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DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum)

A American Peregrine Falcon B (Falco peregrinus anatum) Legal Status

State: Delisted, Fully Protected Federal: Delisted, Bird of Conservation Concern Critical Habitat: N/A Recovery Planning: N/A Notes: Species was federally delisted on August 25, 1999, due to recovery (64 FR 46542–46558) and state delisted on August 6, 2009 (California Fish and Game Commission 2009). Taxonomy

There are 19 subspecies of peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), 3 of which occur in North America: F. p. anatum, F. p. tundrius, and F. p. pealei (White et al. 2002). Current subspecific classifications and geographic boundaries are based on plumage and morphometrics (White et al. 2002). However, the current systematics of this species are somewhat uncertain. Recent information based on microsatellite deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) analysis suggests that the North American populations of F. p. anatum and F. p. tundrius subspecies may not be genetically distinct at the species’ northern latitudinal distribution from Alaska through Canada to Greenland (Johnson et al. 2010). A confounding factor in the genetic makeup of North American populations is that nearly 7,000 falcons were released in the eastern United States and Canada from 1974 to 1999, of which many were stock from non-native subspecies (White et al. 2002).

This species account addresses the currently recognized subspecies, F. p. anatum, which occurs in North America, south of the tundra to northern Mexico, except for the Pacific Northwest, which supports the subspecies F. p. pealei (White et al. 2002). Of the three North American subspecies, F. p. anatum is the only one that breeds in California. For the purpose of this analysis, the systematic questions are unimportant because none of the subspecies are currently federally or state-listed

6668 1 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) (although F. p. anatum is fully protected in California), and these uncertainties are unlikely to trigger new listings in the foreseeable future that would have ramifications for the Desert Renewable Energy Conservation Plan (DRECP). Distribution

General

In North America, peregrine falcon breeds from Alaska to Labrador, southward to Baja California and other parts of northern Mexico, and east across central Arizona through Alabama. Its distribution is patchy in North America, and populations in the eastern United States are still chiefly in urban areas (AOU 1998; White et al. 2002). The distribution is likely to change as the species reoccupies areas from which it was formerly extirpated (White et al. 2002). The former breeding range also included Ontario, southern Quebec, the Canadian Maritime Provinces, and all of the eastern United States south to northern Georgia. In the Americas, the species winters from southern Alaska to Tierra del Fuego in southernmost South America (AOU 1998). In California, the American peregrine falcon is an uncommon breeder and uncommon winter migrant (Zeiner et al. 1990). However, since the 1970s, the breeding population has dramatically increased, and active nest sites are known from 40 counties, spanning the length of California (Comrack and Logsdon 2008). Active nests have been documented along the coast north of Santa Barbara, in the Sierra Nevada, and in other mountains of Northern California. As a transient winter species, the American peregrine falcon may occur almost anywhere in California that suitable habitat is present (Garrett and Dunn 1981; Figure SP- B1). It is generally absent from desert areas, but occurs along the Colorado River, in the Coachella Valley and south in the Salton Sink, and the Imperial Valley to the U.S.–Mexico border where non-breeding individuals may occur year-round (Patten et al. 2003; Comrack and Logsdon 2008).

6668 2 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) Distribution and Occurrences within the Plan Area

Historical

Historically, American peregrine falcon nested near Parker Dam at least until 1954 and probably at Imperial National Wildlife Refuge and Topock Gorge during the same time period (Comrack and Logsdon 2008). Garrett and Dunn (1981) noted that the species was a rare, transient, and non-breeding summer visitor at the Salton Sea and that elsewhere in the desert it was a rare, transient, and casual visitor during other seasons. Along the Colorado River, it was a regular winter visitor, but numbers had decreased, with most observations occurring in the fall (Garrett and Dunn 1981).

Recent

American peregrine falcon currently has a limited range within the Plan Area. Individuals may be observed year-round in the Salton Sink and south into the Imperial Valley to the U.S.– Mexico border, but it is likely that different individuals occur in this region as non-breeding summer and midwinter visitors (Patten et al. 2003). Most of the summer visitors in the Salton Sink are immatures and subadults, and are likely from the Gulf of California breeding population (Patten et al. 2003). Garrett and Dunn (1981) had also noted the historical occurrence of non-breeding summer visitors. The shoreline of the Salton Sea provides abundant foraging opportunities for the species during the summer, but midwinter visitors are more dispersed in the agricultural fields of the Imperial Valley (Patten et al. 2003). Breeding has not been observed in this area, but due to the presence of summer individuals, Patten et al. (2003) suggest that the species may attempt to colonize the Salton Sink area in the future, although they note that there is a lack of suitable nesting sites. The species’ winter range also overlaps with other areas of the Plan Area, including the Tehachapi and southern Sierra Nevada mountain ranges in eastern Kern County, the eastern Sierra Nevada in Inyo County, and the northern edge of the San Gabriel Mountains in Los Angeles County (Zeiner et al. 1990).

6668 3 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) There are no recent (i.e., since 1990) nesting records for the species in the Plan Area in the California Natural Diversity Database (CNDDB) (Comrack and Logsdon 2008; CDFG 2011a). However, the eBird database includes 44 occurrences in the Plan Area dating back to 2003 and one occurrence within 5 miles of the Plan Area in San Bernardino (Dudek 2011). The occurrences in the Plan Area generally occur north of Independence at the northern end of the Plan Area, and south in Inyo, near Lancaster, south of the Salton Sea, near Parker, and northwest of Yuma (Dudek 2011).

American peregrine falcon can be expected to occur wherever there are large concentrations of shorebirds, such as at playas that provide important seasonal wetland resources for a variety of migratory and wintering birds. For example, Searles Dry Lake east of Trona and Koehn Dry Lake northeast of California City have spring-fed wetlands that expand with winter rains producing highly productive alkali meadows and mudflats used by shorebirds (National Audubon Society 2011). Harper Dry Lake near Barstow also provides wetland habitat for birds (BLM 2007). Non-breeding peregrine falcons, including subadults and immatures, may opportunistically use these seasonal resources in the Plan Area as foraging habitat. Natural History

Habitat Requirements

Peregrine falcons in general use a large variety of open habitats for foraging, including tundra, marshes, seacoasts, savannahs, grasslands, meadows, open woodlands, and agricultural areas (Table 1). Sites are often located near rivers or lakes (Snyder 1991; AOU 1998; Brown 2006). Riparian areas, as well as coastal and inland wetlands, are also important habitats yearround for this species. The species breeds mostly in woodland, forest, and coastal habitats (Zeiner et al. 1990; Brown 2006). In Southern California, American peregrine falcons are primarily found at coastal estuaries and inland oases during migration periods and during the winter months (Garrett and Dunn 1981). Their high mobility, extensive hunting areas, remote nest sites, and unique

6668 4 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) preferences of individual pairs make it difficult to identify what might be typical peregrine falcon habitat (USFWS 1984), and no particular terrestrial biome appears to be preferred over others (White et al. 2002). As described previously, peregrine falcons winter and summer in the Salton Sink and Imperial Valley agricultural areas (primarily during the winter) (Patten et al. 2003) and may also opportunistically take advantage of large shorebird concentrations at seasonal wetlands in playas in the Plan Area.

American peregrine falcon requires cliffs or suitable surrogates for breeding that are close to preferred foraging areas. Nests are typically located in cliffs between 64 and 656 feet tall that are prominent in the landscape. Peregrine falcons may also occasionally nest on the ground, where there are topographic relief features, such as grass hummocks, mounds, low mudhills, sand dunes, and cutbanks, but Pagel et al. (2010) observed nesting on flat ground with little topographic relief at the San Diego National Wildlife Refuge. American peregrine falcon has also been known to nest in trees and on small outcrops. Tall buildings, bridges, or other tall man-made structures are also suitable for nesting (White et al. 2002). The nest site usually provides a panoramic view of open country and often overlooks water. It is always associated with an abundance of avian prey, even in an urban setting. Peregrine falcons show strong nest site and territory fidelity, although territories do shift (Tordoff and Redig 1997; Nesje et al. 2000). A cliff or building nest site may be used for many years (Brown 2006). The nest site itself usually consists of a rounded depression or scrape with accumulated debris that is occasionally lined with grass (Call 1978). Higher-quality nest sites provide greater protection from the elements and yield greater breeding success (Olsen and Olsen 1989). Although peregrine falcons summer in the Salton Sink, and Patten et al. (2003) suggest the potential for nesting in the future, they also note that there is a lack of suitable nesting habitat in the region. While there are no CNDDB occurrences for nesting sites in the Plan Area (CDFG 2011a), and the current potential for the species to nest in the Plan Area appears to be low, they nested until at least 1954 near Parker Dam and probably at Imperial National Wildlife

6668 5 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) Refuge and Topock Gorge during the same time period (Comrack and Logsdon 2008).

Table 1. Habitat Associations for American Peregrine Falcon

Land Cover Land Habitat Habitat Supporting Type Cover Use Designation Parameters Information Shorelines Foraging Foraging Primary AOU 1998; (e.g., Salton Habitat Brown Sea) 2006; Agriculture, Snyder 1991 Playas, Tundra, Marshes, Seacoasts, Savannahs, Grasslands, Meadows, Open woodlands (open habitats) Woodland, Breeding Breeding Primary Zeiner et al. forest, and Habitat 1990; coastal Brown 2006 habitats Coastal Migration Secondary Garrett and estuaries, and over- Habitat Dunn 1981 inland oases wintering Salton Sink, Over- Over- Secondary Patten et al. Imperial wintering wintering Habitat 2003 Valley Agricultural Areas Cliffs, tall Nesting Breeding/ Primary White et al. buildings, Nesting Habitat 2002; bridges, or Brown other tall 2006; manmade Call 1978; structures Olsen and Olsen 1989

6668 6 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) Foraging Requirements

The diet of the American peregrine falcon primarily consists of pigeon-sized birds, but can be as small as hummingbirds or as large as small geese (White et al. 2002). In temperate continental latitudes, pigeons and doves (Columbidae) may be most frequently taken and possibly, in terms of biomass, are the peregrine falcon’s most important prey. Other avian prey include waterfowl (Anatidae), shorebirds (e.g., Scolopacidae, Alcidae), and small passerines (i.e., perching birds) (White et al. 2002). American peregrine falcons also take mammals, including bats (Chiroptera) and rodents, such as squirrels (Sciuridae) and mice and rats (Muridae) (White et al. 2002).

Reproduction

Breeding by American peregrine falcons occurs from early March to late August (Table 2). Replacement clutches may be laid as late as September, but there is no evidence of more than one brood per season in North America (White et al. 2002). Clutch size varies from three to seven eggs. Incubation lasts 33 to 35 days and is performed by both parents (Bent 1938; Brown 2006). The young typically fledge between 25 and 42 days (Brown 2006). They are dependent upon the parents for several months and often pursue adults to solicit food (White et al. 2002). Firstyear young remain in social groups several months after nest departure and may start migration together (Cade 1960). Although it is rare for a yearling male to breed, immature females may breed with mature males (Wendt and Septon 1991). When yearlings breed, they often fail to produce eggs, clutches are smaller, and young often fail to fledge; however, successful breeding by a yearling pair has been observed (Wendt and Septon 1991).

Table 2. Key Seasonal Periods for American Peregrine Falcon

Mar Jan Feb ch AprilMay JuneJuly Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Breeding x x x x x x Migration x x x x x x

6668 7 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum)

Mar Jan Feb ch AprilMay JuneJuly Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec ______Notes: Immatures and non-breeding subadults may summer in Salton Sink area. Peregrine falcons nesting in California typically stay within their general breeding areas. Sources: Jurek 1989; White et al. 2002; Patten et al. 2003.

Spatial Behavior

During the breeding season, peregrine falcon pairs occupy territories around their nests that they defend with vocalizations and attacks (White et al. 2002; Cade 1960). This territory is minimally the area enclosed by about a 300foot radius around the nest and is usually larger (Cade 1960). Size of territory and intensity of boundary defense are probably affected by prey abundance (Nelson 1977). Home ranges of individual pairs also fluctuate with prey abundance. In Sonoma County, California, home range was estimated to be approximately 125 square miles (Zeiner et al. 1990) (Table 3). A radiotelemetry study of birds at three nest sites along the Front Range in Colorado near Colorado Springs estimated foraging ranges of 138 to 582 square miles (Enderson and Craig 1997). Enderson and Craig (1997) also documented that about 60% of hunting flights were within 5 miles of the nest, but 20% of hunting flights by females exceeded 14 miles. Hunting ranges by all individuals overlapped even though the two most distant nest sites were separated by more than 17 miles. Inland nest sites in California are 3 to 7 miles apart (Zeiner et al. 1990). Pair members often perch side by side, and pair bonds remain established yearround in resident birds (White et al. 2002).

The American peregrine falcon populations in California include both a breeding resident population and wintering migrants that breed in more northern latitudes (Jurek 1989). Breeding residents in California generally are nonmigratory and stay near breeding sites; as of 1988, no adults banded in California have been observed outside the state (Jurek 1989). Individuals occurring in the Plan Area include winter migrants and non-breeding immature and subadult summer visitors in

6668 8 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) the Salton Sink (Patten et al. 2003). Also, immatures born in California may fly as far south as Mexico and as far north as Oregon (Jurek 1989). American peregrine falcons are capable of rapid, long-distance migrations. Fuller et al. (1998), for example, documented southward migrations of over 5,300 miles by individuals that breed in the lower Artic and North American boreal forests, with migration rates of more than 100 miles per day on southward migrations and more than 120 miles per day on northward migrations. The species is considered to be a “low-altitude” migrant with flight altitudes of less than 330 feet to about 2,950 feet (White et al. 2002). Daily migration patterns include about 6 hours of flight, generally midmorning to late afternoon, and generally occurring on 6 days of a 7-day period (White et al. 2002).

Most nesting peregrine falcons return to their general natal area, but individuals may disperse and establish breeding territories hundreds of miles from their natal area (Jurek 1989).

Table 3. Spatial Behavior by American Peregrine Falcon

Type Distance/Area Location of Study Citation Home 125 square miles Sonoma County, Zeiner et al. Range California; 1990 Colorado 138 to 158 Enderson and square miles Craig 1997 Dispersal Most Jurek 1989 California breeders remain in their natal area, but may disperse several hundred miles Migration California California Jurek 1989 breeding population generally non- migratory;

6668 9 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) Table 3. Spatial Behavior by American Peregrine Falcon

Type Distance/Area Location of Study Citation Birds of northern Fellers et al. latitudes may 1998; migrate 5,000+ White et al. miles 2002

Ecological Relationships

American peregrine falcon is a mobile top predator, and adults, therefore, probably are not highly vulnerable to other predators, although conspecific territorial rivalries can result in mortality (White et al 2002). However, golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), common raven (Corvus corax), as well as raccoon (Procyon lotor), and other mammals may prey on young. It may also compete for nest sites and prey resources with other raptors and for nest sites with scavenging birds (Zeiner et al. 1990; White et al. 2002). In the southern portion of the Colorado Plateau, nesting and hunting areas of peregrine falcon overlaps with golden eagle, prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus), turkey vulture (Cathartes aura), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), and common raven, and agonistic interactions as a result of protecting nest sites are not uncommon (Hays 1987). Agonistic interactions between peregrine falcon and white-tailed kite (Elanus leucurus) and northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) have also been observed on San Miguel Island off the California coast (Stewart and Delong 1984) and between peregrine falcon and prairie falcon in Sonoma County (Walton 1978).

Relationships between peregrine falcon and other species may be complex, and include both positive and negative relationships. In Italy, the presence of common raven has been shown to depress breeding success in cliff-nesting peregrine falcons (Brambilla et al. 2004). On the other hand, Sergio et al. (2004) found a positive correlation between nest site selection by peregrine falcon and proximity to common raven, suggesting an active breeding association between the two species that may provide early warning cues against predators and safe alternative nest sites.

6668 10 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) The presence of peregrine falcon may have positive effects on other species by reducing predator impacts in some locations. On Tatoosh Island in Washington, for example, predation or restriction of northwestern crow (Corvus caurinus) by peregrine falcon appears to relate to increases in common murres (Uria aalge), pelagic cormorants (Phalacrocorax pelagicus), and the fledgling rate of black oystercatchers (Haematopus bachmani), which suffer egg predation by the crow (Paine et al. 1990). At Triangle Island off British Columbia, breeding success by common murres and pelagic cormorants was high in 2003–2006 when nesting peregrines were present. Over the next 3 years, when nesting peregrine falcons were absent (2007–2009), common murres were depredated by bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and murre eggs were taken by glaucous-winged gulls (Larus glaucescens) after incubating murres were flushed from nests by bald eagles (Hipfner et al. 2011). Breeding success by both common murres and pelagic cormorants was reduced during the period when nesting peregrine falcons were absent (Hipfner et al. 2011).

Peregrine falcon may also directly affect the foraging behavior of other species. In California, peregrine falcons have been observed to pirate fish and mice from osprey (Pandion haliaetus) and red-tailed hawk (White et al. 2002).

6668 11 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum)

Population Status and Trends

Global: Stable (NatureServe 2010) State: Imperiled (NatureServe 2010) Within Plan Area: Unknown, but potentially increasing in Salton Sink and Imperial Valley area (Patten et al. 2003)

Although the American peregrine falcon is widespread in North America (see discussion in Distribution section), little was known of its population status prior to the 1940s. The population was stable from the 1940s until the 1950s to mid- 1970s, when the population crashed, primarily due to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) (White et al. 2002). In California, it was estimated that the breeding population had declined across the state by about 90% by the 1970s, with an estimated population of 22 to 40 active pairs (Comrack and Logsdon 2008).

After restrictions on DDT took effect in 1970 in Canada and 1972 in the United States, the population stabilized in the late 1970s and rapidly increased in the 1980s, and it was still increasing as of 2001 (White et al 2002). The population was estimated at 2,500 to 3,000 pairs, with 329 eyries in California, Oregon, and Washington as of 1999 (White et al. 2002). Through 2007 in California, approximately 274 nesting sites were documented as “active” (i.e., used at least once since 1975) in 40 counties spanning the length of the state (see Table 1 in Comrack and Logsdon 2008). About 57% of the active nesting sites are in 8 counties: Santa Barbara (32 sites), Mendocino (29 sites), Humboldt (22 sites), Los Angeles (19 sites), Siskiyou (17 sites), Trinity (15 sites), San Luis Obispo (13 sites), and Sonoma (10 sites). Reproductive productivity in California also increased dramatically from 1975 to 1989, from 12 young wild fledged (i.e., fledged from unmanipulated sites) in 1975 to 99 young wild fledged in 1989 (see Table 2 in Comrack and Logsdon 2008). As of 2011, the Santa Cruz Predatory Bird Research Group database includes 297 active nesting sites and is being updated by CDFG (CDFG, pers. comm. 2011b).

6668 12 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) In addition to nesting pairs, there are unpaired “floaters” that occur, and although prevalent in California, their population numbers are unknown (CDFG, pers. comm. 2011b).

Despite an increasing population in California, the species is still designated as imperiled (NatureServe 2010). Nonetheless, based on an evaluation of a petition to delist the species by California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG) staff in 2007 (Comrack and Logsdon 2008), the CDFG Commission delisted the American peregrine falcon in 2009 for several stated reasons, including:

The breeding population had increased dramatically and may have reached or exceeded historic levels on California. The threat posed by organochlorine pesticide contamination had diminished, although some “hotspots” remain. The federal recovery goals for the California population had been achieved (resulting in the federal delisting in 1999), and productivity goals had been met at most sites, but not all, in California. The captive breeding and reintroduction program established in the 1970s and conducted through 1992 was very successful. Even with delisting, the species would remain fully protected in CDFG Code, Section 3511(b)(1).

Threats and Environmental Stressors

Prior to federal protection, the main cause of the American peregrine falcon decline was the use of pesticides such as DDT and its metabolite, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), which interfered with its calcium metabolism and resulted in eggs with thin shells that were easily broken (White et al. 2002; USFWS 2003). Restrictions on DDT in 1970 in Canada and 1972 in the United States resulted in a rebound of the peregrine falcon population in North America. However, loss of suitable nesting places and wetland habitat supporting large avian populations also likely harms the species (White et al.

6668 13 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) 2002). In addition, nesting sites have been abandoned due to human encroachment or increased levels of nearby activity (Bond 1946; Hickey 1969), although these impacts did not contribute significantly to historical population declines.

Comrack and Logsdon (2008) list other factors that could result in mortality or injury of peregrine falcons, including native predators (see discussion in Ecological Relationships section); predation on young falcons by cats and dogs; disturbance of nest sites due to recreational rock climbing (also see Brambilla et al. 2004); activities of researchers, falconers, and egg collectors; occasional shootings; collisions with structures or objects, especially by fledglings practicing their flight; and in urban areas, electrocutions from collisions with electrical wires or towers.

Conservation and Management Activities

The American peregrine falcon has been the subject of intensive conservation and management activities since the 1970s, although no specific activities have been conducted in the Plan Area. The Santa Cruz Predatory Bird Research Group has been a leader in conservation and management of the peregrine falcon in California, as well as Nevada and Oregon, through a captive- breeding program at the University of California, Santa Cruz, nest augmentation, and a monitoring program conducted since 1975. The captive-breeding program continued until 1992, and by that time, approximately 800 peregrine falcons had been released into the wild (Comrack and Logsdon 2008). Current conservation and management activities include release of falcons at sites, salvage of young from urban sites where chance of survival is poor, and continued population monitoring, including mortality rates from electrocutions (Comrack and Logsdon 2008; SCPBRG 2011).

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serve (USFWS) has continued monitoring populations of American peregrine falcon since its delisting in 1999. The USFWS (2003) published the Monitoring Plan for the American Peregrine Falcon that entails monitoring territories occupancy, nest success, and productivity in six monitoring regions every 3 years, starting in 2003 and ending

6668 14 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) in 2015. For the initial monitoring effort in 2003, nesting productivity was above the target values that were set in the monitoring plan parameters (Green et al. 2006). Monitoring was scheduled for 2006 and 2009, but reports of these monitoring efforts have not yet been published.

Agencies that manage public lands supporting historic and active nesting sites (e.g., National Park Service, U.S. Forest Service) close the sites to the public during the breeding season; however, because many breeding sites are located on non-managed lands and enforcement against illegal activity is difficult, this management probably has limited effectiveness (Comrack and Logsdon 2008). Data Characterization

Information about nesting activities by American peregrine falcons in California is fairly complete through 2007 (see Table 1 in Comrack and Logsdon 2008). As described previously in the Distribution and Occurrence in Plan Area section, the species is not known to currently nest in the Plan Area, although historically it nested in the Parker Dam area and possibly at the Imperial National Wildlife Refuge and Topock Gorge (Comrack and Logsdon 2008). Non-nesting records for the species are not tracked in the CNDDB, and available information is primarily from anecdotal observations and general avian surveys and assessments (e.g., Patten et al. 2003). Management and Monitoring Considerations

Within the Plan Area, primary management and monitoring concerns about migrating and hunting peregrine falcons include potential impacts from collisions and electrocutions from energy facilities. As described previously in Spatial Behavior, this species is considered a “low-altitude” migrant with flight altitudes that may be less than 330 feet (White et al. 2002), making it vulnerable to wind turbines and transmission lines and towers. Organochlorine pesticides also are considered a continuing threat to the species in California (Comrack and Logsdon 2007). Potential indirect impacts to the species include degradation of wetlands habitats that support

6668 15 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) shorebirds and waterfowl, which are important prey for peregrine falcon.

Based on these kinds of continuing threats, the CDFG (Comrack and Logsdon 2008) recommended several future management and monitoring considerations for the American peregrine falcon that may apply to the Plan Area:

 Continued monitoring of mortalities resulting from collisions with electrical power lines and towers and determination of whether these mortalities are contributing to general mortality trends (e.g., first-year mortality rates).

 Continue monitoring efforts and contaminant analyses, which should include levels of DDE, other organochlorine pesticides (called HEOD in Comrack and Logsdon [2008]), polychlorinated biphenyls, and heavy metals (mercury, lead, and cadmium).

 Implement monitoring surveys in other localized regions of California to supplement the larger-scale post-recovery service monitoring plan for the Pacific Region (USFWS 2003). These should include contaminant analyses as described previously. Predicted Species Distribution in Plan Area

There are 2,119,002 acres of modeled suitable foraging habitat for American peregrine falcon in the Plan Area. Modeled suitable foraging habitat occurs primarily in the western portion of the Plan Area, south of the Salton Sea, and along the eastern boundary of the Plan Area. Suitable habitat includes lakes, ponds, reservoirs, playas, and the area along the Colorado River. Appendix C includes specific model parameters and a figure showing the modeled suitable habitat in the Plan Area. Literature Cited

64 FR 46542-46558. Final rule: “Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants: Final Rule to Remove the American

6668 16 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) Peregrine Falcon from the Federal List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, and to Remove the Similarity of Appearance Provision for Free-Flying Peregrines in the Conterminous United States.” 1999.

AOU (American Ornithologists' Union). 1998. Checklist of North American Birds: The Species of Birds in North America from the Arctic through Panama, including the West Indies and Hawaiian Islands. 7th ed. Lawrence, Kansas: Allen Press Inc. Accessed March 31, 2010. http://www.aou.org/checklist/ north/print.php.

Bent, A.C. 1938. “Life Histories of North American Birds of Prey, Part 2.” U.S. National Museum Bulletin 170.

BLM (Bureau of Land Management). 2007. “Harper Dry Lake.” Harper Dry Lake Marsh, Recreation Area, BLM Barstow Field Office. April 27, 2007. Accessed February 2011. http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/fo/barstow/harper.html.

Bond, R.M. 1946. “The Peregrine Populations of Western North America.” Condor 48:101–116.

Brambilla, M., D. Ruboline, and F. Guidali. 2004. “Rock Climbing and Raven Corvus corax Occurrences Depress Breeding Success of Cliff-nesting Peregrines Falco peregrinus.” Ardeola 51:425–430.

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Cade, T.J. 1960. “Ecology of the Peregrine and Gyrfalcon Populations in Alaska.” University of California Publications in Zoology 63:151–289.

California Fish and Game Commission. 2009. “Final Statement of Reasons for Regulatory Action. Amend Section 670.5, Title 14, California Code of Regulations Re: Animals of

6668 17 March 2012 DRAFT March 2012 BIRDS American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) California Declared to Be Endangered or Threatened, American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum).”

Call, M.W. 1978. Nesting Habitats and Surveying Techniques for Common Western Raptors. Technical Note TN-316. Denver, Colorado: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management.

CDFG (California Department of Fish and Game). 2011a. RareFind, Version 4. Sacramento, California: California Natural Diversity Database. Accessed May 6, 2011. http://www.dfg.ca.gov/biogeodata/cnddb/ mapsanddata.asp.

CDFG. 2011b. Personal communication from C. Battistone (CDFG) to Dudek regarding 2011 data for active nesting sites provide in review of species profile.

Comrack, L.A. and R.J. Logsdon. 2008. Status Review of the American Peregrine Falcon (Falco Peregrinus Anatum) in California. California Department of Fish and Game, Wildlife Branch, Nongame Wildlife Program Report 2008-06.

Dudek. 2011. “Species Occurrences–Falco peregrinus anatum.” DRECP Species Occurrence Database. Updated November 2011.

Enderson, J.H. and G.R. Craig. 1997. “Wide Ranging by Nesting Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) Determined by Radiotelemetry.” Journal of Raptor Research 31:333-338.

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