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Certificate III in Children’s Services: CHCFC301A: Reader LO 9245 © NSW DET 2010

CHCFC301A: Support the development of children

Support the development of children

Contents

What is child development?

Basically, the study of development is the study of change throughout the life span. A more detailed definition is as follows:

Development is the study of the way people change, from the first moments of conception right through the life span to old age and death.

From this definition we can see that development begins before birth. Development begins from the moment conception occurs. The definition emphasises that development is an ongoing process, right through life until the moment of death. This definition also states that development is about a person changing in some way.

You may already have a personal view about what children can do or cannot do at different ages. You may have your own ideas about how children develop, what influences this development, and what caregiving practices are appropriate in different situations.

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Principles of development

Types of developmental changes Changes within development can be examined in two ways:

Quantitative change, which looks at measurable changes in a person’s development. These changes can be measured by comparing an individual’s development at different times of his or her life or by comparing an individual’s development with other people at a similar age. Examples of quantitative change would be height, weight or body temperature.

Qualitative change, which reflects a new stage that is different, in quality, from what was happening before. Examples would be going from crawling to walking stage, or beginning to talk using words from a babbling stage. These examples show a change in the quality of movement and the quality of communication.

Quantitative changes Some of the developmental changes that occur are a result of growth (increase in size or decrease in size) and maturation of body tissues and organs.

Changes that can be measured are referred to as quantitative changes. Examples of quantitative changes are increases in height and weight.

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Qualitative changes Other changes that occur during the development process are changes in how the child functions. These changes include behavioural, emotional and cognitive changes.

You can’t use a measuring instrument to measure changes in functioning. Qualitative changes are changes in behaviour and understanding.

Here are specific examples of changes to the way a child functions:

Social changes Notice changes in social behaviour at different ages. Three-year-olds interact and socialise with their friends very differently to 12-year-olds; and 18-year-olds interact and socialise very differently to 12-year-olds.

Emotional changes There are changes in the range of emotions a person feels and expresses. A 12- month-old baby will express anger, loneliness and frustration all by crying. A 25- year-old will express each of these feelings in different ways. As we grow older, the ways we express different emotions change. (Note: Tiredness, hunger and pain are not emotions, but can be triggers to emotional states.)

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Milestones in development You have probably heard the term milestone. The most significant developmental changes during childhood are often called milestones. A milestone marks a significant turning point in the process of development and provides the foundation for further development. For example, independent walking is considered a milestone, as walking is a step on the road to less dependence on others and provides the foundation from which running, skipping and hopping will develop.

For each scenario below, indicate whether it’s a qualitative or a quantitative change.

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Why is it important to learn about child development? Although development continues throughout the life span, your study in this module focuses on development during childhood. Childhood covers the time span of birth to 12 years.

Jot down all the reasons you can think of for learning about child development.

Now, see if your reasons are similar to these:

1 The more you learn about the developmental process, the better you are able to understand why a child behaves in a certain way. An eight-month- old baby cries when left in the care of strangers. If you know that this is typical behaviour for children of this age, you will not misinterpret the behaviour as being caused by something the caregiver has done. Rather, you’d interpret it as a baby’s typical reaction at this age and offer comfort.

2 Appropriate caregiving strategies are based on child development information. If you know that children learn by imitating or copying others, you will not hit children. This is because, if you do, you know that children have learnt hitting behaviour from you and will use it on others.

3 Learning about child development gives insights into your own development. You’ll learn how you have developed certain attitudes towards children and their behaviour and needs and how you have developed certain responses when caring for them. If, during your childhood, you didn’t have books read to you or if books were not valued in your home, you might think that books are unimportant in a child’s life and might not place much value on reading books to children. As you study child development, you will come to realise the value of books and how a child’s exposure to a range of books positively affects development in many areas.

4 Learning about child development enables you to identify important influences on a child’s development and helps you understand that how your care for children will influence their behaviour and development. I am sure you know that three-year-olds love to ask questions. They will ask questions about everything and anything. Your response to their questions will influence how children feel about themselves. If you constantly respond to questions in a negative way, children learn that they are seen as stupid and unimportant, that curiosity is annoying and that they are not worthwhile people. Examples of negative responses are: ‘Not now, I’m too busy’, ‘That’s a silly question—why do you want to know that?’ and ‘Go away—I’m sick and tired of your stupid questions’.

If you constantly respond to questions in a positive way, children learn they are valued, that what they say is important and they feel good about themselves. Examples of positive responses are: ‘That’s a really interesting question’, ‘Let’s look up a book to find the answer to that one’, and ‘You really ask some good questions!’.

5 Learning about child development enables you to provide an environment that has a positive influence on children’s development. Having knowledge of child development enables you to organise activities that are appropriate for the child’s developmental stage. For example, if you know 18-month-old children are still developing control of their fingers and the small muscles in their hands, you know that thick crayons and small, stubby, non-toxic textas and large pieces of paper to draw on are more appropriate for this age than ordinary coloured pencils and colouring-in books.

6 If you have an understanding of typical development, you’ll be alert to possible concerns about a child’s development. If you know that the typical three-year-old speaks in sentences and can be clearly understood by adults and other children, you have a basis on which to feel concerned about a three-year-old who is not talking at all or whose language can’t be understood. Your developmental knowledge gives a firm foundation for your concern—your concern will not be based on a ‘feeling’.

7 If you have knowledge of typical child development, you will have realistic expectations of what children are capable of doing at certain ages. If you know that two-year-olds have limited coordination skills, you’ll be realistic about the kind of mess they make at meals. They’ll drop food on the floor. They’ll have difficulty using a spoon or fork and often will resort to using their hands. If you know that this is typical behaviour, you won’t expect the two- year-old to be neat, remain clean and be able to cut their own food. You’ll be able to accept that the child is still learning and will help the child develop the appropriate skills over time.

Principles of development When we talk about child development, it’s important that we understand the basic principles that govern the developmental process.

Four basic principles of development have been identified:

Development is orderly, sequential and predictable.

There are individual differences in development.

Development is influenced by maturation and learning.

There are sensitive periods during the life span for the development of some behaviours or skills.

Principle 1: Development is orderly, sequential and predictable Generally speaking, all human beings go through the same steps in development as they grow. They also develop certain behaviours at about the same time in their lives. This general pattern of development is called typical or average development.

Let’s look at the skill of walking. Before children learn to walk, most of them go through this predictable sequence of skills:

neck and head control

shoulder and arm control

sitting with support

sitting without support

crawling

able to pull self up using furniture or other aids

able to stand alone

able to walk alone.

As childcare workers, it is useful to know that development is orderly and that it follows the same sequence for all children. We can make predictions about when a behaviour will appear. We also need to support children to practise and extend their existing skills so that they can progress to the next stage.

It is also useful to know that when a particular skill or behaviour does not develop at an expected time then it may be an indication that the child may need special help and we may have to seek the support of specialists in the community. For example, a speech pathologist may be called on to help a child who is slow to develop speech.

Principle 2: Individual differences This first basic principle of development emphasises the sameness in children’s development. The second principle emphasises the individual differences in development. These two principles, at first glance, appear to contradict each other. This is not so. The concept of individual differences refers to the way an individual child’s development varies from typical or average development. Each child is unique, special and different and each child’s development will be individual.

Let’s go back to our example of the development of independent walking. The norm or the typical or average age for the development of this skill is 14 months. This does not mean that all children will begin to walk independently at 14 months. Some children will walk earlier than 14 months and some will walk later. The range of normal development of independent walking is from nine months to 17 months.

The average age or age norm takes into account the wide variation in the ages at which this skill develops in individual children. A child who walks at 11 months is described as achieving the skill earlier than average. A child who walks at 18 months is described as achieving the skill later than average. Both children are within the normal range of development for the skill of walking.

This pattern of individual differences within the general pattern of typical development holds true for a whole range of different developmental behaviours.

So even though (as stated in the first principle) development is orderly, sequential and predictable, we know that children develop particular skills at their own individual rate.

Those who have researched children’s development have established developmental norms or age ranges that provide a guide as to the period when certain skills and behaviours are likely to emerge. Table 2 illustrates this.

Developmental norms for the development of certain skills and behaviours in children

Skill or behaviour Average or typical age Range of normal development

Sits unsupported 10 months 8–12 months Picks up objects using finger 9 months 7–10 months and thumb Shows distress when left 8 months 5–12 months with strangers Toilet-trained during the day 2½ years 18 months–3½ years Says first word 12 months 10–18 months Drinks from a cup 12 months 10–15 months

Walks independently 14 months 9–17 months

Read the description of Polly’s development of these behaviours and skills and then answer the questions.

By the time Polly was six months old, she was able to sit unsupported. At this age, she would often sit on the floor and pick up very small objects using her thumb and finger. Polly was a content and happy baby at home with her mother but became very distressed and cried vigorously when left with a babysitter she didn’t know.

By 15 months, Polly was a very independent little person. She was walking everywhere and a close eye had to be kept on her whereabouts. By this age, she would drink from her own cup and ask for a drink in her own cup using her own particular word, ‘bo’—but we all knew what she wanted.

Before her second birthday, Polly was able to use the potty by herself during the day but she still wore nappies at night.

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Each child will have their own individual pattern of development, usually within the normal range of development.

The importance of individual differences The concept of individual differences emphasises that each child is unique and each child develops at his or her own pace. This may be faster or slower than the average.

It’s important to be tuned in to individual differences between children so that we don’t expect the same developmental level from each child at exactly the same age. As caregivers, we need to respond to each child as an individual.

Individual differences in development are the result of different influences in children’s lives. This brings us to Principle 3.

Principle 3: Maturation, readiness and learning The way a child develops is also influenced by maturation and learning. Maturation refers to our genetic make-up. This provides a biological timetable that controls the timing and patterns of change in our physical characteristics. A person’s maturation timetable controls the timing of such developments as:

loss of first teeth

growth spurts

brain development

timing of puberty.

A person's maturation timetable controls the timing of such developments as loss of first teeth

Maturation occurs regardless of practice and training and brings the person into a state of readiness. A state of readiness is a time when a person learns a behaviour or skill most efficiently and with the greatest ease. That is, the person is maturationally ready to learn a particular skill.

If you have lived with a child waiting for the first loose tooth, you will know that the first tooth will only become loose when the child’s body is ready.

Another example of readiness is that if we tried to teach a child about the calendar at the age of four, it would probably take over one hundred hours. However, if we waited until the child was seven years old, it would take about 15 minutes.

Learning is also an influence on development and this occurs as a result of practice and experience. Maturation, readiness and learning work together as children grow and develop and will each contribute to the timing of the development of children’s particular skills and behaviours.

Learning to swim, for example, shows maturation, readiness and learning all functioning together. It is only when a child can coordinate their arm, leg and head movements, when they have some upper-body strength and can follow instructions, that they can learn to make the correct swimming strokes to stay afloat and move through the water.

The role of both maturation and learning must be considered when planning activities for children. In fact, there are some periods of time during development that seem to be an optimal or best time for children to learn. Research shows that

there are times during childhood development when the child is highly sensitive to new learning. This brings us to Principle 4.

Principle 4: Sensitive periods for learning The concept of sensitive periods simply means that some skills or behaviours emerge more naturally at a particular time, given the right conditions.

For instance, studies have shown that the sensitive period for children to learn a language is before the age of five years —given that they are in an environment that supports language development. Another example would be that children will develop attachments in their first year of life if they enjoy a positive one-to- one relationship with a carer with whom they can also develop a sense of trust as their needs are met.

However, if the environment does not encourage the development of the particular skill or behaviour, it doesn’t mean that it won’t develop. It just means that it will be more difficult and perhaps will take longer for that behaviour or skill to develop once that sensitive period has passed.

A good example of the operation of sensitive periods is in the film Nell with Jodie Foster in the role of the main character. Nell is a young woman who has spent her childhood in isolated circumstances and her language development has been interrupted. You may have already seen this movie as it has been available on video for some time. You might find it interesting to watch this movie knowing what you know now about sensitive periods for the development of some skills and behaviours.

Some researchers have gone so far as to state that there are critical periods for some developmental changes to take place. Recently, a lot of research has been done looking at the brain development of children. This research suggests that experiences in the early years have a permanent effect on brain maturation and growth. If experiences during early childhood are negative (eg malnutrition, lack of cognitive stimulation), the damaging effects on the brain development are permanent and cannot be reversed.

People who are researching the development of the brain during infancy have found that the brains of infants who have strong, secure attachment relationships develop differently to the brains of infants who experience high levels of stress and anxiety. It has been found that, in the long term, infants who experience strong attachments cope better with daily stresses as they move through childhood.

Stages and domains of development So far we have talked about development as one big area of study, To make the study of child development easier, the information needs to be broken down. There is so much information available relating to different aspects of development that if you do not study this information in some organised way you will become hopelessly confused. To make study easier, the subject of human development is usually broken down into stages and areas of development.

Stages of development One way to study patterns of development is to study one stage of development at a time. A stage in development covers a specific time period during the life span. Generally, when a child shifts from one stage to the next, there is thought to be a change in how the child approaches tasks and how the child understands and responds to events and things in his or her world.

The following table shows the main stages of development that occur over the life span. The study of child development covers the first six stages.

Main stages of development over the life span (the childhood period is shaded)

Developmental stage Approximate age

1 Prenatal Conception to birth 2 Neonatal Birth to 4–6 weeks 3 Infancy 4 weeks to 18 months 4 Toddlerhood 18–36 months 5 Preschool 3–6 years 6 Middle childhood 6–12 years 7 Adolescence 12–18 years 8 Young adulthood 18–40 years 9 Middle adulthood 40–65 years 10 Late adulthood 65+

The age ranges given in the second column beside each stage of development are approximate and should be taken only as a guide as to when a person is most likely to be in a particular stage. It is also useful to know that the term age, when studying child development, can have three very different meanings.

When we talk about chronological age, we are referring to a child’s age from the date of birth.

When we discuss maturational age, we mean the age according to the maturation of the child’s body and organs.

The developmental age of the child is determined by comparing the child’s developmental level with typical or average development.

The developmental domains When we talk about child development in each of the stages, we use the term developmental domains. (In some textbooks you may see the term developmental areas.) There are three domains we refer to when studying child development:

the physical domain

the cognitive domain

the social-emotional domain.

The physical domain involves the growth and change in a person’s body and body functions. In this domain, we look at physiological and motor (movement) development as well as the influence of health, illness and nutrition.

The physical domain: locomotor movement —swinging on a rope

The cognitive domain refers to the growth and change of a person’s ability to process information, solve problems and gain knowledge. In this developmental domain we consider the study of brain development, memory, learning, thinking, language and creativity.

The cognitive domain. When telling a story about her toy, this child needs the cognitive skills of thinking, language and creativity.

The social-emotional domain involves the growth and change of our interactions with others, and our feelings. Included in this domain is the study of relationships, emotions, personality and moral development.

The social-emotional domain. Playing at being a doctor, this little boy is also developing emotionally and socially.

While it is convenient to discuss these domains separately, it is important to realise that they do overlap. One domain can influence the other.

The three developmental domains overlap

For example, a six-year-old whose energy is low may not be able to keep up with other six-year-olds in physical games in the playground. This could affect his ability to make friends at school. In this case, the child’s physical development will influence social and emotional development.

See if you can identify the overlap in development in the following areas.

William, aged four, does not yet speak clearly and appears to have difficulty following instructions. What developmental areas do you think could be affected?

William’s language development could affect the way he plays and interacts with other children, so it will affect his social development. It might also influence the feedback he gets from others such as carers and children and this could cause him to have low self-esteem, thus affecting his emotional development. William’s language development may not allow him to experience success when talking through problems so his cognitive development could be affected. Therefore we can see that William’s language development could affect the social-emotional domain and the cognitive domain.

This might be a good time to look at some of the terms that we use when focusing on particular domains. The following should clarify some of the most frequently used words that we associate with those domains.

Domain of development: Physical

Gross motor skills The development and control of the large muscles in activities such as running, jumping, bouncing, etc. Fine motor skills The development and control over small muscles of the hands and fingers so tasks such as drawing, writing and threading can be achieved. Coordination The ability to guide and match the movements of the hand or foot with what is seen. These skills are necessary for soccer, netball or tennis. Balance Messages from inside the body help children become aware of the position of their bodies in space and the ways they must use their muscles to control and balance themselves. This is also known as kinaesthetic awareness. Gymnastic skills are a good example of kinaesthetic skills in action.

Domain of development: Cognitive

Cognitive skills Cognitive skills relate to the child’s ability to remember and process information to reason and solve problems. As our mental abilities develop, our understanding of the world changes. Moral values Children learn a set of values by which they judge a behaviour (either their own or another person’s) as right or wrong. Children develop a conscience and guilt feelings about doing something they know is wrong. This is closely linked to cognitive development. Imagination This is about having ideas and thinking about ways of doing things. Creativity Allows us to put those ideas into a new framework which reflects originality, experimentation, imagination and

exploration. Aesthetics Relates to an appreciation of the beautiful things in the world such as nature and the arts. Language skills The development of a complex communication that enables interaction between people. We categorise language skills into expressive language and receptive language. Expressive language relates to expressing ideas, needs and feelings through talking and writing. Receptive language involves the ability to understand and interpret what others have said or written.

Domain of development: Social-emotional

Social development Relates to the skills we develop to relate to others. Also relates to our learning of the acceptable behaviours, attitudes, beliefs and values of the particular group and society in which we live. Emotional Relates to our ability to know and express our feelings. Our development ability to do this will relate to our self-concept and self- esteem. Self-concept Relates to the picture we have of ourselves in terms of our abilities and qualities. A person’s self-concept is either essentially positive or negative.

Now that you have studied these areas of development and the behaviours that are associated with them, it’s a good time to try the following activity.

Activity 7

No doubt you found that this task was more challenging than you first anticipated. The domains do overlap and sometimes the things children do require development in more than one domain.

The whole child You have just learnt that child development is most easily studied as a series of stages—with different domains or areas of development looked at in each stage. As stated previously, it is easier to study development in small bits. However, it is important to keep in mind the holistic nature of development.

The holistic nature of development emphasises that no single area of development occurs in isolation. For example, a child who has a positive self- concept and high self-esteem is more likely to interact with others and so gets practice at using social skills.

Each area influences other areas of development. Children’s development needs to be looked at as a whole. When you care for a child, you must care for the whole child, not just for one aspect of the child’s development. As you will learn, quality care nurtures and enhances the development of the whole child.

Influences and interrelations with other developmental areas All the developmental areas - physical, social-emotional, language and cognitive, inter-relate and impact on each other. Vygotsky saw a strong link between cognitive development and the development of language. Certainly language is an important tool in learning. It is difficult to imagine how we would learn without the ability to ask questions, discuss ideas with others, compare outcomes, debate attitudes and positions, or talk our way through problems with inner speech.

Physical development allows us to further explore the world around us. Note the importance Piaget gives to sensorimotor exploration for young children, and observe how much more complex our ability to explore and discover becomes as gross and fine motor skills are refined. Physical development allows us to play, and cognitive theorists see play as an important tool for children's learning.

Problem solving goes hand-in-hand with the development of social skills. All social interaction involves solving complex problems. Infants must solve the problem of gaining the attention of adults around them and ensuring their needs are attended to. Toddlers must solve the problem of sharing space with others without conflict, preschoolers and school age children must begin to solve the problems associated with friendships, fairness, and finding a place in the world. This is all part of social problem solving.

Theory of Mind is a theory that refers to a child's understanding of the mental states and processes underlying people's behaviour. This understanding indicates an early stage of metacognition, or understanding how you think, which we will discuss later in this topic. Children as young as 3 or 4 can understand that you cannot predict what others will do just from observing the situation, but you must take into account the other person's desires and beliefs. Young children develop theories about the ideas, beliefs and desires of others, and how these will impact on their behaviours. Research from this theory shows that preschoolers can problem solve and predict outcomes using their social awareness of others.

Brain research A child's emotional well being will also directly impact on that child's ability to learn. Recent research on brain development has shown that the brain is sensitive to stresses and traumas, particularly in the first few years. Negative experiences such as trauma or abuse can result in tendencies to anxiety, depression and the inability to form healthy attachments later in life. Ongoing negative childhood experiences can result in poor processing and problem solving abilities. These outcomes are the result of chemical responses to stress in young children, which alters their ability to deal with later stresses.

Activity 8

Influences on development

Nature versus nurture What makes children turn out the way they do? This question is often asked by parents, childcare workers, teachers, the media, researchers and people who have an interest in children.

How often have your heard comments like, ‘Oh, he has his grandfather’s sense of humour’ or ‘She is so independent for her age You know that’s because her parents are working and she has been attending child care.’

It’s generally thought that a child’s development is shaped by two main influences:

nature (what has been inherited)

nurture (the environmental influences).

Remember, earlier in this unit you learnt about Principle 3 which is about the influence of maturation, readiness and learning on the development process.

In a way, we got a little ahead of ourselves because these specific influences are one aspect of the two broad influences on development: heredity and environment. A child’s maturational timetable and readiness is controlled by their heredity. Learning is an environmental influence on the developmental process.

Heredity’s (nature’s) influence on development Heredity is considered to be the biological package of information that comes to us from our parents. This information is held in units called genes. In human beings, these genes make up the biological threads called chromosomes.

A baby inherits characteristics from both parents. These characteristics are transmitted by specific genes which are located on specific chromosomes. At the moment of conception, these genes are passed from the mother and the father to the baby.

The genes are located on chromosomes in each living cell of the body. Humans have 46 chromosomes. Of these, 23 are inherited from the father (contained in the sperm) and 23 come from the mother (contained in the ovum). At the moment of fertilisation of the ovum by the sperm, the baby’s genetic blueprint is established. Many of a child’s characteristics are determined at that time.

Heredity contributes to development because we inherit different characteristics and abilities from our parents. Each person has a unique set of genes (except identical twins) and therefore each person is unique. Genetic information is passed from generation to generation. For example, a child is born with red hair. Neither parent has red hair. Looking back at earlier generations, you find that the father’s great grandmother had red hair.

Some characteristics that are determined by heredity are:

gender—male or female

rate of maturation

eye colour

hair colour and type of hair

baldness or hair loss

potential height

body structure and frame

the presence of freckles

skin colour

temperament.

Some abilities that appear to be influenced by our heredity are:

intellectual potential

sporting potential

musical potential

creative talent (eg, talent in drawing).

The environment’s (nurture’s) influence on development The environment encompasses all aspects of a child’s world that have either a direct or indirect effect on that child—through all the experiences, relationships, interactions and learning in the child’s life, including the family, school, community and the culture of the society the child is growing up in.

Different children have different environmental experiences. The impact of environmental influences is not the same for all children. Because each child is an individual, the type of impact that a particular environmental influence will have is individual for each child. Each child lives in a physical environment and social environment.

The physical environment The physical environment includes such things as the mother’s health during pregnancy and after birth as well as food, housing, clothes and health care. Children need to be healthy and looked after physically. This is the basis for all development. Children who are hungry, cold, tired, sick or in physical discomfort must have these needs met first.

Here is a summary of some of the key influences from the physical environment:

health

amount and type of nutrition

housing and shelter

whether the family lives in a rural or urban setting

financial resources.

The social environment Each child grows and develops in a complex social environment with a range of people. The child is part of a family and the family is part of a social group and a particular cultural group that lives in a specific society. That society is divided into different social classes, and so on. All these different components of the social environment interact with each other to affect the development of an individual child.

Here is a summary of some of the key influences from the social environment:

family

teachers and carers

culture

friends

media

religion

education.

The nature-nurture controversy It is accepted that both heredity and the environment influence the developmental process; the tricky thing is to know which characteristics are due to heredity and which are due to the environment. People researching in the area of child development argue about how much of each child’s development is due to the influence of heredity and how much is due to the influence of the environment. This is known as the nature-nurture controversy.

I am sure that at some time you have wondered whether some behaviour or characteristic was the result of a child being born that way or whether it developed as result of some influence in their lives. Most researchers agree that development is the result of both nature (heredity) and nurture (the environment). However, exactly how much is nature and how much is nurture? This continues to be debated.

Our development is influenced by many factors. These factors are going to help determine when you achieve certain milestones and also to some extent your proficiency at these skills and behaviours.

Genetic timetabling The development of skills will occur at a predetermined time.

Our bodies contain trillions of cells. Each cell contains chromosomes which hold all our genetic information.

Chromosomes will determine your eye colour, when you walk, your gender and so on.

The actual substance that determines these things is DNA.

Within the DNA you will find genes. The genes are a segment of DNA on the chromosome.

Because your genes are inherited from your parents you will often find that you have many characteristics in common with your parents and siblings.

Environmental influences Teratogens are those chemical and other external compounds that can affect the developing foetus and child, for example alcohol and other drugs, pollution, medication, mercury and other elements, radiation and so on.

Opportunities given to the child to explore their environment are influential.

Caregiving strategies used with the child also affect their development.

Culture and ethnicity The cultural contexts that families are operating within will affect all aspects of a child's upbringing including growth, attitudes, beliefs and skill development.

Emotions are dealt with by different cultures in many different ways. Hyson (1990) outlines how Javanese culture encourages reserved, distant relationships between family members. Intense expressions of feelings are discouraged. Korean culture also discourages open displays of emotions.

Families will model appropriate emotional behaviours and then reinforce the appropriate methods to children.

Children from cultural backgrounds different to their carers will face difficulties. If carers do not understand how emotions are dealt with in the different cultures that they are working with, misunderstandings and distress will arise (Hyson 1990).

Family and socio-economic status Children who have the opportunity to attend high-quality programs and to access resources to further develop skills, such as playing sport, have an advantage in the development of their skills.

Socio-economic status (SES) has a direct impact on the way parents talk to and discipline their children. Parents in higher SES groups tend to talk to and stimulate their infants more, while the lower SES parents tend to be more authoritative in their interactions (Berk 1999).

The quality of the caregiving and interactions within the family has the greatest impact.

Birth order impacts development. The oldest child, while tending to be capable and resourceful, has better language skills and often a higher IQ than their siblings but can also be conforming and less socially skilled.

Younger siblings tend to be liked more.

Parenting styles Three types of parenting styles have been identified by Diana Baumrind (Berk 1996). The table below summarises the parent behaviours and the outcomes or behaviours of children.

Parenting style Parent behaviours Children’s outcomes

Authoritative Expect appropriate maturity Children develop well from children Happy Set limits consistently Lively Are affectionate Attempt and master new Children are allowed to tasks express their point of view Self-controlled Children participate in Friendly and cooperative family decisions Authoritarian Unresponsive and rejecting Anxious when children do not obey Withdrawn Children are not negotiated Unhappy with React with hostility Children are punished for Quick to anger being disobedient Openly defiant Dependant Permissive Very accepting of children Difficulty controlling Little or no discipline or impulses limits set Demanding of adults Lack of persistence Adapted from Berk (1996)

Theories of development

Child development is part of a relatively new area of scientific study called psychology. Psychology only had its beginnings during the late part of the nineteenth century and is now a respected area of research and study in universities. In particular, there has been great interest in research and study in the branch of psychology called child development. Consequently, a great many theories have been put forward to explain why and how children develop.

You may think that what happens in research in universities does not really concern us in our everyday life. It is surprising how much of our thinking and ideas about children’s behaviour is influenced by the research that has been done and the theories that have been developed.

What is a theory? The Macquarie Dictionary (3rd edition, 1997) defines theory as ‘…a proposed explanation whose status is still conjectural, in contrast to well-established propositions that are regarded as reporting matters of actual fact’.

A good theory suggests ideas that need to be researched and a theory will be modified as new information is gathered from the research.

Child development theories Many theories have been suggested to explain children’s behaviour and development. Different theories focus on different aspects of development and behaviour.

Some theories emphasise the importance of the environment and some theories emphasise the importance of heredity. Some theories focus on a particular area of development (eg cognitive or personality development) and other theories focus on processes in development and are relevant to all areas of development. Theories are also influenced by the life experiences of the theorists.

For example, the child psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1935) grew up in the communist Soviet Union. Communism is based on the principle of an equal share for all. Vygotsky also came from a large family and his interest in child development came from his efforts to help children with disabilities fulfil their potential. His theory about cognitive development emphasises social relationships and interaction in the community in which the child lives. Vygotsky’s life experiences had a great influence on the theory he developed.

Now let’s have a look at the background of another theorist, the psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980), who was also interested in cognitive development. Piaget grew up in Europe. He was an only child and grew up in a household that emphasised scientific study and academic pursuits.

He first studied in the area of the natural sciences. His main source of information about children’s behaviour was his own three children. His theory about cognitive development emphasises the child as an individual and learning through discovery and experimentation. So, just like Vygotsky, Piaget’s life experiences had a great influence on the type of theory he developed.

The theories of both Vygotsky and Piaget are well respected and offer ideas that are useful in explaining the processes in cognitive development.

There is no such thing as a right or wrong theory about child development, there are just different theories. You might reject a theory because it does not appeal to you as an explanation for children’s behaviour and development. As you read about another theory, you will nod your head and say to yourself, ‘this makes sense’. Some theories will appeal to you and perhaps be a big influence on the way you interact with and care for children. Other theories will not. It is a bit like a person’s preferences for food or clothes. You will prefer some foods or styles of clothes over others but that does not mean that another person’s ideas about these things is wrong. There are no wrong theories about child development, just different theories.

However, some theories have stood up well over time, and some have been validated by research. These theories could be seen as more valid than other theories.

The value of research in working with theories of child development There are a lot of child development theories around. As a person working with children, child development theories will help to provide you with:

reasons for children’s behaviour (eg research has shown that there may be a link between child aggression and violence on TV)

practical ways of responding to children’s behaviour (eg research has suggested a number of strategies to lessen children’s aggressive behaviour)

an idea of what sort of behaviour children will develop in the future (eg, research suggests that if a child is unable to develop a sense of trust with a primary caregiver because their needs are not consistently met, it may be difficult for that child to develop trusting relationships later in life)

strategies to use to support children’s development (eg research has suggested ways to encourage children to develop negotiating behaviours such as ‘use your words to tell so and so that you are upset’ from a young age).

Of course, what you learn about each of the above will depend on the theory or theories that you study and then what you decide to accept or reject.

Note: Child development theories also provide direction for the lawmakers in our society; for example, research into the effect of physical punishment on children was partially responsible for the use of the cane being banned and made illegal in NSW public schools.

How do people come up with a theory? Have you ever said something like:

‘I bet Sadie behaves that way because…’, or

‘I think the reason Josie does that is because…’, or

‘My theory is that children…’?

These are the kind of statements that lead to the development of a new theory. You put forward an idea or a set of ideas to explain something that you may have observed. Researchers in the child development area gather evidence to support or not support the ideas that have been suggested.

Use of theories There are a number of different child development theorists around. All have very valid views that we need to consider. Many children's services' professionals believe in taking an eclectic approach to caring for children. This means knowing the theories, understanding the essence of each and using parts of the theory appropriately depending on the child and the situation.

Theories must primarily be useful to you. They are a tool to help you interpret, predict and work with what you observe, but are of no use without your observations and knowledge of each child's behaviours, abilities, and personality.

Support the development of children

Use language at an appropriate level of complexity and friendliness Children gain their understanding of the social world and their place in it from what they experience. If adults respond to a child frequently with warm, caring and respectful interactions, the child will build an image of themself as someone who is cared about, who has worthwhile ideas and who is interesting to others.

What kind of behaviours should we use in our interactions with children that show them that we care about them and are interested in what they communicate?

As a sound foundation, we need to make sure of our motivation. Children are very quick to recognise when they are being patronised or when communication is not genuine. In everything you do and say, you need to show children that you enjoy being in their company and are interested in their communications. Making time to listen and respond to each child is more important than almost any other aspect of our work with children.

Some of the ways you can ensure that your interactions with children are frequent, caring and respectful are outlined below.

spend time with each child

communicate interest and respect

follow up on interactions

respect children's privacy.

Initiate communication with a child relevant to their interests and capabilities When communicating with children you should:

Listen carefully to what children are saying.

Check that you understand what the child means.

Use words and sentences that the child can understand.

Be interested in what children are saying, by accepting their ideas, interests and feelings.

Talk to them about what you know interests them — a child may have a special interest in dinosaurs so bring that into the conversation.

Model the behaviours you want to encourage.

Think about both verbal and non-verbal communication.

Will the communication be enjoyable?

Is the communication honest?

As carers we sometimes think it is our role to direct children’s activity and conversations so that they have an ‘educational’ purpose. Sometimes we tend to ask questions that do not have any significance or interest for children. Unfortunately neither of these approaches encourage children to continue conversations or explore new ideas themselves.

Demonstrate developmentally appropriate expectations of the child’s behaviour We have looked at what children can usually do at a particular age—the expectations you have of your child should be realistic.

Would you expect a toddler to share their bike?

Children do not have the cognitive ability to understand the concept of sharing. They want what they want and they usually have difficulty waiting for anything. We can introduce the

Would you expect a three year old to understand that you might feel differently to them?

Children remain in an egocentric state until around four years old, according to Piaget. The concept of thinking beyond their own feelings may sometimes be evident but highly unlikely and you could certainly not expect this to happen.

Would you expect a six year old to complete a complex mathematical problem?

The majority of six-year-old children are beginning to grasp the concepts of numeracy and may well understand how to add the number of objects and even be able to take numbers away from others. However, you should never expect them to complete complex problems.

Would you expect an eleven year old to listen to you and take no notice of their friends?

The social development of children as they approach puberty is significant and their friendships become a very powerful influence in their life. While the values and morals of the family and other influential people will be there for the children, you could never expect them to listen to you exclusively.

Realistic expectations It is by looking at the stage a child is at that you will get an idea of whether or not their behaviour is typical, which will affect how you deal with their behaviour. An example might be how differently you would deal with a toddler biting another child to a five year old biting another child.

There is often an expectation that children will learn to share very early in their life but is it realistic? How will those two-year-olds feel as they sit in the sandpit with you and you tell them they have to share the shovels and buckets? Do adults, in fact, demonstrate an appropriate role model?

Use behaviour management strategies appropriate to the child’s level of understanding

Behaviour guidance Children need good positive behaviour guidance. It will help them learn in time to control their own behaviour. It’s the behaviour that is unacceptable, not the child. Reassure the child that they are still loved. Look at the causes and circumstances surrounding the behaviour.

Praise. Praise and reward acceptable behaviour.

Be judicious about punishment. If you feel it is necessary to use punishment (but never physical punishment), use it wisely and fairly—and as little as possible. Positive behaviour is not based on fear and threats. If, for some reason, you’re in a bad mood on a particular day, don’t let that influence what you say or do.

Communicate positively. Do not tell the child what not to do. Tell them what to do, instead. For example, say ‘Walk inside’, not ‘Don’t run inside’.

Explain clearly. Explain why a behaviour is unacceptable, making sure you explain at the child’s level of understanding.

Adjust the environment. Look at the environment to see what changes can be made to avoid certain behaviours constantly occurring. For example, if there are always fights breaking out in the block corner, you might relocate the blocks. If there are frequent arguments about puzzles, then you may need to buy more puzzles.

Be consistent. Children will not learn what is acceptable behaviour if a certain behaviour is laughed at one day and then punished the next.

Punishment Punishment is only one aspect of positive behaviour guidance. Punishment refers to children experiencing an unpleasant consequence for a particular behaviour— for example, not being allowed to play with a particular toy for a short period of time. Physical punishment should never be used.

If there is a caring relationship between the child and the caregiver, a reprimand or a temporary loss of a privilege will be enough. This should be combined with rewards and privileges for good behaviour.

Foster the development of independence through type of assistance provided We have learnt that toddlers need to feel independent. They need to have support, encouragement, achievable tasks and time to do things for themselves. They need to have their attempts at independence recognised and valued if they are to develop a sense of autonomy and positive self-esteem.

We can promote toddlers’ striving for autonomy by providing an environment and materials that allow as much independence as possible. We do, however, need to set reasonable limits on behaviour and be consistent in managing and maintaining limits. The limits should be put in place to protect the child.