness Issues Questionnaire for wilderness attitude (Hanna, 1988), and the Revised New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) Scale for environmental attitude (Dunlap, Van Liere, Mertig, & Jones, 2000). Results showed decreases in environmental feelings for long term group, increased wilderness attitudes in short term group and no significant differences in environmental attitudes between the groups. Stepwise regression showed that people from small communities had more positive change in environmental feelings and attitudes and that individuals with higher levels of wilderness experience had more positive change in wilderness attitudes.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 0  Case studies or clinical examples included 0  Experimental Design 1  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 0  Power of Research Design 1  Instrumentation 2  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 0  Background Literature Support 1  Replication 0  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 0

13. City Kids in the Wilderness: A Pilot Test of Outward Bound for Foster Care Group Home Youth

Fischer, R., & Attah, E. (2001). City Kids in the Wilderness: A Pilot Test of Outward Bound for Foster Care Group Home Youth. Journal of Experiential Education, 24(2), 109-117.

Abstract: Children in urban foster care settings, rarely have the opportunity to participate in adventure-based wilderness experiences, such as Outward Bound. This paper describes the use of a seven-day Outward Bound experience with 23 youth from four foster care group homes in Atlanta, Georgia. The effort examines data collected before and after the program documenting the perspectives of the youth, their foster parents, and their foster care workers in regard to the impacts on the youth. The research highlights the difficulties of evaluating a field-based experience, and provides data that illustrates the potential effects of Outward Bound on youth in group-home care. Further research is needed to fully demonstrate the effects of such efforts and to identify how to best tailor the experience to the needs of youth in urban foster care settings.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 2  Case studies or clinical examples included 1-2  Experimental Design 1  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 1  Power of Research Design 0  Instrumentation 0 *”What kind of person are you?” self-esteem scale *Behavioral scale adapted from the Behavioral and Emotional Strengths Scale  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 3  Background Literature Support 2  Replication 4  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 1

14. Evaluation of a Wilderness Program for College Students

Gin, V. J. (1998). Evaluation of a Wilderness Program for College Students. Boston University School of Education, Doctoral Dissertation.

Abstract: The La Vida wilderness program for college students was evaluated in a participant observation case study. La Vida is a twelve-day wilderness backpacking expedition that is part of the core curriculum requirement at a Christian liberal arts college. The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between La Vida’s goals and the participants’ experience.

Most research in wilderness experiences has concentrated on summative studies and has lacked emphasis on the components in the programs. This study evaluated the La Vida program through direct observation of the participants’ experience and through dialogue and writing of the participants themselves.

The investigator went on the expedition as a participant recording observations and formative data. Pre-trip and post-trip interviews of each participant were tape recorded. Throughout the expedition participants recorded their experiences through taped conversations, taped informal interviews, taped individual reactions, journal writing, final papers, a group journal and a written evaluation. All the recorded data were transcribed and coded. Quantitative measures included self-efficacy measures, Spiritual Well-Being Scale, Spiritual Maturity Index, Individual Reaction Gestalt, Version III, and the American College of Sports Medicine fitness tests. Comparative analyses were utilized between all data sources.

The results of these data revealed a strong relationship between La Vida’s goals and the participants’ experience. The research questions were answered using goodness of fit with the goals of La Vida. All goals were met, but not all goals were met equally met well. Of the eleven goals that were investigated, the data show that through the participants’ experiences nine of the goals were achieved to a major degree and two goals were met to some degree. Goals concerning spiritual maturity, group cooperation, and personal commitment were met to major degrees in the participants’ experience.

It was found that the La Vida elements, social factors, individual factors and leadership factors fit together in a meaningful and comprehensive way that enabled La Vida to achieve its goals in the participants’ experience. No factor was primary, but each made a contribution to an integrated program.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 1  Case studies or clinical examples included 1  Experimental Design 1  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 2  Power of Research Design 2-3  Instrumentation 3  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 2  Background Literature Support 2  Replication 1  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 0 15. The Influence of Wilderness Experience Programs in Changing Participant Attitudes toward Wilderness Purism, Privacy, and Tolerated Encounters (a Pilot Study).

Simon, M. (2003). The Influence of Wilderness Experience Programs in Changing Participant Attitudes toward Wilderness Purism, Privacy, and Tolerated Encounters (a Pilot Study). In: Celebrating the Past—Creating Our Future. Wilderness Education Association National Conference on Outdoor Leadership Proceedings.

Abstract: The 1964 Wilderness Act was legislated to protect and maintain a portion of the nation’s remaining wild areas as they were during pre-settlement times. In part, the intent was to provide the opportunity for primitive forms of recreation in surroundings where wilderness can be experienced on its own terms. However, overuse and related resource degradation have resulted in the loss of the primeval character of many wilderness areas, decreasing the opportunity for solitude. Solitude is specifically mentioned in the Wilderness Act as a critical component of wilderness. A study explored the effects of wilderness experience programs (WEP) on feelings of purism, privacy, and tolerated encounters. Pre- and post tests were administered to 42 college students who participated in a short-term WEP (about 5 days) and 64 participants in a long-term WEP (10-plus days). Pretest data did not show a relationship between participant concern for solitude and the number of encounters participants would tolerate and still consider their trip a wilderness experience. However, posttest data indicated that following a field experience, participant concern for solitude was significantly related to unwillingness to tolerate encounters with others in the wilderness. These results suggest that WEP’s emphasizing wilderness education may effectively influence course participants to become a more educated wildland user constituency and to support use limits and other resource protection measures. (TD)

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 0  Case studies or clinical examples included 0  Experimental Design 3  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 0  Power of Research Design 2-3  Instrumentation 3  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 1  Background Literature Support 1  Replication 3  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 0

16. Social and Economic Benefits of a U.S. Wilderness Experience Program for Youth-at-Risk in the Federal Job Corps

Russell, K., Hendee, J., & Cooke, S. Social and Economic Benefits of a U.S. Wilderness Experience Program for Youth-at-Risk in the Federal Job Corps. International Journal of Wilderness, 4(3), 32-38.

Abstract: Wilderness Discovery (WD), a seven-day wilderness experience program designed to empower and strengthen the skills and motivation of youth-at-risk in the Federal Job Corps, was tested in 46 trips at four Federal Job Corps Centers (JCCs). Student journals and exit interviews showed that Job Corps students learned valuable lessons from WD: (1) that they said they would use to improve communication with other students and authority figures; (2) a more positive attitude toward Job Corps; and (3) a sense of accomplishment. WD participants were matched with control groups revealing that WD reduced early terminations 35% at Curlew JCC in 1993, and an average reduction of 23% at three centers in 1994. Steering committees at each center came to consensus on many positive benefits of WD, which were then linked to five critical variables in a benefit/cost model developed for Job Corps by Mathematica (1985). Based on all the study evidence, modest adjustments of 1%, 3%, and 5% were made in critical variables of the model to simulate potential economic benefits which exceeded costs of WD, as an adjunct to Job Corps. This analysis and framework helps document the idea that in designing a wilderness program around desired outcomes, in this case reducing early terminations and enhancing employability of JCC students, and designing analysis of these outcomes, wilderness experiences may be justified for economic reasons.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 1  Case studies or clinical examples included 1  Experimental Design 2  Benefit-Cost Analysis 2  Results Reporting 0  Training Models 1  Power of Research Design 1-2  Instrumentation NA  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 1  Background Literature Support 1  Replication 2  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 1

17. Factors Influencing Leadership Development in Wilderness Education

Koesler, R., & Propst, D. (1994). Factors Influencing Leadership Development in Wilderness Education: Final Report. In preparation for Dissertation. Retrieved from www.nols.edu.

Abstract: The problem of this study was to propose and evaluate a theoretical model which identified the components of the process by which leadership development in wilderness education occur. The implications are that certain factors on a wilderness course will contribute to the overall process. Specifically, this research explored the relationship among the factors (self-efficacy, feedback, goal attainment and mentoring) which the literature supports as explaining the long-term leadership development process. A quasi-experimental, pretest-posttest with control group design was employed for this study. The purpose of the control group was to assess the effects of anxiety on self- efficacy. Control (n=86), Treatment pre-test (n= 231). Treatment post-test (n=194). Oral histories were also collected for qualitative analysis. Demographic summaries were drawn from oral histories. One round of 1-year post data was collected. A second round was not completed because of budget constraints. Results showed that other factors should be assessed to explain influences on leadership development, that developing leadership is different for males and females, and that anxiety before the start of the course has an effect on self-efficacy, especially for females. Limitations of the study are discussed.

Link www.nols.edu

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 0  Case studies or clinical examples included 0-1  Experimental Design 2  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 0-1  Training Models 0  Power of Research Design 0-1  Instrumentation 0  Cultural Variability 0-1  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 3  Background Literature Support 0-1  Replication 4  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 0-3

18. Transferring Benefits of Participation in an Integrated Wilderness Adventure Program to Daily Life

Holman, T., & McAvoy, L. (2005). Transferring Benefits of Participation in an Integrated Wilderness Adventure Program to Daily Life. Journal of Experiential Education, 27 (3), 322-325. Abstract: The present study specifically examined the linkages between the means (the services) and the ends (the consequences and values important to the individual) using the means- end theory to examine participants' experiences. The findings from this study build on previous research using means-end theory to better understand the integrated wilderness adventure experience (Holman, Goldenberg, McAvoy, & Rynders, 2003), The purpose was to examine the relationships of participant outcomes and benefits, as well as the specific components of the wilderness program that contributed to participant outcomes. This research also examined differences in outcomes and values of different participant groups, such as persons with disabilities as compared to persons without disabilities. Another specific purpose for this study was to gain insight into how integrated wilderness program participants are able to transfer the outcomes and benefits gained into their daily lives. This study combined questionnaire data {n = 193) as well as telephone interview data. Interview participants were selected using a stratified random sample that consisted of equal numbers of participants with and without disabilities. There were 10 hierarchical value maps generated for this study based on the participants' responses to the questionnaire. The 193 participants from the questionnaire data indicated the following primary outcomes: developing relationships with others, increased understanding of themselves, awareness and appreciation for nature and the wilderness, having a new opportunity, and learning new skills. The primary values the outcomes contributed to participants' lives were: (a) transferring the benefits of the trip to enhance aspects of home life, (b) self-awareness, (c) achieving a personal goal, and (d) having a warm relationship with others. Results of the 29 interviews show that participants were able to transfer outcomes from their wilderness trip experience to their work (41%), to developing and improving outdoor recreation skills (24%), to their family lives (24%), and to other activities (13%). The most important trip attributes that contributed to outcomes were interactions with other group members, being in wilderness, the overall trip, and program leaders.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 0  Case studies or clinical examples included 0-1  Experimental Design 0  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 0  Training Models 0  Power of Research Design 1  Instrumentation 0  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 1  Background Literature Support 1  Replication 2  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 0 19. Wilderness-Related Environmental Outcomes of Adventure and Ecology Education Programming Hanna, G. (XXXX). Wilderness-Related Environmental Outcomes of Adventure and Ecology Education Programming. Journal of Environmental Education, 27(1).

Abstract: The similarities and differences between adventure and ecology education programming are explained with respect to participants’ knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and behavior. A longitudinal study was conducted to compare an outdoor adventure program (Outward Bound) with a field ecology program (Audubon). Instruments measured demographic and past experience data, wilderness/ecological and minimal impact knowledge, wilderness- issue attitude, and self-reported intentions and behavior in and for wilderness. The results of this study suggest that people exposed to either field ecology or adventure-education programming experience changes in what they know about the natural environment and traveling in it, and how strongly they feel about its preservation. However, the weak translation of these gains to pro-wilderness environmental behavior suggests that other factors are at work besides knowledge and attitude.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 0  Case studies or clinical examples included 1  Experimental Design 3  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 1-2  Power of Research Design 1  Instrumentation 0  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 3  Background Literature Support 1  Replication 4  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 2

20. Evaluating the Effectiveness of Residential Environmental Education Programs in Fostering Positive Attitudes Toward Wildlife Dettmann-Easler, D., & Pease, J. L. (XXXX). Evaluating the Effectiveness of Residential Environmental Education Programs in Fostering Positive Attitudes Toward Wildlife. Journal of Environmental Education, 31(1).

Abstract: Residential environmental education programs offer many benefits to students, including time to be “in” nature, additional time for programs (evenings in addition to days), and flexibility in the types of programs offered. The authors examined 6 residential programs in the upper Midwest to evaluate their effectiveness in fostering positive attitudes towards wildlife. Results indicated that students had significantly more positive attitudes toward wildlife after residential programs than they did after an in-class wildlife program, and that these changes were retained at least 3 months after the program. Recommendations for maximizing the effectiveness of residential programs are discussed.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 0  Case studies or clinical examples included 1  Experimental Design 3  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 1  Power of Research Design 2  Instrumentation 0  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 1  Background Literature Support 2  Replication 2  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 1 21. Providing an Authentic Wilderness Experience? Thinking Beyond the Wilderness Act of 1964.

Borrie, W. T., & Roggenbuck, J. W. (1996). Providing an Authentic Wilderness Experience? Thinking Beyond the Wilderness Act of 1964. In McAvoy, L. H., Stringer, L. A., Bialecshki, M. D., & Young, A. B. (1996). Coalition for Education in the Outdoors Research Symposium Proceedings (3rd, Bradford Woods, Indiana, January 12-14, 1996).

Abstract: This paper studies the applicability of six aspects of the wilderness experience (oneness, humility, timeliness, solitude, and care) using the Experience Sampling Method. The general purpose of this method is to “study the subjective experience of persons interacting with natural environments” (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1987). It uses random scheduling (through a beeper) to have participants fill out multiple surveys. Samples were collected at Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge in October and November, 1994. 62 respondents completed a total of 221 questionnaires. Through analysis of the data, the authors conclude that the six constructs discussed provide insight into the meaning and value of wilderness and represent some of the beliefs that are influential in preserving and protecting wilderness areas. Implications for outdoor educators are discussed.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 0  Case studies or clinical examples included 1  Experimental Design 0  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 0  Training Models NA  Power of Research Design 1  Instrumentation 0  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity NA  Background Literature Support 1  Replication 0  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 0 22. Responsible Environmental Behavior: Metaphoric Transference of Minimum-Impact Ideology

Hammit, J. P., & Freimund, W. A. (1996). Responsible Environmental Behavior: Metaphoric Transference of Minimum-Impact Ideology. In McAvoy, L. H., Stringer, L. A., Bialecshki, M. D., & Young, A. B. (1996). Coalition for Education in the Outdoors Research Symposium Proceedings (3rd, Bradford Woods, Indiana, January 12-14, 1996), 47.

Abstract: This study assessed changes in National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) students’ attitudes, intentions, and behavior, as they pertain to the environment, resulting from participation in NOLS’ Wind River Wilderness course. The instrument was administered (n=288) immediately before, immediately after, and 4-8 months after their course. Statistical analysis revealed that students’ behavior (as reported) was significantly more environmentally responsible after NOLS, although intentions towards Responsible Environmental Behavior (REB) and Attitudes did not change significantly. It was also revealed that students responded more positively after NOLS to all seven constructs of the theoretical model for REB.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 0  Case studies or clinical examples included 0  Experimental Design 1  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 2  Power of Research Design 1  Instrumentation ?  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 2  Background Literature Support 0  Replication 4  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 1-2 23. Interactive Behaviors Between Students and Instructors in the Outdoors

Cashel, C. (1996). Interactive Behaviors Between Students and Instructors in the Outdoors. In McAvoy, L. H., Stringer, L. A., Bialecshki, M. D., & Young, A. B. (1996). Coalition for Education in the Outdoors Research Symposium Proceedings (3rd, Bradford Woods, Indiana, January 12-14, 1996), 92.

Abstract: Few, if any studies have focused on the interactive behaviors of instructors and students in the outdoor environment. Three case studies were conducted in which instructors were videotaped at different times during the first week of a 35 day outdoor leadership course. Data were analyzed using CAFIAS by coding both verbal and nonverbal interactions. Analyzed behaviors include: total instructor-student interactions across six lessons, total instructor contributions, total student contributions, the amount of confusion or silence, instructor responses to student behavior in both direct and indirect ways, the amount of time instructors spent in expanding student ideas, the amount of time spent in constant behavior versus transitional behavior, and student responses to instructors. Implications for future studies are discussed.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 0  Case studies or clinical examples included 4  Experimental Design 0  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting NA  Training Models NA  Power of Research Design NA  Instrumentation 3  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity NA  Background Literature Support 1  Replication NA  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 0 24. The Effects of Outward Bound on a Group of Middle School Students

Patterson, D. (1995). The Effects of Outward Bound on a Group of Middle School Students. Masters Thesis, Lenoir-Rhyne College.

Abstract: The guidance and counseling department of a western North Carolina middle school wanted to identify more precisely what it was that a week’s participation in Outward Bound provided for their students. Outward Bound is an adventure-based, or wilderness- based, educational experience that promotes self-esteem through achievement in a challenging environment. Questionnaires and open-ended interview questions were prepared and administered to 135 eighth-grade students who participated in Outward Bound and 85 ninth-graders who had participated the year before. Responses indicated that the overwhelming majority of participants did indeed enjoy a positive experience. The study reinforced the belief of the guidance and counseling department that their students had a positive experience as Outward Bound participants. Approximately 98% of the ninth graders felt that Outward Bound had helped them become more positive and contributing participants in group activities, and 88.2% thought they were now more capable of accomplishing more challenging tasks. Responses of the eighth graders, who had more recently completed the program, were similar. Three questionnaires are provided.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 1  Case studies or clinical examples included 0-1  Experimental Design 0  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 0  Training Models 1-2  Power of Research Design 0  Instrumentation 0  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 3-4  Background Literature Support 2  Replication 4  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 0-2 25. An Examination of Leadership Development in the Great Outdoors

Stoltz, P. G. (1992). An Examination of Leadership Development in the Great Outdoors. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 3(4), 357-372.

Abstract: This study examined the efficacy of one particular approach to leadership development: outdoor experience-based training and development (EBTD). Two sections ofVoyageur Outward Bound School's Professional Development Program were selected for analysis. To overcome the methodological shortcomings of previous research in this area, several methods of data gathering were employed. Qualitative data revealed a substantial number of leadership skills that the programs intended their participants to develop. Differences between the two sections in energy level, quality of facilitation, and depth of processing were observed. Quantitatively, neither group demonstrated significant change on the Leadership Profile questionnaire at the .05 level. The two groups, statistically combined, demonstrated a significant negative change in two of the six dimensions of the questionnaire. They did not demonstrate positive change in the areas that Outward Bound suggested they would.

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 0  Case studies or clinical examples included 1  Experimental Design 1  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 0-1  Power of Research Design 2  Instrumentation 4  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 3  Background Literature Support 1  Replication 4  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 0-1 26. An empirical look at Walsh and Golins. adventure education process model: Relationships between antecedent factors, perceptions of characteristics of an adventure education experience, and changes in self-efficacy

Sibthorp, J. (2003). An empirical look at Walsh and Golins. adventure education process model: Relationships between antecedent factors, perceptions of characteristics of an adventure education experience, and changes in self-efficacy. Journal of Leisure Research, 35, 80-106.

Abstract: The research sought to test relationships between participant antecedent factors (variables brought to the program by the participant, i.e. age, gender, expectations, motivations, past experience and beliefs), perceptions of characteristics of an adventure experience, and self-efficacy within the framework of the widely accepted Walsh and Golins Outward Bound process model. Questionnaire results were collected from 253 of a population of 301 students (50% male/female, average age 15.2 years) attending a total of 27 sailing and diving courses that were 3 weeks long during the summer of 1999. 191 subjects. data were included in a three-part analysis. Although a direct link between changes in self- efficacy and antecedent factors was not found, the overall results supported the Walsh and Golins model and suggested that students realized more developmental gains from those programs in which they felt more empowered and supported, and that some antecedent variables (i.e. motivation to attend, expectation to learn, and expectation to change) are related to student perceptions of the experience. Students with a more positive attitude towards attendance likewise saw more relevance and had more personal investment in the program, while those who were less motivated to attend may not have seen relevance, and were less invested in the program.

Link http://www.indiana.edu/~outdoor/volume%205%20number%202.pdf

Bibliography Rubric Categories Rubric Score  Evidence Based Research Evaluation 1  Case studies or clinical examples included 1  Experimental Design 1  Benefit-Cost Analysis 0  Results Reporting 1  Training Models 0-1  Power of Research Design 2-3  Instrumentation 3  Cultural Variability 0  Treatment/intervention Fidelity 1  Background Literature Support 4  Replication 1  Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed 0

Extended Bibliography

Learning Transferable Skills Through Adventure Education: The Role of an Authentic Process

Sibthorp, J. (2003). Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership 3 (2). University of Utah, USA

Abstract The purpose of this study is threefold: (a) to explore what 18 adolescents learned while participating in a three week long adventure program, (b) to examine how they learned while on the program, and (c) to determine what program outcomes they considered most applicable to their home environments, or which learning is “transferable”. To address these purposes, 18 participants 13–18 years old on 14 different three–week long sail and dive training courses were interviewed. The study found that participants learned both hard skills (e.g., sailing and diving) and life skills. They learned these skills experientially, by observing and receiving feedback from others, by exposure to new and different persons, and through the authenticity of needing to learn these skills through the course design. Participants reported that the life skills were most likely to be applicable after course completion in the home environment. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

A Wilderness Adventure Program as an Alternative for Juvenile Probationers: An Evaluation.

Winterdyk, J. (1980). A Wilderness Adventure Program as an Alternative for Juvenile Probationers: An Evaluation. Masters Thesis; Simon Frasier University Abstract A true experimental design with 60 male probationers, ages 13-16, was used to evaluate the viability of an Ontario-based 21-day wilderness adventure program as an alternative for adjudicated juveniles placed on probation. Participants were randomly assigned to a control group and an experimental group. The experimental group was subdivided into 3 groups of 10 boys. The groups were matched on age, sex, frequency of prior offense, and various background characteristics. The Jesness Inventory and an adapted Piers-Harris Self-Esteem Measure were used in pre, post, and follow-up tests. Self-report data on recidivism, background characteristics, and behavioral and attitudinal changes were gathered from both groups. The three experimental groups were also evaluated by the staff. Data did not indicate a significant relationship between exposure to the program and subsequent attitudinal or behavioral changes. A noticeable, but not significant, difference was that the offenses committed by the recidivists tended to be fewer and of a less severe type for the experimental groups. Staff and parent reports recommended using the program as a supplement to probation, introducing a process evaluation, improving referral and screening procedures, and implementing some form of post structure for juveniles after they complete such a course. Appendixes include tests, evaluations, contracts, form letters, activity outlines, sample schedules, questionnaires, follow-up surveys, testing procedures, and written responses from parents.

Changes in Aspects of Students’ Self-reported Personal, Social and Technical Skills During a Six-week Wilderness Expedition in Arctic Greenland

Stott, T., & Hall, N. (2003). Changes in Aspects of Students’ Self-reported Personal, Social and Technical Skills During a Six-week Wilderness Expedition in Arctic Greenland. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership, 3 (2).

Abstract This investigation focuses on students’ self-reported changes in personal, social and technical skills that took place during a six-week long expedition to East Greenland. A 105-item pre–and post–expedition questionnaire was completed by 60 young expeditioners aged 16 to 20. Before the expedition participants generally felt that they had high levels of skills and were well prepared for the expedition. Of the 49 items in the 105-item questionnaire which related to participants’ personal, social and technical skills, 22 showed statistically significant differences from those expected by chance when tested using the chi-square test. In terms of their personal skills, participants self-reported statistically significant changes (p < 0.05) in their ability to avoid depression, avoid loneliness, set priorities, achieve goals, solve problems efficiently, cope with constant cold, enjoy isolation, manage time efficiently, maintain physical fitness, be enthusiastic, demonstrate confidence and set goals. In terms of social skills participants self-reported statistically significant changes (p < 0.05) in their ability to control their emotions, motivate others, organise others, live in crowded circumstances, lead through consultation with others and maintain personal hygiene. In terms of technical skills participants self-reported statistically significant changes (p = 0.05 or smaller) in their ability to prepare dehydrated food, tie on and use ropes in glacier travel, use crampons and take charge of rescuing a member of their party from a crevasse. These items indicate that participants learned about survival and general skills associated with expeditions as a result of experiencing the expedition. This analysis of self-reported changes in items relating to expedition participants’ personal, social and technical skills shows that participants have rated themselves more highly at the end of the expedition in a range of useful social / leadership skills and personality traits. The question of whether these same skills and traits could be transferable to higher education, employment and life in future is raised as a futher area for research. The improved technical skills reported will be useful if the participants undertake further expeditions to similar wilderness areas in future, perhaps as leaders. The potential of the findings of this study for training future leaders on expeditions is considered. Findings from this study may also be worthy of consideration by companies and organizations involved in personal development and training programmes.

Motivations of Older Adults to Participate in Outdoor Adventure Experiences

Sugerman, D. (2001). Motivations of Older Adults to Participate in Outdoor Adventure Experiences. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership 2 (1).

Abstract As the number of adventure based programs has increased in the past 40 years, the opportunities for older adults to participate in outdoor adventure experiences has increased steadily. A previous study determined that information was lacking on the reasons why older adults participate in this programming area. The current study (n=782) sought to answer this question using a survey derived from the Recreation Experience Preference (REP) Inventory. Data from the study indicated that the most important motivations were: 1) being in a natural environment; 2) being physically active; 3) learning about outdoor skills and the environment; and 4) being in a group of people with similar interests. The data also indicated that these motivations were more significant for women than for men and for participants younger than 65 years old.