Different Types of Vocabulary

Compiled by Tofilau Siliva Gaugatao. I also wish to acknowledge the work of the Aaron Wilson, Robyn de Thierry, and Therese Ireland

Compiled by Tofilau Siliva Gaugatao. June 2010. Team Solutions, The University of Auckland, NZ. Different Types of Vocabulary

Nation [2004] suggests that learners need to know four types of words to be successful in academic learning. They are:

 High frequency words - about 2000 words, most secondary students know these [not new learners of English] . Specific subject words - technical [monoprinting, brushstrokes] and general words with specific meaning eg. element, line, harmony . Need to understand these words to understand the concepts of the subject. Subject teacher is the best person to teach these words.

 General academic - general instructional terms, labels for concepts and processes that are used across many learning areas. eg. interpret, identify

 Specialist academic words are words that have an everyday meaning as well as a subject - specific meaning. For example in art – organic, positive, negative, tone. Teachers need to be aware of this and model the use of these words in different contexts.

 Low frequency words. about 2% of the text and usually where a real-life context is provided. Modelling the use of context clues can help with the understanding of these words.

How do students learn vocabulary? We learn new vocabulary [words and phrases] all the time as part of our everyday life. This is incidental learning. However direct teaching is required to learn academic and subject specific vocabulary. Reading provides for general vocabulary growth. [Nagy 1988

There are two levels of knowing vocabulary:  Words we understand when we hear or read "receptive vocabulary" - much larger than our productive vocabulary.  Words we use in speaking and writing " productive vocabulary" requires opportunity to practice using - need for repetition.

What we know about learning new words/terms  Takes multiple exposures [10 -12] to "know" a new word. Repetition!  Linking new words to known words and concepts improves the learning.  Words are better learned in context than in isolation.  Plan to teach between 5 and 7 new words only at a time.

Compiled by Tofilau Siliva Gaugatao. June 2010. Team Solutions, The University of Auckland, NZ.  Choose words for teaching that are different visually and semantically (meaning) - avoid confusion and interference.  Better not to teach words that can be confused at the same time.  Students need to be made aware of the strategies they can use to help them decode and understand unfamiliar words and terms. Teach literacy strategies explicitly.

How teachers can assist students in learning new vocab.

 Introduce students to new vocabulary –Teachers need to identify the key words and terms and use a variety of strategies to introduce and reinforce new terms and vocabulary. Tell students why they are learning the strategy.  Help students to solve unknown vocabulary – Teachers can give students strategies that will assist them in solving unknown vocabulary.  Give students opportunities to use new words and terms – Teachers need use strategies that provide students with the opportunity to incorporate these new terms and words into their spoken and written vocabulary. [Adapted MOE Effective literacy Strategies 2004]

THE THREE STAGES OF VOCABULARY TEACHING

1. Introducing new words  Discover existing understandings - Never Heard grid, brainstorm,  [Check for confusions]  Link new and related vocabulary - semantic word maps  Use concrete examples - visuals in art, say aloud for pronunciation  Write word - look for patterns and links. Record correct definition – glossaries

2. Practicing new words  Practice to prevent forgetting  Provide multiple opportunities to use words- listening, speaking, reading, writing, drawing  Provide vocabulary activities - clusters, clines, cloze activities, structured overviews  Check understandings - definition activities, games

3. Reviewing new words  Revise key words often  Provide vocabulary activities

Compiled by Tofilau Siliva Gaugatao. June 2010. Team Solutions, The University of Auckland, NZ.  Refresh students' memories

Type a number of key words from the topic or text onto an OHT (Over Head Transparency). Put the most important/frequent/easier levelled words in the frame headed ‘Level 1’. The rest are framed and headed ‘Level 2’. Give students the purpose and instructions orally and in written form.

 Purpose of strategy: o To help students check that they know the sound, spelling and meaning of some key words for this topic/text. o To activate students’ prior knowledge of vocabulary linked to a topic or text. o To encourage students to use the key word list to predict what the text will be about.

Student instructions: A: 1. (While the vocab Jumble is on the OHT) Fold your arms and study the words on the OHT for 2 minutes. Try to remember all the words from at least one of the lists so that you will be able to write them down later with correct spelling if you can.

2. (After 2 minutes the Vocab Jumble is turned off) Now write down as many words as you can remember, trying hard to spell them all correctly.

3. Check with your partner/group and add to your list of words.

4. (With Vocab Jumble OHT back on) Check all your words. Add any words that you missed and correct any spelling errors.

5. Put a tick next to all the words you can spell and that you know the meaning of. With your partner/group, share the definitions of words for each of you that are not ticked, that you are unsure of.

B: Define Level 2 words Level 2 words are shared as a class and defined accurately.

C: Prediction Using the words from Level 1 and Level 2, students predict what the class text might be about.

Optional Extension: Creative Writing

Using the words from the OHT, write a short story. This could be an individual, paired or group writing task to reinforce the words and activate students’ creative ability and prior knowledge.

Compiled by Tofilau Siliva Gaugatao. June 2010. Team Solutions, The University of Auckland, NZ. Gauss genius mathema

universal philosopher

Decartes influential

da Vinci * sounds * signals

* communication

* waves * pitch * cycles

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quickly absorbed and cannot penetrate far below the surface. There is much

evidence to suggest that many whale species (including dolphins, which are

in fact small whales) make up for limited underwater light by relying on

sound, which carriers far better in water than in air. For many whales, the

water is a rich soundscape in which they use echoes to locate objects and

* odontcetesunderwater landforms, to* gauge amplitude shape and size, and even* to hertzanalyse the

density and surface textures of objects and prey. This sort of sensing is called* kilohertzecholocation. Whales, bats, and* manyecholocation other animals use sound echolocation (sonar). Humans use radio echolocation (radar) in much the

same way. * reverberations * orientation clicks

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whales (such as blue whales and humpbacks), which are known as

“mysticetes”. Baleen whales have large, broomlike filters instead of teeth. It

Science – textis fromprobable ‘Echolocation that many, if not all, toothed whales use echolocation. There is in Whales’ - attached no evidence that baleen whales do so, although they probably use low-

pitched sound for social communication, possibly over distances of tens or

even hundreds of kilometres. Students write (or are given) the letters of the alphabet – down the page, leaving at least one line for each letter. Students are given the title of the module or topic (or lesson or issue). Students must then use their prior knowledge to write as many words as they can that have anything to do with the topic (or module, issue, lesson). Variations: give 2 letters per pair of students / give groups all letters and make it a competition.

Purpose of strategy  This activity gives teachers the opportunity to check students’ vocab knowledge prior to teaching. It offers students the opportunity to share prior knowledge. It raises students’ consciousness of words that are subject specific.

From here, offer students some or all of the key words for the module, lesson, etc. Have students check off the words they have that are the same or similar. Move onto the learning of the vocabulary from this point. A ______O ______

B ______P ______

C ______Q ______

D ______R ______

E ______S ______

F ______T ______

G ______U ______

H ______V ______

I ______W ______

J ______X ______

K ______Y ______

L ______Z ______

M ______

N ______

1. Choose a list of around twenty key words from a topic or text. 2. Prepare the definitions for each of the words. 3. The definitions are given to students and they are encouraged to identify the word. It is important that a variety of words are selected (verbs, adverbs, adjectives – not just nouns). This strategy can be used in a variety of ways: a. Provide definitions on an OHT and have a master OHT to overlay with the answers so students can self-check. b. Provide definitions on a handout to students with answers available. c. Type the definitions on to cards with the definition on one side and the word on the reverse. Cut up and put into envelopes. Arrange students into groups – cards are laid out on the table with the definitions face up. In turn, each student selects a card and identifies the word for the definition. If correct, student receives a point.

Purpose of the strategy:  This strategy encourages students to think through the meaning of words. It activates prior knowledge about words and meanings and encourages greater understanding of vocabulary and topic/text. Repeating the initial consonant of a group of words for aural effect and memorability.

When the words used sound like the thing or concept being described.

Words sounding similar that are pleasant to the ear… they also appeal because the listener can almost predict a part of the speech.

Describing two unrelated things using direct comparison.

Describing two unrelated things using the linkers ‘like’ or ‘as’

Giving human qualities to non-human or inanimate things.

Anything that you copy word for word from the text.

Used to address an audience as a whole group, but not necessarily to persuade, such as ‘you’ and ‘your’. Used when the speaker wants the audience on their side and agree with their statements. For example ‘we’, ‘our’.

Used to distance the audience from those with different arguments – such as ‘them’, ‘they’.

These are warm fuzzy words that help to get the audience on your side.

These are ‘weasel words’ have the opposite effects to positively charged emotive words Pronouns to include PronounsPronounsWordsWords withwith to to exclude negative positiveaddress or PersonificationMetaphorthe audience distanceQuotationRhymingconnotationstheSimile theaudience audience

Scaffolding Vocabulary Learning

This vocabulary strategy is scaffolded and culminates in a ‘Paired Definition’ or ‘Telephone Whisper’ strategy to reinforce learning.

1. On OHT, provide students with a list of difficult words from a topic or text. The words need to be in the first of four columns (see example below) with other columns covered over. Based on students’ knowledge of the English language, they are to see if they can work out the meaning as the words stand in isolation.

2. Uncover the next column. This column uses each of the words in a sentence. Using this information, students again consider the meanings.

3. Uncover the next column. This column provides the Latin, French etc (origins), and meanings for each word. Using this information, students consider the meanings again.

4. Feedback from students is important at all or at the last stage. Do this before uncovering the final column – the correct meaning.

The next stage is for students to check understanding of these or other words from a topic or text. IN A ORIGIN OR ITS MEANING THE WORD SENTENCE ROOT

Your actions To corrupt, impair the Vitiate could vitiate our Vitium (Latin) = quality or efficiency of reputation. vice (Pre, During, Post Topic/Lesson)

1. Students work in pairs. Both students receive a number of key words provided by the teacher. The words are written in the paired definition chart. The words each student receives are different.

WORDS DEFINITIONS WORDS

2. Without allowing each other to see their original words, each student writes a definition for the words provided in the first column of their chart.

3. Each student then folds the paper along the line between the first and second columns so that the original key words cannot be seen. Their partner will only be able to see the definitions they have written.

4. Students swap papers with their partners and read their partners’ definitions. Then they write in the word they think their partner has defined in the third column.

5. When both students have completed their charts, they open them out and compare and discuss with their partner. If they have two different words for the one definition, encourage them to discuss whether the two words could mean the same thing. They could also discuss whether their definitions were clear enough to indicate one specific meaning or whether they were ambiguous.

 The purpose of this strategy gives students the opportunity to recall and write their own definition of key words. This allows students to see how well their definition conveys the intended word to another student. The strategy gives teachers the opportunity to assess their students’ understanding of key words. A variation on the Paired Definition strategy . Telephone Whispers Increase the number of students in the group to four and extend the activity as follows: 1. Each student in the group receives a chart including a number of key words provided by the teacher. Each student receives different words to the other members of the group.

2. The chart for this extended strategy has five columns as follows:

WORDS DEFINITIONS WORDS DEFINITIONS WORDS

3. Give each member of the group one of the four charts. After writing the definitions for the words in the second column, each student folds the page between the first and second column and passes the page onto the next group member.

4. The next student fills in the third (Words) column, folds the page again and passes on to the next group member (and so on until all columns are complete).

5. When the whole page is opened, students can check whether the words and definitions are similar and discuss any anomalies.

1. At the start of a topic or lesson draw up a grid of about 20 words:

WORD OWN DEFINITION REVISED DEFINITION

2. Give students the words you have selected. 3. Students write in their own definition for the words. Do not allow dictionaries. Encourage students to complete definitions for all words, even those they are totally unfamiliar with using clues in the words if they need to. 4. Collect sheets and store. 5. Teach the topic (and all the words obviously). 6. Give back the sheets and have students complete revised definitions for each of the words. If their original definition was correct, they can tick the ‘revised definition’ column.

 The purpose of using this vocabulary strategy is to check prior knowledge of key vocabulary in the topic and to provide a way to check that key vocabulary has been learnt. Before and After Vocab Grid - Science: Laboratory Equipment

. Write down what think each piece of equipment looks like and what you think it is used for. You will have a chance later to revise your sketch and knowledge of use.

WORD SKETCH USED FOR REVISED REVISED SKETCH USED FOR

Test tube

Beaker

Conical flask tripod

Gauze mat

Filter funnel

Clamp stand

Boiling tube

Evaporating basin

Bunsen burner WORD MY DEFINITION MY REVISED DEFINITION

Before and After Vocab Grid

Write down what you think each word means in the table below. Later in the topic, you can revise your definition. Teachers choose a focus word for the ‘word map’. This is placed in a central circle on the board (or poster paper or whatever the teacher chooses). Of course, more than one word can be used, and one given to each group of students. Modelling by the teacher is necessary.

Different meanings for Words with similar the focus word meanings

Words that relate to the focus Words from the same word in this topic family

For example

Time Age Period Go out with Era Stage See Court

Old fashioned Time Dated Day Chronological history Words with similar meanings: Words with different meanings:

FOCUS WORD

Words that relate to the focus word in Words from the same family this topic: (Pre or Post Topic)

1. Choose approximately 20 key words from a topic area. Divide them randomly into four equal lists: 1 2 3 4. Photocopy one set of lists per four people.

2. Divide class into groups of four and assign each person a letter: A B C or D. Give each person in the group a 1, 2, 3 or 4 list.

3. Tell learners that the words fit into four categories. Give each list a heading attached to the letters assigned. For example, if the topic was basketball, the categories might be: A = hand actions, B= foot actions, C = equipment, D = rules. Learners will need a blank piece of paper also.

4. In sequence each person in the group reads out one word from his/her list. So the first group member who has List 1 reads out one word from her list. The other group members who have been assigned a letter (A, B, C or D) and a category listen for the word and “claim” it for their category. Each word can only be put into one category (A, B, C or D) and the person who argues most strongly to “claim” the word (as agreed by the rest of the group) is given the word. Each time a word is claimed, cross it off so that it cannot be used again.

5. The ‘winner’ of the game is the person with the most words on his/her paper that are correctly categorised.

6. At the end, each person reads his/her list aloud for the others to write down under the category heading. This ensures that each person has a complete list. These words can be learned for homework and tested at the end of the topic.

 The purpose of this strategy is to help students sort words about a topic into categories. It encourages students to consider the meanings of words carefully. A: ______B: ______

C: ______D: ______(pre, during, post topic)

Classifying or clustering involves organising sets of key words into different clusters or groups.

1. The teacher prepares several sets of about twenty cards, each showing a key word or term that relates to the relevant subject/topic area. 2. Give small groups of students a set of each of these cards. Describe activity and purpose of the strategy to students. Modelling how to cluster and how to ‘think aloud’ to encourage decision-making. 3. Students work together to arrange cards into clusters or groups. Headings can be provided to help students arrange words. 4. Students discuss and decide on clusters groups. They can then write down their cluster groups under appropriate headings.

 Purpose of the strategy: This strategy provides students opportunities to think about and discuss meanings of words and the relationships between words. It reminds them of words they already know and introduces them to new words. . Vocabulary Classification / Clustering

Year 9 Mathematics: Angles and Polygons Possible headings to give to students: Right-angle Degrees Types of Grads Parallel Types of quadrilatera Perpendicular Vertical triangle l Adjacent Exterior Interior Corresponding MeasurementAlternate Co-interiorRotations Polygons Bearings Grid referencesWords to Triangle Quadrilateraldescribe HexagonPolygons Octagonangles Regular PentagonWords to Heptagon Nonagondescribe Decagon Transversallines Clockwise Anit-clockwise Complementary Supplementary Vertex

(during or post topic) 1. Teacher prepares or draws on the board a circle which is divided into four sections.

2. In each section a word is written. Each word is associated with the current topic and is connected in some way with other words in the circle.

3. Learners must discuss in pairs or small groups – to work out and explain what the relationship is between the words.

4. When learners are familiar with the strategy, leave out one (or more) words from the circle. Students then need to work out what the missing word is and replace it, explaining the relationship between the words along the way.

5. An extension possibility is for students to individually or in pairs design their own concept circles for others to explain.

For example This is an interactive process which can be used for many purposes. Text processing is one of these. There are many possibilities for text processing (as well as for values clarification on issues):

1. Two or three statements can be made about a text. Students have to reach a consensus about their order of importance.

2. Students can be given a general task such as ‘Select the 3 most important facts/opinions/issues etc in this text’.

3. Students can be asked to reach a consensus on issues – such as euthanasia, genetic engineering, etc.

The oral discussion this strategy encourages can be an excellent basis for later Writing.

How to organise: . Organise class into groups of between 3 and 6. . Each group draws a large shape with the same number of sides as people in the group (so a group with 3 people will draw a large triangle). . Inside the shape, the shape is drawn again (see example below). . In the centre of the shape, the group scribe writes any information/statements relating to the topic/text selected. The whole group must agree with the information/statements. . Individual statements or information is written in the individual spaces surrounding the centre. Later, the group checks information and decides.

For Example: WRITE DOWN EVERYTHING YOUR GROUP KNOWS ABOUT CARBON DIOXIDE

C02 is a gas

C02 is poisonous

Trees give off C02

(pre-topic)

You need a koosh ball, or other soft throwing device. 1. Name the topic to the students (eg Electricity, O le taua o le ola aoaoina, Teuila Festival, etc). 2. Appoint a couple of recorders to write down the words as they are said. 3. Throw the ball to the first person – this person says a word associated with the topic. 4. The ball is either thrown back to the teacher and on to the next student, or directly to the next student who says another word associated with the topic. 5. When each (or most) student has contributed a word, display the list and have students work in pairs to categories the words. They can then record the words in the categories selected. 6. Compare categories across groups.

 The purpose of this strategy is to help students to predict what words might be associated with a topic and to help them organise words into useful categories.

“Managing Minds” – Metacognitive Strategies

. K W L H KWLH is a useful framework for both individual recording and class recording. KWLH stands for:  what I Know, what I Want to know, what I Learned, and How I learned it.

Pre-Topic/Lesson

1. Explain to learners that this framework will help them to identify their prior knowledge, to think about what they need to know (linked to pre-specified learning objectives/outcomes), to reflect on what they have learned and how they learned it.

2. Learners draw up a grid or are given one (see template attached) with the four column headings.

3. Individually they write what they know about the topic already – this is what is known as the learner’s declarative knowledge.

4. Individually, learners work out two or three key questions which they will need to answer in order to meet the learning objectives/outcomes.

5. At this stage, students could be paired or grouped to quickly share what they Know and what they Want to know.

Post Topic/Lesson

6. After teaching and learning has taken place students complete the final two columns of the framework: what I Learned and How I learned it.

7. Again, students could be paired/grouped to share information. Students need to be encouraged to reflect on and specify their declarative knowledge (What I learned about) as well as their procedural knowledge (How I learned or what I learned How to do). KWLH GRID

What I Know What I want to What I Learned How I learned it about this topic know about this topic

KWLH GRID

What I Know What I want to What I Learned How I learned it about this topic know about this topic Encouraging Questioning

o Learners can be trained to develop an awareness of different types and levels of questioning.

o It is a sad fact that current research confirms that most – about 80% - of questions in classrooms are asked by teachers and that most of these are low level ‘recall’ questions to which the answer is pre-determined.

o We can help learners by asking them to generate different types of questions. One way for teachers to improve their questioning is to consider the levels of thinking that the questions demand. Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive processes provides a useful framework for questioning, based on 3 levels of thinking:

 The factual level – which involves stating facts

 The interpretative level – which involves interpreting, linking and comparing from the facts

 The evaluative or application level – which involves analysing, evaluating and applying the information – applying understandings taken from the text to a new situation

And is modified and adapted by Ruddel (2002) and Whitehead (2004) to include two more levels:  The affective level – understanding the emotional dimension of characterisations and events

 The ethical level – deciding what is good or bad, or wrong or right, about behaviours, events, opinions, and assertions. o To encourage students to ask their own questions based on different levels of thinking, use the question dice strategy. Levels of Thinking (based on Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive processes)

Thinking Explanation Useful Question and Instruction Process Verbs Stems

Level One Recalling information List Who…? Knowledge State When…? Find Where…? Describe What…? How many…?

Level Two Interpreting Explain why Explain why… Comprehension Comparing Interpret What are the causes/effects…? Compare What are the differences or Seeing relationships Link similarities…? between ideas Contrast Why is it that…?

Level Three Applying knowledge to a Solve How could this be used…? Application new situation or Illustrate What is another example of…? experience Show Solve the problem.

Analysis Using information to Explain how Explain what/how… identify motives or causes Analyse What was the problem? and to draw conclusions Distinguish What factors contribute to…? Examine What is the meaning of…?

Synthesis Putting new information Create What are possible solutions? together to make Imagine Can you develop, create, predictions or solve Predict design, devise, compose, problems Plan formulate…?

Evaluation Using information to make Justify What is the best…? judgements and form Assess Prepare a case on…. opinions Decide What do you think…? Reading

What does reading mean in my subject? Why is it my responsibility to help teach reading? At secondary school texts used are quite complex and are unique from subject to subject. Gaining information from a scientific text will often involve moving between pictures, photographs, diagrams, tables, and running text. This is quite unique from reading a narrative text such as a short story.

The difficulty of a text depends on many factors, such as:  the students’ prior knowledge of and interest in the content;  the range and complexity of the vocabulary;  to what extent new terms are explained in the text;  how long and complicated the sentences and paragraphs are;  the support given by visuals such as illustrations and diagrams;  the size and clarity of the print;  how the text is organised and structured ( for example, how headings, paragraphs, italic and bold print).

1. When children first learn to read much of their mental energy is used decoding the words into sounds . This leaves them with little ability to comprehend or understand the text. - some students may be able to read aloud quite fluently but not be comprehending very well at all. This is often called ‘barking at print’. It is probably the most common pattern with students with reading problems at secondary level - comprehension will improve as decoding becomes faster and more fluent

2. The prior knowledge that students bring to reading is based on their own unique experiences and understanding. Because every reader’s prior knowledge is different, the meaning taken from a text will vary from reader to reader. - this will be a main focus of today’s session

3. With appropriate teacher support, a student can read and comprehend more complex texts than they can independently. - this is very important because it means that the whole question becomes not so much ‘is this text at an appropriate level’ but a question of how much support the teacher will be required to provide to bridge this gap. - Reading at a level just above a student’s independent reading level with teacher guidance will help lift comprehension

4. Because the act of reading is largely invisible and unobservable, it is difficult for some readers to learn the strategies used by successful readers. Making reading strategies visible and explicit will raise students’ independent reading levels. The ‘Rule of Thumb’

 Select a chunk of text (about 100 words) and have students read it silently  Whenever a student encounters a word they don’t know, they raise a finger on one hand.  If all five fingers are raised, the text is probably beyond their independent reading level  In such a case the teacher has two choices: find easier material, or support the students’ reading with instructional strategies such as shared or guided reading. ‘What makes a difference?’

 Increasing the amount of time students spend reading - difficulties inherent in simplifying/summarising  Linking reading to prior knowledge  Establishing a purpose for reading  Guiding students to locate relevant information  Reading to and talking with students about texts  Activities which make effective reading strategies explicit to all learner

One of the most effective things teachers can do is to spend time preparing students to read. Schema theory suggests that if students are to make sense of any new learning or comprehend a text they have to link this new learning with what they already know. Filing Cabinet analogy. Therefore spending time activating prior knowledge about the vocabulary and content of a text is a very powerful way to raise a student's ability to comprehend the text.

Summarising is a key reading comprehension strategy. A useful approach which helps students develop the skill of summarising is to:  Give students a text which is divided clearly into sections (e.g. paragraphs).  Teachers writes a brief summary of each of the sections on strips of paper  Students match teacher’s summary to correct section.

It is useful to change the words used to make it more challenging and ensure that students comprehend rather than simply matching up words.

It is also useful to talk through the process at the end with questions such as “ How did you match them?”. This will help students develop better comprehension strategies, for example, by becoming aware that the first sentence of a paragraph (topic sentence) in many cases is the most important. Effective Reading Strategies

Activate Prior Knowledge 1. find out what students already know about the topic eg brainstorming, asking students to jot down what they know 2. explain/discuss some of the background information if necessary

Set a purpose for reading the selected text 1. ask the students to predict what the text might be about 2. get students to write down the questions on the text topic eg the first stages of the KWLH strategy (eg what do know? and what do I want to know?) 3. explain to students the tasks they will carry out after reading the text eg making notes 4. suggest how students should tackle the reading task eg skim-read

Develop vocabulary knowledge 1. discuss and explain words in the text that you think may be difficult 2. use examples in the text to teach students how to use context clues to work out unknown words 3. help students identify key words in any passage or instruction

Explain different reading skills for different purposes 1. overview a text before reading and note headings, words in bold prints, visuals etc 2. skim-read to get the ‘gist’ of the content or locate specific information 3. analyse instructions in assignments or exam questions 4. use careful reading to fully comprehend a text

Promote active reading 1. discuss the task before reading – the purpose, the questions to keep in mind, the reading skills to use 2. give specific tasks for students to do as they read eg underlining key or unknown words, ticking off their predictions or answers to their questions 3. discuss the reading task with students after the reading so that they are aware of how well they coped and can identify areas of difficulty

Check comprehension 1. probe understanding by getting students to ask as well as answer questions 2. ask students to summarise or paraphrase in their own words what they have read 3. provide an outline or chart for them to fill in after reading 4. ask students to complete the ‘L’ and ‘H’ parts of KWLH –what I have learnt and how I learnt it 5. set a task so students have to use the information or apply it in a different situation

3 things I already know 3 main ideas from the 3 things I would like to 3 key words / new words article know more about from the article Reading  The deliberate use of literacy strategies can make a difference to students’ ability to decode and understand written text.  Strategies that activate prior knowledge need to be used – both to encourage understanding of key vocabulary and ideas. This helps to scaffold the reading process.  Students need to be aware of the purpose for reading a text – what information they need to find, where in the text they might find it, what they will do with the information when it is found.

Activating Prior Knowledge - some possible approaches: Many of the vocabulary strategies work to scaffold the reading process and activate prior knowledge about ideas and vocabulary.  Brainstorming: students brainstorm all the ideas and/or words they know about a particular topic.  Post Box Activity: students respond to questions about a topic (either pre-written questions by the teacher or in class questions written by the students).  Predict Text Content – use headings and visual clues from the text, use key vocabulary, read sections of the text and predict what will happen next

 Writing is still a crucial skill…students need to be able to express their thoughts and knowledge effectively in writing if they are to participate actively in NZ society (Hawthorne, 2001, p 3).

 Students must see a real point or purpose in their writing tasks (Cambourne, 1988, p51), if they are to be engaged purposefully and to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile (Brophy, 1987, p205).

 In difficult and complex tasks like writing, motivational issues will assume particularly prominent status. Writers need to develop strong beliefs in the relevance and importance of writing…[writers’] development is in the hands of those who set the writing tasks and react to what has been written (Bruning & Horn, 2000, p26).

 There is a tendency for us to give students writing opportunities, but without teaching them how to write or how to improve their writing.  We need to provide help with writing types with which students are unfamiliar.  And we need to revisit writing types, activating prior knowledge so as to bring meaning to a specific writing style.  Written language stems from oral language.

 Skilled writers draw on prior experience and make connections with new information

 Secondary students are required to write for a variety of purposes across all subjects  Teachers can improve students’ academic writing if they explicitly teach them how different text forms are structured and how to use strategies associated with the writing process.

 Once students have a structure, they are more able to generate ideas and to organise those ideas coherently and logically.  Establishing clear aims, including how the writing will be marked & being clear about what ‘good’ means for this type of writing.  Providing examples of the type of writing and allowing students to interact with ‘good’ and ‘bad’ models.

 Exploring the features of the text  Defining the conventions of the writing type

Scaffolding the first attempts:  Encourage group/paired planning  Co-operative writing strategies  Encourage the speaking of ideas first and throughout the stages  Provide writing templates

Providing feedback teachers need to intervene in the writing process so that students are clear about what they are doing well and what they need to work on in order to improve. Set time aside when work is returned so that students can reflect. 1. Co-operative Reading Square

This strategy is a process of bringing what happens in reading and understanding text to the surface for learners and getting them to practise the steps in the process. The process should be repeated (six to eight times) over a period of six to eight weeks. The aim is to get students to internalise the process so that their comprehension levels improve.

 Selection of text is vital. Teachers need to consider: * Length * Instructional level * Interest * Importance

1. Organise class into groups – four students per group is ideal, but not essential. 2. Each group of four students is given copies of the text to read. The text should be fairly short and interesting enough to stimulate discussion. 3. Students read text. 4. Each student leads the group in one of the activities given below. Each activity involves one of the four basic comprehension skills:  Questioning  identifying key words  summarizing  presenting ideas as diagrams or other visual images.

NOTE: Each skill needs to be taught/modelled beforehand. The first few times this strategy is used it is useful for the teacher to model it. E.g. by eliciting responses from different groups in the class, and recording on whiteboard, talking through issues as they arise. The template “Co-operative Reading Square” is designed for use in the early stages of using this strategy. Students would complete each section individually, then share ideas in groups or with whole class. In this way issues can be addressed as they arise. Question Dice are a useful and enjoyable way of developing students questioning skills. Students have a pair of dice. One has a question starter on each side: “What…?”, “Where…?”, “When…?, “How…?”, “Who….?”, “Why…?”

The second dice has verbs such as: “is/are”, “would”, “can”, “could”, “will”, ”might”, “should”

Students shake dice and use the combinations as a starter. Instructions to students

Students in groups of four. Each person leads the group in one of these tasks:

1. Ask a question for the rest of the group to answer such as something they don’t understand, a word meaning etc. The others try to answer the question. They then each ask their question in turn.

2. Identify a key word in the passage and explain it. The other students then also give their key words. The group decides on 6-8 (or other specified number of) key words.

3. Retell or summarise the information in their own words. After each student has had a turn, the group discusses and agrees on a summary statement using their list of key words.

4. Draw a picture or diagram to sum up the main ideas of the passage, using the information discussed. Co-operative Reading Square

Read the text and then go through the following steps:  Work through each task – the group member leads the task they have been given and the whole group helps to provide the answer.  As you work through each task lead by a group member, write your answers in the boxes below.

1. Write a question about something you don’t understand such as a word meaning.

2. Write down what you think are the 6 most important key words

3. Retell or summarise the information by using each of the key words in 2 or 3 sentences.

4. Draw a picture or diagram to sum up the main ideas of the passage, using the information discussed. #1 Co-operative reading square

Your task is to:

1. Ask a question about the text for the rest of the group to answer, such as a word meaning. They will take turns to help you answer it. 2. Lead the rest of the group to ask questions in turn, and help them answer them.

#2 Co-operative reading square

Your task is to: 1.Identify a key word in the text and explain it. 2.Lead the others to also identify and explain key words, until the group has a list of about 10-12 words. 3.As a group, decide on the 8 most important key words from that list. #3 Co-operative reading square

Your task is to lead the group to:

Retell or summarise the information in your own words. After everyone has had a turn, the group discusses and agrees on a summary statement using their list of key words.

#4 Co-operative reading square

Your task is to lead the group to: Draw a picture or diagram to sum up the main ideas of the passage, using the information discussed. Mind Mirror

This co-operative learning strategy is based around an example from poetry texts but the range of texts you could select is endless. It would work well with a newspaper and magazine articles, scene from Shakespeare or non- Shakespearean drama text, with a short story (or number of stories), chapters from a non-fiction text or novel, song lyrics, etc, etc.

1. The poetry texts scaffold the reading of poems and aim to bring 4 voices to the presentation or performance. 2. Organise class into groups of 4 (preferable but not essential). 3. Give each group a poem. This has already been typed with four different font styles – some parts are in bold, some underlined, some italicized, some ordinary. Each group selects one of the font styles to read. Poems included – see attached. 4. Give time for the groups to practise reading the poem. 5. Invite each group to perform their poem using all four voices from the group. Having different poems means that students are constantly engaged. 6. The next stage is the poetry analysis. This is the ‘Mind Mirror’ part of the strategy. Provide poster paper and felts for each group. Make sure you have blu tac or cellotape for the end of the session. Students receive the following instructions for the poetry analysis:

Choose one character from your poem and make a ‘mind mirror’ to show what that character is thinking and feeling.

Your mind mirror should include: . two quotes from the poem . two original phrases created by your group . two symbols related to the poem . two relevant drawings

Your mind mirror should: . integrate the written and visual elements in creative ways, e.g. by using words to form the shape of eyebrows

What does this poem say to you?

What are two or three questions you have that are related to this poem?

When each group has completed their analysis or ‘Mind Mirror’, display them on the wall and have students move around each analysis like a gallery walk. . Three Level Thinking Guides

 Three level thinking guides are designed to enable learners to think through ideas on a topic. They can be used for video texts, for photographs and diagrams, for musical scores, for maths problems and processes and for many different types of written texts across all curriculum areas.  The purpose of the guide must be clear and must be explained to students. The statements should be designed so that they promote a coherent understanding about some aspect/s of the topic or text (as opposed to a random set of statements about the text).

What is a Three Level Guide?  Three level guides were developed by H. Herber around 1970. They are used to help students think through oral, written or visual texts after they have been given some background knowledge of the topic.  A Three level guide is a series of statements (NOT QUESTIONS) which prompt ‘readers’ to comprehend the text.

The Three Levels

Level One  Literal  What’s “on the lines”  Factual Level of understanding

AIM: to enable learners to accurately identify key and relevant information/ideas explicitly stated in the text

Level Two  Interpretative  What’s “beyond the lines”  Interpretative Level of understanding

AIM: to enable learners to reflect on and interpret the information, to pick up the inferences in the text and to draw conclusions from the text.

Level Three  Applied  What’s “beyond the lines”  Applied Level of understanding

AIM: to enable learners to apply the content of the text to broader situations of generalisations beyond the text, but related to or generated from the text.

What are the benefits of Three-Level Guides

Three-Level Guides o Show students which information they need to focus on o Encourage students to become close and critical readers / thinkers o Require students to clarify, support, justify and evaluate their thinking o Support less successful learners by offering models of how to think through content area reading o Provide opportunities for language development through focussed small group discussion

How do I write a Three-Level Guide?

1. Choose an important content area Three-level guides can take time to construct so it is important to base them on something significant and that is important for students to process in depth.

2. Work out what main ideas or understandings you want the students to get out of the text.

3. Write the Level Three (applied) statements first. This leads you to work out the main ideas and concepts you want learners to think about. Level 3 statements should promote discussion and not be able to be answered with a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response. Students should be able to justify their conclusions or responses by referring to the text, but should be thinking beyond the text.

4. Write the Level One (Literal) statements. Identify the key and relevant information that will lead learners towards the understandings at the applied level. Mix these statements with some information that is not explicitly stated/found in the text.

5. Write the Level Two (Interpretative) statements last. What can the learners infer from the text by thinking abut what the text implies or suggests, but doesn’t say directly? These statements need to be a mixture of what can and cannot be inferred from the text. Students need to justify their choices by referring to the text.

How do I use the Three-Level Guide?

o Make sure students understand the purpose of the task – ie to reach an understanding of the text at three levels. o Stress that this is not a simple ‘true/false’ activity and that Level 3 in particular will not have ‘right or wrong’ answers. o Model the process with a practice guide or with a first question at each level. o Allow plenty of time to complete all stages of the task o You may wish to follow this process for students in the classroom:  Stage One: students work individually  Stage Two: students work in groups – preferably multilevel/mixed ability  Stage Three: present or record and discuss similarities and differences between group responses, especially at applied level. Tackling Texts – Strategies for Reading and Writing

 The Four by four (4*3) Grid (could also be a 3 * 3 grid if you wished)

This is a grid that can be adapted to any topic/subject for any purpose at any level. In a multilevel class you could prepare more than one 4*3 grid, with graded prompts at each level. It can be used for oral, written or visual texts.

The grid can also be used as the basis for later writing.

As learners become familiar with the 4*3 grid, you could also get a group to preview the text and make up a grid for the rest of the class to complete. Make sure that the purpose of the information in each column is clear to the learners and they are able to reuse it in some form later in the lesson sequence.

Fig 1 – (A small example. Larger one for photocopying is on next page).

4 * 3 Information Processing Grid

3 most important 3 things I already 3 questions about 3 key words/new ideas knew this text words 4 * 3 Information Processing Grid

3 most 3 things I 3 questions 3 key important ideas already knew about this text words/new words

4 * 3 Information Processing Grid Helen Nicholls 1999 o Jigsaw Reading

This strategy is suitable for shortish texts (200 words of simple text) to longer articles/chapters/reports, but not for whole books.

It is also suitable for four different short texts on the same topic to get differing viewpoints/approaches/information on the same topic.

It is also suitable for parts of a process, such as problem solving or following an experiment.

Step 1: 1. Decide what information you want readers to get from the text/s. 2. Decide what format you want to use for students to record this information (eg 4 x 3 grid, mind map, structured overview, etc). 3. Explain what is expected from the whole class – issue recording sheets if necessary. 4. Plan a final task that synthesises all the information – that requires students to use something from each section / text.

Step 2: 1. Divide the text into four coherent sections or select four texts on the same topic. 2. Label each section (or each text) A, B, C, D. You will need approximately 8 copies of each section for a class of 32. 3. Divide the class into four distinct groups – the As, the Bs, the Cs, the Ds. These are the Expert Groups. Each A gets an A text, each B gets a B text, and so on. Depending on the size of the class, make up two groups of As, two of Bs, etc. 4. These groups then read the text – they sit together as an Expert Group with their matching text. 5. Each expert group discusses the text – you could offer guiding questions or instructions for discussion. Required information is recorded and each Expert prepares to explain it to others in the class.

Step 3: 1. Re-form the groups so that each group contains an A, a B, a C and a D. Each Expert summarises their section for the rest of the group (starting with A if this is the sequential start) and explains to the others the main ideas (or whatever). 2. Others need to listen carefully so that they can record the information from each section. 3. B, C and D follow suit. 4. Teacher checks that students have explained and understood the task for synthesising the information. 5. Complete the synthesising task individually. o Say-It-Grids (during and post topic)

Say-It-Grids can be applied to any context, as an interactive way of processing information/texts that have been read / heard / discussed.

1. Divide the class into groups of three or four. 2 Number group members. 3. From the Say-It-Grid, call out a starter – A2 for example (see below) - and then a number (randomly selected from ‘the hat’). 4. The person with that number must respond to the starter A2 – saying the response the rest of the group.

Example: Say-It-Grid: Organs of the Body

1 You are a heart valve. You are an ear. You are a pair of Explain how you Explain how you hear lungs. Explain how function. and how you can get smoking affects you. damaged.

2 You are a pair of eyes. You are a brain. You are a kidney. Explain how you see Explain the difference Explain what you do and how you get between your right for the body. damaged. side and your left side.

Pre-reading activities The other highly important pre-reading activity involves surveying the structure of the text. This helps students understand the way the text is organised, and where they are likely to find the information they after.

As well as activating students prior knowledge of content and vocabulary it is useful for students to flick through the text to gain an overall ‘feel’ for it. This will help them to make predictions about what sort of text it is, how the information will be presented, what kinds of information it includes etc. Pre-Reading activity

This will help to activate your prior knowledge of content and vocabulary. It is also useful to flick through the text to gain an overall ‘feel’ for it. This will help you to make predictions about what sort of text it is, how the information is presented, what kinds of information it includes, etc.

Complete the following table:

Aspect Details This clue tells me that the article (record or describe) will be about….. Title

Main Picture

Character Pictures

Advertisements

Use of colour

I predict that this text will tell me about… Skim and Predict

Before you read, skim read the whole text looking closely at:

 Headings  Sub-headings  Pictures and diagrams  Larger words or words in CAPITALS  Words in bold or italics or underlined  Numbers and bullet points  Speech bubbles  Framed sections

Predict: What is this text going to tell me? What are the main points going to be? Where will I find the information I want? Writing Like reading, writing involves creating meaning from text and develops from oral language. Skilled writers and readers draw on their prior knowledge and make connections with the new information.

There are four stages that students go through in the writing process:  Forming intentions – purpose, topic, ideas, information  Composing text – selecting ideas, structuring and sequencing for a purpose  Revising – proof reading  Publishing - presentation & feedback [adapted from MOE ‘Effective Literacy Strategies Year 9-13’ 2004]

The writing produced by the students should be clearly structured in paragraphs and be ‘information rich’ at this point .

Retrieval charts Retrieval charts are an effective way to guide students to important information in the text and summarise it. It is also a useful way of students organizing their ideas in preparation for writing.

Types of Elements Used in Picasso’s ‘Les Demoiselles d’Avignon

Element Description Effect line Black , thick, angular, outlines, Strong, bold painting, harsh, scratched and repetitious on faces of angular, purposeful painting, two women, inorganic, some lines spiked edges that grate on each are white slices rather than black other, black outlines flatten the lines. forms, looks childish/naïve. tone Minimal tonality, harsh changes Flatten picture plane, shapes between tonal areas become more abstracted like a design, jagged geometric image. colour Almost monochromatic colour Simplification of subject matter, palette, flesh tones blue and white, flattened forms, unnatural unnatural colour green and purple colouring on faces harsh, distorted, lines on face of two women. figures look like cut outs rather than rounded flesh. Shape Triangular shards, jagged angular Jumbled chaotic, splintered inorganic, hard edged, geometric triangles, picture plane is fractured, fragmented, moving, busy, claustrophobic, chaotic No singular dominant direction, Traditional portrait image. Direction stabilized portrait image of balanced Multiple facets move but colour female figures. blocks are even so the painting is balanced. Direction of individual shapes is chaotic. Text frames Spider Diagrams and retrieval charts are both a good starting point for a piece of writing because an appropriate structure has already been created. The following example is a text frame that will help students write the material from the spider diagram in a clear, structured style:

Types of Elements Used in Picasso’s ‘Les Demoiselles d’Avignon

There are five main types of Elements in Picasso’s ‘Les Demoiselles d’Avignon’. They are ……………………… , ………………………… and ………………………… .

Line is……………. Some examples of how line is used are …………………. The effect created is ………………..

Tone is ……………. Some examples of how tone is used are …………………. The effect created is………………..

Colour is ……………. Some examples of how colour is used are …………………. The effect created is………………..

Shape is ……………. Some examples of how shape is used are …………………. The effect created is………………..

Direction is ……………. Some examples of how direction is used are …………………. The effect created is………………..

The writing produced by the students should be clearly structured in paragraphs and be ‘information rich’ at this point .

Editing will really help improve the piece. Some things students could do at this stage are:  Check spelling and punctuation  Check that their information is accurate Keep to the same structure but vary the sentences used. The template above is very formulaic and repetitive, but if students conveyed the same information in different words it would be a more interesting piece of writing. Dictogloss

Choose a text that suits the level of the learners. (Beginners - 3 to 4 sentences; intermediate - 6 to 8 sentences; advanced -8 to 12 sentences).

Dictogloss has four stages:

1. Preparation - introduce the topic, the language focus and the key vocabulary.

2. Dictation - read the text at a speed a little bit slower than native speaker speed. Read the text again at native speaker speed and on the second reading students individually make very brief notes (sentence fragments) on main ideas. Remember that the purpose is to get the main ideas, not every word exactly as it appears in the text, so do not read too slowly.

3. Reconstruction - the students work in pairs and then fours to compare notes and write a shared version of the text, editing for accurate punctuation, spelling and inclusion of the main ideas.

4. Analysis and correction - the students compare reconstructions with other groups and with the original. Discuss the differences. Dictogloss takes about 1 hour if done carefully. Teacher Notes on Using Writing Frames

Teacher Models the process Through explanation and demonstration

Joint activity

Teacher jointly completes a demonstration writing frame with the class

Scaffolded activity Students individually use the frames to support their writing – these frames can be differentiated To support/stretch the full range of students in the class

Involving students in the process Task of constructing frames is part of group work undertaken by class

Independent activity Students can now structure their writing appropriately without the help of the frame AssessmentThe Rule Tools of Assessment Three Tools Assessment Tools •Sentences

•Paragraphs

•Formal Writing

Paragraph • S Statement

• E Explanation

• X Example Transactional Writing

Introduction: States the topic and your viewpoint. Outlines the reasons for your viewpoint that you will discuss in the essay [Reasons 1, 2, 3] Body: S Statement for reason 1 E Explanation X Example

S Statement for reason 2 E Explanation X Example

S Statement for reason 3 E Explanation X Example

Conclusion: Summarise your viewpoint and reasons. Teacher Notes on Using Writing Frames

Teacher Models the process Through explanation and demonstration

Joint activity Teacher jointly completes a demonstration writing frame with the class

Scaffolded activity Students individually use the frames to support their writing – these frames can be differentiated To support/stretch the full range of students in the class

Involving students in the process Task of constructing frames is part of group work undertaken by class

Independent activity Students can now structure their writing appropriately without the help of the frame Reading/Writing Strategies

. Cloze Deletion

“Pure” Cloze: . Cloze deletion is a way of checking understanding of texts. It should be used with care and thought, and not as “busy work”. . The “pure” form of cloze deletion is to choose every 5th or 7th word for deletion from a passage of at least 200 words. . Students read the text individually and put in the missing word, and only the exact word is accepted. . When readers score above 45% of the blanks correctly, then they can be said to comprehend the text. . It can be a very useful way of checking whether a text book is comprehensible to a group of learners.

Variations: There are some useful variations to this procedure which help to draw learners’ attention to key ideas or to specific grammatical points. Teachers must always explain to students the type of words that have been deleted and what they will be learning how to do as they replace these words. What is accepted as replacements, if they are not exact replacements, will depend on whether the choice ‘makes sense’ in the text.

 Key Content Words can be deleted and learners can work first individually to put in the words and then compare their choices with a partner’s. As a diagnostic exercise this can give the teacher a good indication of those students who need extra support or those students who need extension opportunities.  Verb Processes can be deleted so that teachers can check whether students can follow “what’s happening” in the text. This would be particularly effective for a cloze passage about an experiment, or a set of instructions, or a process of any sort.  Classes of Structural Words (such as prepositions or pronouns or conjunctions) can be deleted. Deleting conjunctions can be a good check on whether learners understand the patterns such as cause/effect or time sequences in a text.  Summaries of longer texts can be constructed with key dates or concepts omitted so that when learners have read a chapter or section, or viewed a scene or an image, or listened to a portion of text, they can complete.

New learners of English may need to be supplied with the list of the deleted words and a dictionary so that they can be supported as they learn.

 The purpose of the cloze activity is for students to learn how to use the context clues in a sentence, paragraph or whole text to work out the meaning of unknown words and to actively read for meaning. Gradually, students learn to use context clues strategically in their independent reading and no longer need reminders. Cloze Passage - Workshop Safety Rules

1. Do not ______a workshop without permission.

2. Leave coats and jackets on the ______and tuck bags safely ______of the way.

3. Protective ______is vital. Wear shoes, not ______. Always ______an apron. Ties should be ______and long ______tied back.

4. Every workshop has a ______aid kit. Find where yours is.

5. Leave ______in the ‘well’ of the ______or return to normal places.

6. Find the emergency ______buttons. Machines can be stopped from any ______of the room in case of accident.

7. Watch out for possible ______. This could be cupboard doors left open, scrap wood ______on the floor.

8. Close ______after use.

9. Replace sash ______in racks. Never ______against benches or walls. 10. To be safe with ______you must be confident about what you are doing.

out first lying clothing lean

cramps tools removed part bench

machines hair rack enter

sandals ties stop hazards vices wear

Cloze Passage Workshop Safety Rules ANSWERS

1. Do not ENTER a workshop without permission.

2. Leave coats and jackets on the RACK and tuck bags safely OUT of the way.

3. Protective CLOTHING is vital. Wear shoes, not SANDALS. Always WEAR an apron. Ties should be REMOVED and long HAIR tied back.

4. Every workshop has a FIRST aid kit. Find where yours is.

5. Leave TOOLS in the ‘well’ of the BENCH or return to normal places.

6. Find the emergency STOP buttons. Machines can be stopped from any PART of the room in case of accident. 7. Watch out for possible HAZARDS. This could be cupboard doors left open, scrap wood LYING on the floor.

8. Close VICES after use.

9. Replace sash TIES in racks. Never LEAN against benches or walls.

10. To be safe with MACHINES you must be confident about what you are doing.

Paragraph Model

I think it’s good to be bald.

One reason is that you don’t have to wash your hair.

Another point is that you don’t have to comb your hair and keep it tidy.

Finally, you don’t have to go to the hairdressers and pay for haircuts.

In summary, you’re lucky if you’re bald.

I think it’s good to be bald.

One reason is that you don’t have to wash your hair. Another point is that you don’t have to comb your hair and keep it tidy.

Finally, you don’t have to go to the hairdressers and pay for haircuts.

In summary, you’re lucky if you’re bald.

TEMPLATE FOR WRITING AN EXPLANATION

Question:

Explain what the All Blacks need to do to win the Tri Nation.

Key words in the Question:

Introductory Sentence What are you trying to explain? . How . What . When . Why . Where

What points do you need to include?

What are key words// ideas/ information you will need to use to answer the question?

How will you sequence your explanation?

Decide which link words you might use in you explanation How will you end your explanation?

Is there a general statement you can make to sum up your explanation?

Spider diagrams

Come from: Needed for: Come from: Needed for:

Proteins Lipids

Examples: TYPES OF FOOD FOR Examples: ENERGY

Example

Carbohydrates Come from:

Needed for: Retrieval charts

Retrieval charts are an effective way to guide students to important information in the text and summarise it. It is also a useful way of students organising their ideas in preparation for writing. Types of Food for Energy

Food Group Come from: Needed for: Example of: Carbohydrates

Proteins

Lipids

Text frames Spider Diagrams and retrieval charts are both a good starting point for a piece of writing because an appropriate structure has already been created. The following example is a text frame that will help students write the material from the spider diagram in a clear, structured style:

Types of food used for energy

There are three main types of food used for energy. They are ……………………… , ………………………… and ………………………… .

Proteins come from……………. Some examples of proteins are …………………. They are needed for ………………..

Lipids come from……………. Some examples of lipids are …………………. They are needed for ………………..

Carbohydrates come from……………. Some examples of carbohydrates are …………………. They are needed for ………………..

Editing will really help improve the piece. Some things students could do at this stage are:  Check spelling and punctuation  Check that their information is accurate Keep to the same structure but vary the sentences used. The template above is very formulaic and repetitive, but if students conveyed the same information in different words it would be a more interesting piece of writing. For instance, “Proteins are needed for ……”, An important benefit of lipids is that ……, carbohydrates are essential for ……….” Writing Techniques Writing is an important form of communication. Good writers use different writing techniques to fit their purpose for writing. To be a good writer, you must master each of the following writing techniques.

1. Description Through description, a writer helps the reader use the senses of feeling, seeing, hearing, smelling, and tasting to experience what the writer experiences. Description helps the reader more clearly understand the people, places, and things about which the writer is writing. It is the most common form of writing. You will find descriptive writing in newspapers, magazines, books, and most other forms of written communication.

2. Exposition Through exposition, a writer informs, explains, and clarifies his/her ideas and thoughts. Exposition goes beyond description to help the reader understand with greater clarity and depth the ideas and thoughts of the writer. Expository writing, like descriptive writing, is commonly found in newspapers, magazines, books, and most other forms of written communication.

3. Narration Through narration, a writer tells a story. A story has characters, a setting, a time, a problem, attempts at solving the problem, and a solution to the problem. Bedtime stories are examples of short stories while novels are examples of long stories. The scripts written for movies and plays are further examples of narrative writing.

4. Persuasion Through persuasion, a writer tries to change a reader's point of view on a topic, subject, or position. The writer presents facts and opinions to get the reader to understand why something is right, wrong, or in between. Editorials, letters to the editor in newspapers and magazines, and the text for a political speech are examples of persuasive writing.

5. Comparison and Contrast Through comparison and contrast, a writer points out the similarities and differences about a topic. Comparison is used to show what is alike or in common. Contrast is used to show what is not alike or not in common. Describing living conditions in 1900 and living conditions today would allow for much comparison and contrast. By using the writing technique that fits your purpose, you will be able to communicate your ideas effectively.