Personal Empowerment Through Sport

PERSONAL EMPOWERMENT THROUGH SPORT AND PHYSICAL FITNESS ACTIVITY: PERSPECTIVE FROM MALE COLLEGE STUDENTS WITH PHYSICAL AND SENSORY DISABILITIES.

BY: MOHAD. ANIZU BIN HAJI MOHD. NOR DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL EDUCATION FACULTY OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY MALAYSIA SKUDAI, JOHOR MALAYSIA.

PRESENTED AT: CAMPAIGN’99 CONFERENCE FOR THE ASIAN AND PACIFIC DECADE OF DISABLED PERSONS

VENUE: PALACE OF THE GOLDEN HORSES KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA FROM NOVEMBER 27 - DECEMBER 3 I) Introduction

Opportunities and encouragement to develop qualities and skills that can personally empower individuals with disabilities are limited. One possible means to remove this "empowerment deficit" is through participation in sport and physical fitness activity. The purpose of the study was to examine the empowering capability of this activity context. In-depth, tape-recorded interviews were conducted with 20 male college students with physical or sensory disabilities. Questions focused on experiences and perceived outcomes related to their involvement in sport and physical fitness activity.

Responses indicated activity participation was associated with three empowerment outcomes that individuals with disabilities often have limited opportunities to achieve: (a) perceived competence as a social actor, (b) facilitation of goal attainment, and (c) social integration. Participants were empowered at the individual level as these outcomes enhanced perceptions of their effectiveness as social actors and provided a greater sense of control in their lives.

As a result of socialization experiences and restricted life chances, individuals with disabilities may have difficulty perceiving themselves as competent and effective members of society (Phillips, 1985; Sherrill, 1986, 1997). Often lacking the employment and educational opportunities necessary to enhance their social position, individuals with physical and sensory disabilities have limited power over their lives (Labanowicz, 1978; Lloyd, 1992; Nixon, 1984; Shephard, 1990). Such a condition of powerlessness significantly restricts their range of possibilities and impacts the degree of influence they have over life decision (McWhirter, 1991).

2 II Personal Empowerment Through Sport and Physical Fitness Activity

Personal empowerment results when feelings of powerlessness are reduced through the acquisition of skills and self-perceptions that encourage individuals to become causal agents in daily events (Gutierrez, 1990; Kopp, 1989; McWhirter, 1991; Rappaport, 1983- 1984). The development of qualities such as positive self-esteem, perceived competence, self-efficacy, and an internal locus of control facilitate empowerment at the personal level (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Rappaport, 1985; Simmons & Parsons, 1983; Staples, 1990).

One possible site for empowering individuals with physical and sensory disabilities is sport and physical fitness activity. Participation in this setting emphasizes qualities such achievement and mastery, and often encourages the development of self-efficacy, goal setting, cooperation, and competitiveness (Greenwood, Dzewaltowski, & French, 1990; McPherson, Curtis, & Loy, 1989). Moreover, the physical activity context is one in which participants can respond to challenge and engage in problem-solving behaviour. Therefore, individuals may develop personally empowering skills that not only contribute to success in physical activities, but also enhance effectiveness in other life situations (see table 1 on page 4).

As the focus of this paper relates to the construct of empowerment, the data analysis identified outcomes of sport and physical fitness participation that provide skills and qualities that individuals with physical or sensory disabilities have had limited opportunity to develop. However, the reader should not necessarily assume respondents indicated that all dimensions of their participation were personally empowering. Although the vast majority of comments portrayed positive outcomes of sport and physical fitness activity, a few individuals mentioned negative aspects of their involvement. Table 1: Empowerment Themes and Concepts

Legend for Chart:

A - Empowerment Themes

B - Concepts (sub-themes)

1. Competence as Social Actor Self-Confidence Awareness of Potential Independence and Control Sense of Accomplishment Self-Actualisation

2. Facilitation of Goal Attainment Setting and Pursuing Goals Determination Competitiveness

3. Social Integration Bonding Broadening Social Skills and Experiences Social Inclusiveness

For example, outcomes such as injuries, overemphasis on sports and competition trivialization of participation by onlookers, dependence on others to assist with participation, others' lack of knowledge about working with individuals with disabilities in the sport context, and self-awareness of physical limitations were exceptions to the positive findings. Such experiences could counter some of the acquired gains by decreasing individuals' perceptions of their physical and social competencies.

Analysis of interview comments uncovered several outcomes of sport and physical fitness activity participation that were empowering at the personal level for male college students with physical or sensory disabilities. These outcomes were grouped into three broader empowerment categories. The major categories included: (a) perceived competence as a social actor, (b) facilitation of goal attainment, and (c) social integration. Direct quotes from participants (identified by pseudonym) are used to illustrate the various themes and concepts emerging from the interviews. a) Perceived Competence as a Social Actor

Self-confidence. The first factor contributing to the emergence of this perception of competence was the ability of sport and physical fitness activity to facilitate self- confidence and a strong belief in self. When asked what they gained through sport and physical fitness activity, nearly all respondents mentioned how perceptions of the self were changed as a result of their participation. Students not only discussed the confidence acquired in performing the actual physical activity, but also emphasized how these positive self-perceptions assisted in areas outside this setting. For example, respondents indicated that such participation "gives you a sense of self you don't get any other way", "lifts your attitude and really helps you feel more like a person that can walk", and "helps me feel better, makes me a better person within myself."

In addition, physical activity resulted in "a better outlook on life", "feeling really proud of myself', and "thinking better of yourself." A 20-year-old respondent with congenital degenerative arthritis also reflected favourably on his experiences. Henry had participated in a variety of physical activities, including two years of wheelchair basketball. Although nearly all respondents mentioned enhanced perceptions of competence, students with more recently acquired disabilities appeared to discuss these outcomes more frequently than individuals with congenital or long-term disabilities.

These findings tends to parallel previous research that emphasizes the importance of the age of onset of the disability and its relationship to dimensions of self-concept and self- esteem (Hopper, 1986; Sherrill, 1997). In general, these empowering outcomes encouraged respondents to perceive themselves as capable and having control over life events. Views of oneself as an effective social actor counter negative self-perceptions that minimize success in a variety of contexts. b) Facilitation of Goal Attainment

Due to societal and disability-related obstacles, individuals with physical and sensory disabilities often experience difficulties mastering tasks and attaining success (Bowe, 1978; Turner & Noh, 1988). Barriers place substantial demands on individuals with disabilities and thus limit their chances for achieving goals in a wide range of areas. Central to such goal attainment is the availability of supportive or adaptive environments that provide opportunities for learning and practicing strategies necessary to achieve a desired outcome. Based on interview responses, sport and physical fitness' activity appeared to be one context in which individuals with physical and sensory disabilities could gain experience and reinforcement in achieving goals. Three empowering dimensions of the process of goal attainment were identified. Setting and pursuing goals. The first factor related to goal attainment was that sport and physical fitness activity encouraged individuals to set and pursue goals. Through such goal formulation, several respondents thought they were better prepared to seek and accomplish tasks both in and out of the physical activity context. Therefore, learning skills that facilitate goal attainment was empowering for individuals with physical and sensory disabilities. Similar findings have been reported elsewhere in the research literature.

Valliant et al. (1985) concluded that sport participation provided persons with disabilities the opportunity “to direct energy in a goal-directed way” (p. 928). In addition, Hutzler (1990) reported that one of the perceived outcomes of sport participation for athletes in wheelchair sports related to the "generalization of competent action in sports to other life aspects" (p. 49). The goal setting, determination, and competitiveness acquired through sport and physical fitness activity help develop an active and assertive approach to life situations. Such an orientation assists individuals in overcoming barriers that limit their advancement in society. c) Social Integration

Individuals with physical and sensory disabilities often find their social interactions and social networks limited (Elliott, Ziegler, Airman, & Scott, 1982; Shephard, 1990). Isolation from others may affect the range of life experiences and influence effectiveness in social situations (Berryman, James, & Trader, 1991). Participation in sport and physical fitness activity furnished respondents with experiences that broadened their social contacts. Based on interview responses, three empowering outcomes related to social integration were identified.

Bonding. First, sport and physical fitness activity provided a large majority of respondents an opportunity to bond and connect with others. Findings indicated that participation fostered a feeling of interpersonal inclusiveness rather than the isolation these individuals sometimes experience. Respondents indicated that their activity involvement gave them "a sense of belonging", provided "a feeling of togetherness", and made them "feel more like one of the crowd."

Based on interview responses, individuals with physical and sensory disabilities became more socially integrated through sport and physical fitness activity. This outcome appeared especially salient for students who used a wheelchair and for respondents with an acquired disability. Members of both these subgroups were more likely to discuss how sport and physical fitness activity made them feel part of society. Overall, participation provided respondents an opportunity to bond and connect with other individuals, enhance social skills and broaden social experiences, and increase societal inclusiveness. Past research has reported similar outcomes relative to sport participation for individuals with disabilities. Valliant et al. (1985) concluded that "interaction with newfound peers provided the necessary incentive to reshape their lives in a positive direction" (p. 928), while Hutzler (1990) discussed the social acceptance resulting from wheelchair sport participation for athletes.

Similarly, Blinde and McClung (1997) reported that participation in recreational activities expanded the social realm and experience of individuals with physical disabilities and encouraged them to initiate activity in other social domains. The outcomes discussed by these students were empowering by facilitating their social contacts and expanding their interpersonal networks. Thus, this type of empowerment strengthens the likelihood of an individual's success in a social context.

III Conclusions

Participation in sport and physical fitness activity represents one means by which individuals with physical and sensory disabilities empower themselves. Despite efforts to tap negative or un-empowering aspects of participation during the interviews, the overwhelming majority of responses highlighted positive outcomes from participation. Overall, such involvement was empowering for this group as it increased perceptions of competence as a social actor, facilitated goal attainment, and enhanced social integration. Because individuals with physical and sensory disabilities often have limited opportunities to experience such outcomes, the impact of participation was noteworthy.

An interesting observation derived from the comments of respondents was that the type and extent of physical activity or the organizational structure surrounding participation generally did not affect empowering outcomes. Whether an individual participated in an informal recreational context or whether involvement was in a formally organized, competitive activity did not appear to impact the frequency or type of empowerment. For example, a competitive orientation was achieved by lifting weights as well as by participating on a wheelchair basketball team. Moreover, awareness of one's potential was enhanced through such diverse activities as horseback riding and wheelchair road- racing. Thus, the salient factor affecting empowerment seemed to be the actual participation experience rather than the type or structure of the activity.

Although sport and physical fitness activity was shown to be an empowering context for these male college students, aspects of their experiences may not parallel those of men without physical or sensory disabilities. Involvement in this context provided respondents a degree of inclusiveness and acceptability that individuals without disabilities might not notice. When describing the positive aspects of their experience, students used such phrases as "people want you", "feeling more like the crowd", and "I am part of everybody else." Rather than emphasizing instrumental outcomes such as victory, domination, and power, these men often discussed gains that appear so basic that they might be un-recognized by many individuals without disabilities. This finding parallels the qualitative outcomes reported by Blinde and McClung (1997) in their research examining the participation experiences of men and women with physical disabilities in various recreational activities.

In general, respondents emphasized the participation experience itself rather than the extrinsic rewards often associated with activity participation. Discussion of such basic gains as increasing self worth and social acceptability indicates that for these individuals with disabilities, the activity context is a site for both transforming and legitimising the self.

As evident in the responses of students with physical and sensory disabilities, qualities and skills learned through sport and physical fitness activity heightened their sense of "participatory competence" (Kieffer, 1983-1984, p.18) and promoted the adoption of a proactive approach to life situations. This involvement also broadened individuals' social experiences and strengthened their beliefs about being effective social actors. Similar to outcomes discussed by Hutzler (1990), empowerment was an enabling process whereby respondents modified thoughts about their capabilities and perceived themselves as having greater control over life events.

The increased sense of control gained through the process of empowerment challenged internalisation’s that viewed the self as dominated by outside forces. Studying the processes by which these outcomes are learned could provide information about the conditions most conducive for empowering individuals with physical and sensory disabilities. This self-empowerment represents the first step in the process of individuals with disabilities empowering themselves as a group.

Although these foundational outcomes facilitate an individual’s personal power and participation in life events, this level of empowerment does not assure success in confronting a society characterized by “stigma, discrimination, and functional limitations" (Frank, 1988, p.112). Becoming empowered as a group necessitates more than the development of individual skills. To make effective use of the personally empowering skills and qualities learned through sport and physical fitness activity, these individuals need to be sensitive to the societal processes that disadvantage them as a group. Through such an understanding, skills and qualities learned at the individual and group levels can be utilized to confront societal forces that create and perpetuate oppression (Kieffer, 1983-1984). As the sample for this study consisted exclusively of men, these findings cannot be generalized to the sport and physical fitness experiences of women with physical and sensory disabilities (Sherrill & Williams, 1996). Gender has been identified as an important variable when discussing the life experiences of individuals with disabilities (Henderson & Bedini, 1995; Watkinson & Calzonetti, 1989). Female respondents have been recruited so possible unique dimensions of their sport and physical fitness activity experiences can be explored.

Whereas sport and physical fitness activity represents a normative domain for men regardless of their physical ability, the entry of women with disabilities into the physical activity context may present interesting dynamics. Women with disabilities who participate in this physical activity setting violate the normative assumption of sport and physical fitness activity as a context for both men and the physically able. Furthermore, as women with disabilities experience greater discrimination in the sport context than men with disabilities (Sherrill, 1993), the interplay between gender and disability in this traditional male domain should be examined.

In addition to gender dynamics, other aspects of the demographics and life experience of respondents may somewhat limit the generalizability of findings. Future research should investigate the impact of different background factors on the experiences of individuals with physical and sensory disabilities. For example, the influence of factors such as ethnicity, social class, age, type of disability, length of disability, type of activity participation, duration of activity involvement, and integrated versus segregated participation settings could be significant in differentiating outcomes derived from sport and physical fitness involvement.

Examination of factors similar to those listed also has been suggested by other researchers (Blinde & McClung, 1997; Brasile, Kieiber, & Hamisch, 1991; DePauw, 1986, 1988; Sherrill, 1997; Sherrijl & Williams, 1996; White & Duda, 1993). Sampling techniques need to ensure sufficient sample sizes so that subgroup comparisons can be undertaken.. References

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