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THE SLAVERY ISSUE

I. The rise of "King Cotton" A. Prior to 1793, the Southern economy was weak: depressed prices, unmarketable products, overcropped lands, and an unprofitable slave system. -- Some leaders, such as Jefferson (who freed 10% of his slaves), spoke of freeing their their slaves and of slavery gradually dying; "We have a wolf by the ears" B. Eli Whitney?s Cotton Gin (1793) 1. Impact: Cotton production now profitable; 50x more effective than picking cotton by hand. a. Tobacco, rice, and sugar eventually eclipsed in production b. Most significantly, slavery reinvigorated c. Prior, handpicking one lb. from 3 lb. of cotton took one slave an entire day. 2. Cotton Kingdom developed into a huge agricultural factory a. Western expansion into lower gulf states resulted (Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama) b. Slaves brought into new regions to cultivate cotton. C. Trade 1. Cotton exported to England; $ from sale of cotton used to buy northern goods -- Britain heavily dependent on cotton to feed its textile factories (80% came from U.S.) 2. For a time, prosperity of both North and South rested on slave labor 3. Cotton accounted for 50% of all American exports after 1840. -- South produced 75% of world?s cotton.

II. The Three Souths A. Generalizations 1. The further North, the cooler the climate, the fewer the slaves, and the lower the commitment to perpetuating bondage. 2. The further South, the warmer the climate, the more the slaves, and the higher the commitment to perpetuating bondage. 3. Mountain whites along Appalachian Mountains would mostly side w/ Union -- W. Virginia, E. Tennessee, NE Kentucky, W. South Carolina, N. Georgia & Alabama. 4. Southward flow of slaves (from sales) continued from 1790 to 1860 5. Not a unified South except on unity resulting from outside interference (federal gov?t) B. Border South: Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, & Missouri 1. Plantations scarcer; cotton cultivation almost nonexistent; Tobacco main slave crop (as in Middle South); More grain production (as in Middle South) 2. Unionists would overcome Disunionists during and after the Civil War. 3. 1850, Slaves = 17% of population.; Avg. 5 slaves per slaveholder 4. 1850, over 21% of Border South?s blacks free; 46% of South?s free blacks 5. 22% of white families owned slaves 6. Of all who owned more than 20 slaves in South: 6%; Ultra-wealthy = 1% 7. Produced over 50% of South?s industrial products (e.g., Tredegar Iron Works in VA) C. Middle South: Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas. 1. Each state had one section resembling more the Border South and another resembling the Lower South. -- Some industrial production: e.g., Tredegar Iron Works in VA used slave labor 2. Unionists would prevail after Lincoln elected; Disunionists would prevail after war began 3. Many plantations in eastern Virginia and western Tennessee 4. 1850, slaves = 30% of population; Avg. 8 slaves per slaveholder 5. 36% of white families owned slaves 6. Of all who owned more than 20 slaves in South: 32%; Ultra-wealthy = 14% D. Lower South: South Carolina, Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas -- Most slaves concentrated in the "black belt" of the Deep South along river valleys 1. Plantations prevalent; cotton was king; grew 95% of Dixie?s cotton & almost all of its sugar, rice, and indigo. 2. Disunionists (secessionists) would prevail after Lincoln was elected 3. 1850, slaves = 47% of population; Avg. 12 slaves per slaveholder 4. Less than 2% of blacks free; only 15% of South?s free blacks 5. 43% of white families owned slaves 6. Of all who owned more than 20 slaves in South: 62%; Ultra-wealthy = 85% 7. Produced less than 20% of South?s industrial products III. The Planter "Aristocracy" A. South an oligarchy -- Ruled by wealthy plantation owners 1. 1850, only 1,733 families owned more than 100 slaves; yet dominated southern politics 2. Strong sense of obligation to serve the public through politics -- Higher proportion of front-rank statesmen produced by South (e.g., Calhoun) 3. Stifled democracy, widened gap between rich & poor, and hampered public education (planters sent kids to private schools) 4. Chivalry, honor, hospitality, soft-spoken, courteous; yet high-strung 5. Carried on "cavalier" tradition of early Virginia; reflected in its military academies. 6. Sought to perpetuate medievalism (feudalism) that had died out in Europe.

IV. Slaves and the slave system (the "Peculiar Institution") A. Economic structure of South was monopolistic, dominitate by wealthy plantation owners B. Plantation system 1. Risky : Slaves might die of disease, injure themselves, or run away. -- System required heavy investment of capital 2. One-crop economy a. Discouraged a diversification of agriculture and esp. manufacturing b. Southerners resentful the North made huge profits at their expense -- Complained of northern middlemen, bankers, agents, & shippers c. Resented being so dependent on northern manufactures & markets 3. Repelled large-scale European immigration a. Only 4.4% of foreign-born part of South?s pop. in 1860; 18.7% in North. b. Slave labor far cheaper, fertile land very expensive, & Europeans unfamiliar with cotton production. c. South most Anglo-Saxon region of nation C. Plantation slavery 1. Nearly 4 million slaves by 1860; quadrupled in number since 1800 a. Legal imports of slaves ended in 1808 -- Countless slaves smuggled in despite death penalty for slavers b. Increase due to natural reproduction i. Over-breeding of slaves not encouraged -- Owners still often rewarded slave women for many children ii. White slaveowners often fathered sizable mulatto population. -- Most remained slaves 2. Slaves seen as valuable assets and primary source of wealth a. Slave auctions one of most revolting aspects of slavery i. Families often separated: division of property, bankruptcy ii Slavery?s greatest psychological horror 3. Punishment often brutal to send a message to other slaves not to defy master?s authority 4. Life in the newly emerging western areas particularly harsh (LA, TX, MS, AL) 5. Afro-American slave culture developed D. Burdens of slavery 1. Slaves deprived of dignity and sense of responsibility that free people have, suffered cruel physical and psychological treatment, and were ultimately convinced that they were inferior and deserved their lot in life. 2. Denied an education since; seen as dangerous to give slaves ideas of freedom 3. Slaves often insidiously sabotaged their master?s system -- Poisoned food, supplies often missing, equipment often broken, slow work. 4. Many attempted to escape -- Some success in Border South; next to impossible in Lower South E. Slave Revolts 1. Stono Rebellion, 1739 -- South Carolina slaves fled toward Florida killing whites along way; did not make it. 2. Gabriel Prosser, 1800 a. Slave blacksmith in VA who planned a military slave revolt; recruited 150 men b. Rebellion did not materialize and Prosser and 26 others were hanged. 3. Denmark Vesey, a mulatto in Charleston, devised the largest revolt ever in 1822. a. A slave informer advised his master of the plot b. Vesey and 30 others publicly hanged 4. Nat Turner?s revolt -- 1831 a. Sixty Virginians slaughtered, mostly children and women i. Wave of killing slowed down revolt?s aim of capturing armory ii. Largest slave revolt ever in the South b. Over 100 slaves were killed in response; Turner was hanged. c. Significance: Produced a wave of anxiety among southern plantation owners that resulted in harsh laws clamping down further on the slave institution. F. Southern white paranoia 1. Feared more reprisals by slaves (like Nat Turner?s revolt) 2. Infuriated by abolitionist propaganda in the North they saw as enflaming slaves. 3. Settled into a theory of biological racial superiority as a justification for slavery.

V. The White Majority A. By 1860, only 1/4 of white southerners owned slaves or belonged to slave-owning families 1. Over 2/3 of slave owners owned less than ten slaves each. 2. Small slaveowners made up a majority of masters. B. 75% of white southerners owned no slaves at all. 1. Located predominantly in the backcountry and the mountain valleys. 2. Mostly subsistence farmers; didn?t participate in market economy. 3. Raised corn, hogs 4. Some of the poorest known as "white trash", "hillbillies", "crackers", "clay eaters" -- Suffered from malnutrition & parasites esp. hookworm. 5. Fiercely defended the slave system as it proved white superiority a. Poor whites took comfort that they were "equal" to wealthy neighbors b. Social status was determined by how many slaves one owned: poor Southern whites someday hoped to own slaves and realize the "American dream." c. Slavery proved effective in controlling blacks; ending slavery might result in the mixing of the races and black competing with whites for work.. C. Mountain whites 1. Lived in the valleys of the Appalachian range from W. Virginia to northern. GA & AL 2. Independent small farmers 100?s of miles from the cotton kingdom. 3. Lived in rough frontier environment 4. Hated wealthy planters and slaves. 5. During Civil War were Unionist; significant in crippling Confederacy

VI. Free Blacks A. Numbered about 250,000 in the South by 1860 1. In Border South, emancipation from revolutionary days increased 2. In Lower South, many free blacks were mulattos (white father, black mother) 3. Some had purchased their freedom with earnings from labor after hours. 4. Some owned property; New Orleans had a sizable prosperous mulatto community. -- A few even owned slaves (although this was rare) B. Discrimination in the South 1. Prohibited from certain occupations and from testifying against whites in court. 2. Always in danger of being forced back into slavery by slave traders. 3. Became a fearful symbol of what might be achieved by emancipation C. Discrimination in the North 1. Blacks also numbered about 250,000 2. Some states forbade their entrance or denied them public education 3. Most states denied them suffrage 4. Some states segregated blacks in public facilities. 5. Especially hated by Irish immigrants with whom they competed with for jobs. 6. Much of Northern sentiment against spread of slavery into new territories due to intense race prejudice, not humanitarianism. -- Antiblack feeling frequently stronger in the North than in the South

VII. Early Abolitionism Definition: Abolitionism: Movement in the North that demanded the immediate end of slavery A. First abolitionist movements began around the time of the Revolution esp. Quakers -- Some of these movements focused on transporting blacks back to Africa. B. American colonization Society 1. Founded in 1817 to create practical solution vis-is free blacks if slavery was ended. -- Recolonization was the solution: supported by many prominent Northerners and Southerners who were afraid that manumission would create a surplus of free blacks in American society. 2. Republic of Liberia established W. African Coast for former slaves in 1822. a. 15,000 freed blacks transported over next four decades b. Most blacks did not wish to be transplanted in an unfamiliar environment i. Believed they were part of America?s growth; had American culture ii. By 1860, virtually all southern slaves were native-born Americans 3. Colonization appealed to most Northerners and some antislaveryites (including Lincoln) who believed that blacks and whites could not coexist in a free society. a. Some feared a mongrelization of the white race. b. Others thought blacks inferior, did not want them in large #?s in their states. C. Abolitionists in the 1830s 1. Second Great Awakening convinced abolitionists of the sin of slavery. 2. Abolitionists inspired that Britain emancipated their slaves in the West Indies in 1833 D. Radical Abolitionism 1. William Lloyd Garrison a. Published 1st issue of his Liberator, a militant antislavery newspaper in Boston in1831 b. Demanded "virtuous" North secede from the "wicked" South. i. Yet, never explained how such an act would end southern slavery. ii. Criticized by even some of his followers for offering no solution. c. Inspired dedicated abolitionists to found the American Anti-Slavery Society 2. American Anti-Slavery Society a. Theodore Dwight Weld i. Evangelized by Charles Grandison Finney in NY?s Burned-Over District in 1820s and appealed to rural audiences of uneducated farmers ii. Traveled with his followers, preaching abolitionism in Old Northwest iii. American Slavery As It Is (1839): Among most effective abolitionist writings vi. Married Angelina Grimke, a southern abolitionist. b. Wendell Phillips -- ostracized Boston patrician; "abolition?s golden trumpet" i. Perhaps most important abolitionist; major impact on politics during the Civil War for emancipation. ii. One of the finest orators of the 19th century. iii. Product of the Puritanical fervor of the 2nd Great Awakening. iv. Followed Garrison?s views until political reason took him in new direction in 1860s. c. Angelina and Sarah Grimke i. Only white southern women to become leading abolitionists ii. Also involved in women?s rights. iii. Angelina married to Theodore Weld; Sarah remained part of their household d. Arthur and Lewis Tappan - wealthy New York silk merchants. -- Funded the society as well as the Liberator, the Lane Seminary in Cincinnati, and Oberlin College. e. Organization would eventually split along gender lines; women?s rights issues 3. David Walker -- Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World (1829) -- Advocated bloody end to white supremacy. 4. Sojourner Truth: Freed black woman in NY; fought for emancipation & women?s rights 5. Elijah Lovejoy: Militant editor of antislavery newspaper in Illinois. a. Printing press destroyed four times; 4th time press thrown into a river and Lovejoy was killed by a mob who promptly burned his warehouse. b. Became an abolitionist martyr 6. Martin Delaney -- One of few blacks to seriously advocate black mass recolonization in Africa. 7. Frederick Douglass a. Greatest of the black abolitionists -- Published The North Star, his own abolitionist newspaper. b. Former slave who escaped slavery at age 21. c. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass -- Depicted his life as a slave, his struggle to read & write & his escape to North. d. Flexibly practical (in contrast to Garrison who was stubbornly principled) e. Looked to politics to end slavery. -- Backed the Liberty party in 1840 and the Republican party in the 1850s. 8. Eventually, most abolitionists (including pacifist Garrison) would support the Civil War to end slavery.

VIII. Southern Reprisals A. In 1820s, southern antislavery societies outnumbered northern ones. B. After 1830s , white southern abolitionism was silenced C. Causes of southern concern 1. Nat Turner?s revolt coincided with Garrisons Liberator. a. South sensed a northern conspiracy and called Garrison a terrorist. b. Georgia offered $5,000 for his arrest and conviction 2. Nullification Crisis of 1832 a. Gave southerners haunting fears of northern federally supported abolitionist radicals inciting wholesale murder in the South. b. Jailings, whippings, and lynchings of anti-slavery whites emerged 3. Increasing abolitionist literature that flooded southern mails. D. Abolitonist literature banned in the Southern mails -- Federal gov't ordered southern postmasters to destroy abolitionist materials and to arrest federal postmasters who did not comply. E. Pro-slavery whites responded by launching a massive defense of slavery as a positive good. 1. Slavery supported by the Bible (Genesis) and Aristotle (slavery existed in ancient Greece). 2. It was good for barbarous Africans who were civilized and Christianized 3. Master-slave relationships resembled those of a "family." 4. George Fitzhugh -- most famous of pro-slavery apologists a. Contrasted happiness of their slaves with the overworked northern wage slaves. b. Fresh air in the south as opposed to stuffy factories c. Full employment for blacks d. Slaves cared for in sickness and old age unlike northern workers. F. "gag resolution" -- 1836, southerners drove it through Congress 1. All antislavery appeals in Congress to be ended without debate; antislavery petitions also prohibited -- Seen by northerners as a threat to the 1st Amendment 2. Rep. John Quincy. Adams waged a successful 8-year fight against it; repealed in 1844 3. (Banning of antislavery materials in the mails was a separate issue)

IX. Abolitionist impact in the North A. Abolitionists, esp. Garrison, were unpopular in many parts of the North. 1. Northerners brought up to revere the Constitution; slavery was protected and part of a lasting bargain. 2. Ideal of Union (advocated by Webster & others) had taken deep root; Garrison?s pleas to disunite was seen as dangerously radical. 3. North dependent on the South for economic well-being a. Northern bankers owed by southern planters; about $300 million b. New England mills fed by southern cotton. B. Many mob outbursts in response to extreme abolitionists 1. Lewis Tappan?s NY house ran-sacked in 1834 to a cheering crowd. 2. 1835, Garrison dragged through the streets of Boston with a rope tied around him. 3. Rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy killed C. Ambitious politicians avoided abolitionists (e.g., Lincoln) ? abolitionism was political suicide D. By 1850, abolitionism had had a deep effect on the Northern psyche. 1. Many saw slavery as unjust, undemocratic, and barbaric. 2. Many opposed extending slavery to the newly acquired territories. -- "Free-soilers" swelled their ranks during the 1850s.

ROAD TO CIVIL WAR, 1848-1860

I. Popular Sovereignty and the Mexican Cession A. Intense debate over what to do with the Mexican Cession. 1. Wilmot Proviso: New territory should be free of slavery a. Supported by northern antislaveryites b. Blocked in Congress by infuriated Southern senators 2. Issue threatened to split both Whigs and Democrats along sectional lines -- Immediate strategy: Don?t do anything about the issue B. "Popular Sovereignty" 1. Lewis Cass, 1812 War vet, became Democratic candidate for president in 1848 a. Polk in poor health, decided not to run for reelection b. Cass reputed as the father of popular sovereignty 2. Definition: Sovereign people of a territory, under general principles of the Constitution, should determine themselves the status of slavery. 3. Supported by many because it kept in line with democratic tradition of self- determination. -- Politicians supported it as it seemed a viable compromise between extending slavery (Southern view) and banning it (northern Whig view). 4. Fatal flaw: It could spread the "peculiar institution" to new territories.

II. Election of 1848 A. Whigs nominated Zachary Taylor, "Hero of Buena Vista" 1. Noncommittal on slavery issue; yet owned slaves on LA sugar plantation. 2. Supporters made sure he didn?t say anything provocative & played on his military record. B. Free-Soil party 1. Coalition of northern antislavery Whig, Democrat, and Liberty Party men in the North distrusting Cass & Taylor 2. Supported Wilmot Proviso; against slavery in the territories -- "Free soil, free speech, free labor, and free men." 3. Advocated federal aid for internal improvements & free gov?t homesteads for settlers. 4. Van Buren nominated as presidential candidate 5. Party foreshadowed emergence of Republican party 6 years later. C. Result: Taylor 163, Cass 127, Van Buren 0 -- Free-Soilers won no states and did not actually affect the outcome of the election.

III. California statehood A. Gold discovered in 1848 at Sutter?s Mill; prospectors in 1848 known as "forty-eighters" -- Numbers relatively small compared to following year B. 1849 -- Masses of adventurers flocked to northern California. 1. Most did not make a profit; many returned home 2. Those who provided services made money off the miners; laundry, stores, etc. 3. Large speculators made handsome profits as they used heavy machinery and cheap labor to mine the rivers. 4. Mostly single men looking to strike it rich; many outside the law C. Gold essentially paved the way for rapid economic growth in California 1. San Francisco sprouted up in just months. 2. Northern California became the state?s main population center. -- By 1850, California?s population had grown from 14,000 to over 100,000. D. CA drafted a Constitution in 1849 that excluded slavery and asked Congress for admission 1. CA would bypass territorial phase, blocking southern chances to spread slavery. 2. Southerners violently opposed CA statehood; saw another free state as a threat.

IV. Sectional balance in 1850 A. South 1. Had presidency, majority in the cabinet, and a majority in the Supreme Court 2. Equal number of states in Senate thus strong veto power B. Yet, South deeply worried 1. In 1850, 15 free and 15 slave states 2. CA would tip the balance in the Senate and set a free-state precedent in the southwest 3. New Mexico and Utah territories seemed leaning toward free state status. 4. Texas claimed vast area east of Rio Grande (part of NM CO, KA & OK) and threatened to seize Santa Fe. 5. Southerners angered by Northern demands for abolition of slavery in Wash. DC. 6. Extremely angered over loss of runaway slaves, many assisted by North. C. When CA applied, southern "fire-eaters" threatened secession V. Underground Railroad and the Fugitive Slave issue A. Consisted of informal chain of antislavery homes which hundreds of slaves were aided by black & white abolitionists in their escape to free soil Canada. B. Harriet Tubman ("Moses") (ex-slave from Maryland who escaped to Canada) 1. Led 19 expeditions from her farm in Canada & rescued 300 slaves (incl. her parents) 2. Served Union army in South Carolina as a spy during the Civil War. C. Jerry Loguen: Led hundreds of slaves to their freedom D. Prigg v. Pennsylvania, 1842 1. PA tried to prohibit capture and return of runaway slaves within its borders. -- Violated federal government?s fugitive slave law of 1793 2. Supreme Court ruled state law unconstitutional since it was a federal power 3. personal liberty laws passed by many Northern states which prohibited state officials from assisting anyone pursuing runaway slaves. E. Political. significance: by 1850 southerners demanded a new more stringent fugitive-slave law 1. Old law passed by Congress in 1793 now seemed inadequate vis-is runaways -- About 1,000 runaways successfully escaped per year. i. Small in number; more slaves bought their freedom than ran away. ii. Southerners infuriated in principle; Constitution not being obeyed. 2. Unfriendly state authorities (e.g., Pennsylvania) failed to provide needed cooperation. 3. Southerners blamed abolitionists; claimed they operated outside the law.

VI. Compromise of 1850 A. Sunset of the "Great Triumvirate" 1. Clay initiated his 3rd great compromise a. North & South should compromise; North should enact more effective fugitive slave legislation. b. Supported by Stephen Douglas, the "Little Giant" 2. Calhoun (dying of TB) rejected Clay?s position as not being adequate safeguards. a. Leave slavery alone, return runaway slaves, give South rights as a minority (Concurrent Majority), and restore political balance. 3. Webster supported Clay?s compromise (famous "7th of March speech" of 1850) a. Urged all reasonable concessions to the South, including tough fugitive law. b. Discouraged legislating on the territories since God had already passed the Wilmot Proviso -- climate prevented cotton in new territories. -- Ironically, CA became a leading cotton producer. c. Significance: Turned the North toward compromise d. Abolitionists assailed Webster as a traitor; had regarded him as one them -- Webster despised them; antislavery but pro-Union; never joined them. 4. Meanwhile, William H. Seward (nicknamed "Higher Law" Seward by his adversaries) a younger northern radical, was against concession. a. Stated Christian legislators must obey God?s moral law as well as man?s law b. Slavery should be excluded from territories due to "higher law" than Constitition B. Threat of war 1. President Taylor, swayed by Seward, seemed against concessions to South. 2. Taylor determined to send troops to Texas if Texans armed against New Mexico. a. Would lead army himself and hang all "damned traitors." (Jacksonian) b. Would have started Civil War in 1850; southern states would have defended TX C. Road to Compromise 1. Taylor died of cholera on July 9, 1850 and thus helped cause of compromise. 2. Vice-president Millard Fillmore assumed the presidency; signed "Compromise of 1850" 3. Stephen Douglas most important in getting the bill passed through Congress. D. "Compromise of 1850" (Omnibus legislation -- passed in separate parts) 1. California admitted as a free state 2. Abolition of the slave trade in District of Columbia 3. Popular sovereignty in remainder of Mexican Cession: New Mexico and Utah territories. 4. More stringent Fugitive Slave Law (than 1793) 5. Texas to receive $10 million from federal gov?t as compensation for its surrendering of disputed territory to New Mexico. E. Result 1. North got better deal. a. CA tipped Senate in favor of the North b. Popular sovereignty in NM & UT territory probably in favor of North (desert) c. $10 million to Texas a modest sum; new area almost certain to be free. d. Halt of slave trade in Washington DC a step toward emancipating it. 2. Fugitive Slave Law became the single most important frictional issue between north and south in the 1850s. a. Fugitive slave law a major blunder by South; seen by North as appalling i. Abolitionist movement given a big boost by the "Bloodhound Bill". -- Spurred northern spirit of antagonism toward the South. -- Southerners infuriated that law not executed in good faith ii. Slaves could not testify in their own behalf and were denied a jury trial. iii. Heavy fines & jail sentences for those who aided and abetted runaways. b. Some states refused to accept the Fugitive Slave Law i. Massachusetts made it illegal to enforce it (move toward nullification) ii. Other states passed "personal liberty laws" denying local jails to feds. c. Ableman v. Booth, 1859 -- Supreme Court upheld the Fugitive Slave Law. 3. Compromise of 1850 won the Civil War for the North a. Bought ten precious years to expand economic growth and sentiment Union cause. b. Many northerners unwilling to go to war in 1850 for the Union cause. c. Inflammatory events in 1850s brought northern willingness to resist secession

VII. Election of 1852 A. Democrats nominated Franklin Pierce (from NH) 1. Essentially a pro-Southern northerner; acceptable to the slavery wing of the party. 2. Campaign came out in favor of the Compromise of 1850. B. Whigs nominated General Winfield Scott ("Old Fuss & Feathers") but party fatally split 1. Antislaveryites supported Scott but hated his platform of supporting Fugitive Slave Law 2. S. Whigs supported platform but hated Scott; questioned loyalty on Comp. of 1850 C. Result: Pierce d. Scott 254 - 42 D. Significance: Marked effective end of Whig party; complete death 2 years later E. Significance of Whig party: Webster & Clay had kept idea of Union alive (both died in 1852)

VIII. Expansionism under President Pierce A. U.S. and Britain sought Central American isthmus (Nicaragua) as a potential canal waterway. 1. War in Nicaragua seemed inevitable; Britain challenged Monroe Doctrine 2. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850): Neither U.S. or Britain would fortify or secure exclusive control over any future isthmian waterway. B. America looks toward Asia 1. Acquisition of California and Oregon territory gave U.S. access to the Pacific. 2. Pierce sent U.S. warships led by Commodore Matthew Perry (brother of 1812 War hero) to Japan to forcibly open trade with the 200-year isolationist Japan. C. Cuba 1. Polk had offered Spain $100 million for Cuba; Spain categorically refused. a. Southerners hoped to carve several states out of Cuba and restore political. balance. b. Some southerners had invested in sugar plantations in Cuba 2. 1850-51 -- two expeditions by private southern adventurers into Cuba failed. 3. 1854, Spain seized U.S. steamer Black Warrior on a technicality. -- Southerners demanded a war with Spain to seize Cuba 4. Ostend Manifesto a. Secret document whereby U.S. would offer $120 million for Cuba and if Spain U.S. would take it by force. b. News leaked out and angry northern free-soilers forced Pierce to abandon it.

IX. Gadsden Purchase (1853) A. U.S. concerned that CA & Oregon inaccessible by land & sea routes too tough 1. Feared region might break away if direct land route not achieved 2. Railroads seemed the key B. Debate: Should transcontinental railroad route run through the North or South? 1. Too costly to have two railroads. 2. Railroad would provide enormous benefits to the regions receiving it. 3. Best route seemed partly below the Mexican border. C. 1853, U.S. purchased Mesilla Valley from Santa Anna for $10 million. D. Result: 1. South boosted its claim to railroad a. Claimed all areas of line were either states or organized territory unlike North. b. Geography favored southern route since Rocky Mountains were lower 2. North now tried to quickly organize Nebraska territory but the South opposed it.

X. The Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) A. Stephen Douglas proposed carving Nebraska Territory into 2: Nebraska, Kansas 1. Slavery issue would be based on popular sovereignty 2. His main motive was to give Illinois the eastern terminus for the proposed Pacific railroad. 3. Kansas would presumably become slave; Nebraska free 4. 36-30 line prohibited slavery north of it; Kansas above it. -- Solution: Repeal Compromise of 1820 5. Southerners fully supported it and pushed Pierce to support KS-NB Act B. Douglas successfully rammed the bill through Congress; great orator of his generation 1. Northerners reacted furiously: some saw Compromise of 1820 as a sacred pact. 2. Douglas miscalculated effects of his proposal on the North; more concerned with railroad, his state, and his presidential prospects than slavery issue. C. Kansas-Nebraska Act passed in 1854 1. Northern reaction a. Refused to honor Fugitive Slave Law b. The antislavery movement grew significantly c. North unwilling to compromise on future issues 2. Southern reaction a. Angry that northern free-soilers tried to control Kansas, contrary to the presumed "deal." b. Democratic party was shattered 3. Effectively wrecked the Compromises of 1820 & 1850 D. Birth of the Republican party 1. Republican party formed in response to the Kansas-Nebraska Act. a. Included Whigs, Democrats, Free-Soilers, Know-Nothings, and other opponents of the Kansas Nebraska Act. b. Abraham Lincoln came out of political retirement and ran for the senate. c. Became nation?s 2nd major political party overnight. 2. Republican party not allowed South of Mason-Dixon line. E. Considered by historians to be the main short-term cause of the Civil War.

XI. Antislavery literature A. Harriet Beecher Stowe: Uncle Tom?s Cabin (1852) 1. Wanted to show the North the evils of slavery by focusing on the splitting of slave families and the torture inflicted on slaves. a. Inspired by the Fugitive Slave Law b. "God wrote it"; Stowe a product of the 2nd Great Awakening 2. Sold 300,000 in first year alone; over 2 million within a decade; best seller of all time in proportion to population; translated into many different languages. -- Immensely popular abroad especially Britain & France 3. Social impact was the most pronounced of any American literary piece. a. Lincoln when introduced to her in 1862: "So you?re the little woman who wrote the book that made this great war." b. Impact on North i. Millions of Union soldiers had read it during their youth in 1850s. ii. Boosted the abolitionist movement 4. South condemned it and shuddered that hundreds of thousands of northerners were reading such a vivid condemnation of slavery. B. Hinton R. Helper: The Impending Crisis of the South (1857) 1. Non-aristocratic white from N.C. who hated both slavery and blacks. 2. Attempted to prove statistically that nonslaveholding whites indirectly suffered the most from slavery. 3. Unable to find a publisher in the South; book published in North by New York Tribune in an eight-column review. 4. Impact a. Negligible among its targeted audience: poor southern whites b. Book banned in the South c. Abridged by Republicans in the North as propaganda in 1859 campaign. d. Southerners infuriated North using this book "of lies" against them. i. Provoked secessionist sentiment in South ii. Within 2 years, 15 novels written in response by proslavery writers

XII. "Bleeding Kansas" A. New England Emigrant Aid Company: Sent 2,000 into Kansas to prevent slavery from taking hold and to make a profit. -- Many came armed with breach loading rifles ("Beecher?s Bibles" -- after Henry Ward Beecher who helped raise money for their travel) B. Southerners infuriated by apparent northern betrayal -- attempts to abolitionize Kansas. 1. Douglas? scheme informally implied that Kansas would become slave & NB free. 2. Armed Southerners sent into region (many from MO) to thwart northerners 3. Ironically, struggle fought over imaginary blacks (only 2 slaves in Kansas in 1860) C. 1855 election in Kansas for first territorial legislature 1. Proslavery "border ruffians" from MO poured into KS to vote repeatedly. -- Proslaveryites triumphed and created puppet government 2. Free-soilers ignored the bogus election and established extralegal gov?t in Topeka. D. 1856, a gang of proslavery raiders shot up and burned part of free-soil Lawrence , Kansas. E. The caning of Charles Sumner 1. Sumner a leading abolitionist Senator from Massachusetts, gave speech "Crime Against Kansas" where he lashed out at southern proslaveryites and insulted a S.C. Senator 2. S.C. Congressman Preston Brooks retaliated by hitting Sumner over the head 30 times or more with an 11-oz gold-headed cane. 3. The House of Reps could not find enough votes (122 to 95-- 2/3 needed) to expel Brooks but he resigned nonetheless, and was unanimously reelected by S.C. 4. Sumner came to symbolize for the North the evils of the slavery system (along with bleeding Kansas issue) 5. Blows to Sumner among the first blows of the Civil War, in a broad sense. F. Pottawatomie Massacre -- John Brown & followers, in May 1856, hacked 5 men to pieces with broadswords in response to attack on Lawrence (and the caning of Sumner) 1. Brown an extreme abolitionist who saw himself as a holy warrior; exerted a messianic influence over his followers including his sons. 2. Attack went unpunished by the legal process G. Civil war in Kansas ensued from 1856 and merged with Civil War of 1861-1865 H. Lecompton Constitution (1857) 1. Kansas had enough people to apply for statehood on popular sovereignty basis. 2. Southerners, still in power since 1855, devised a tricky document a. People were not allowed to vote for or against constitution as a whole but voted for the constitution. with or w/o slavery. b. If people voted no on slavery, rights of slaveholders already in KS protected 3. Infuriated free-soilers boycotted the polls 4. Slaveryites approved constitution with slavery late in 1857. I. Federal debate on Kansas 1. President Buchanan supported the Lecompton Constitution 2. Senator Douglas fought furiously against it and the House defeated it. 3. Compromise: Entire Lecompton Constitution re-submitted to popular vote in Kansas but pro-slavery Kansas rejected the proposal; Kansas statehood remained in limbo. 4. Result: Free-soilers victorious but Kansas denied statehood until 1861 when southern secessionists left Congress. J. Impact on Democratic party 1. Buchanan?s support for Kansas split the Democratic party along sectional lines. 2. Republicans would win in 1860 at the expense of split Democrats 3. Irony: Douglas? Kansas-Nebraska act created the party that would defeat his party while he supported the North in the Kansas controversy that split his party. 4. Result: One of last strands binding the Union together (Dem. party) was severed. XIII. Election of 1856 A. James Buchanan chosen as Democratic nominee over Pierce (seen as too weak) and Douglas (who alienated the southern wing of the party after denouncing Lecompton constitution.) 1. Pennsylvania lawyer who sympathized with southern views 2. Party platform heavily supported popular sovereignty in the territories. B. Republicans nominated Captain John C. Ferment "Pathfinder of the West" 1. 1st presidential election for the new Republican party 2. Party platform vigorously against the extension of slavery in the territories. C. American Party ("know-nothing") nativist in orientation 1. Composed of primarily old-stock Protestants reacting to recent wave of Irish, German, Mexican & Chinese immigration; anti-Catholic (accused Ferment of being Catholic) 2. Ex-president Millard Fillmore nominated. 3. Supported by remnants of the dying Whig party. D. Buchanan d. Fremont 174 to 114; Fillmore 8. -- Violent threats of southern "fire-eaters",who claimed the election of a "Black Republican" would lead them to secede, forced many northerners to support Buck.

XIV. The Dred Scott Decision (March 6, 1857) A. Dred Scott had lived with his master for 5 years in Illinois and Wisconsin Territory. 1. Backed by abolitionists, he sued for freedom on basis of his residence on free-soil. 2. 1854, federal circuit court upheld Missouri court?s denial of his suit for freedom. a. Ironically, courts decision to try case affirmed Scot?s status as a citizen b. Scott?s lawyers appealed case to the Supreme Court B. 80-year-old Marylander Chief Justice Roger B. Taney wrote the 55 page opinion. 1. Taney had been a Jacksonian who helped destroy BUS while sec. of treasury. 2. Main theme of his 22-year tenure on the Court was the defense of slavery. C. Decision: 1. Dred Scott was a black slave and not a citizen and could not sue in federal courts. -- As a result, all blacks, north & south, were no longer citizens. 2. Slaves could not be taken away from owners w/o due process of law. As private property (5th Amendment) slaves could be taken into any territory and held there. 3. The Missouri Compromise was ruled unconstitutional; Congress could not forbid slavery in territories even if states wanted to. (KS-NB Act had already done this) D. Impact 1. Many northern proponents of popular sovereignty horrified, including Douglas -- Further split Democratic party along sectional lines. 2. Republicans infuriated; many claimed decision was merely an opinion not a decision and thus nonbinding. -- Southerners claimed that northern unwillingness to honor the Supreme Court?s decisions was further cause for disunion.

XV. Financial Crash of 1857 A. Not as bad as Panic of 1837 but probably the worst psychologically in 19th c. B. Causes 1. Influx of California gold into economy inflated currency. 2. Crimean War overstimulated growing of grain 3. Speculation in land and railroads backfired. C. Results 1. Over 5,000 businesses failed within a year. -- North hardest hit; South?s cotton crop enjoyed high prices & demand 2. Unemployment widespread 3. Renewed demand for free farms of 160 acres from public domain land. a. Gov?t practice of selling land for revenue not effective b. Pioneers risked life to develop western land; deserved free land. c. Opposition i. Some eastern industrialists feared population drain to west. ii. Southerners feared homesteads would fill up territories with free-soilers; 160 acres not enough for gang-labor slavery. d. In 1860, Congress passed a homestead act that made public lands available for 25 cents an acre. -- Vetoed by Buchanan who sympathized with southern leaders. 4. Demand for higher tariff rates a. Tariff of 1857 had reduced rates to 20% as a result of embarrassing federal surpluses. b. Eastern industrialists now clamored for more protection. 5. Republicans had two major issues for 1860: higher tariffs & homestead act.

XVI. Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858) ? Senate seat in Illinois A. Lincoln?s nomination speech: "A house divided cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure, permanently half slave and half free. B. Lincoln challenged Douglas to a series of seven joint debates C. Freeport debate most famous -- Freeport Doctrine 1. Lincoln forced Douglas to answer whether or not a territory could vote down slavery despite the Dred Scott decision. 2. Douglas answered that territories could refuse to pass laws protecting slavery thus effectively ending slavery in that territory. 3. Although Douglas and others had publicly answered this question before in Kansas issue, his position led to a split in his party and an end to his chances to win the presidency. 4. Douglas? popular sovereignty position prevailed in the election 5. Despite his loss, the debates catapulted Lincoln into the national spotlight and became the political stepping stone to the Republican nomination in 1860.

XVII. John Brown attacks Harper?s Ferry A. Brown?s scheme: invade the South secretly with a few followers and lead slaves to rise, give them arms, and establish a kind of black free state. -- Gained financial assistance for weapons from certain northern abolitionists. B. October, 1859 -- Seized the arsenal at Harper?s Ferry 1. 7 innocent people killed including a free black; ten others wounded. 2. Most slaves unaware of Brown?s strike; did not rise up in rebellion 3. Brown trapped in armory and eventually surrendered to Capt. Robert E. Lee C. Brown and his followers were hanged after a brief but legal trial. D. Brown became a martyr in the North 1. Abolitionists and free-soilers were infuriated by Brown?s execution. -- Some attributed Christ-like characteristics to him (Ralph Waldo Emerson) 2. Moderate northerners, including Republican leaders, deplored Brown?s attack. E. Effects of Harper?s Ferry were ominous in southern eyes. 1. Brown seen as an agent of northern abolitionism and anti-slavery conspiracy. 2. Southern states began to organize militias for protection against future threats. -- Essentially, this was the beginning of the Confederate army. 3. Perhaps the most immediate cause of disunion besides Lincoln?s election.

XVIII. Nominating conventions of 1860 A. Democratic party split in two 1. Met first in South Carolina with Douglas as leading candidate of northern wing. -- Southern "fire-eaters" regarded him as a traitor for his position on Lecompton and Freeport Doctrine and eight cotton states walked out of the convention. 2. Next convention in Baltimore nominated Douglas while the Democratic party split in two a. Platform: popular sovereignty and against obstruction of Fugitive Slave Law by the states. b Again, many cotton-state delegates walked out and organized a rival convention in Baltimore where many northern states were unrepresented. 3. Southern Democratic party nominated John C. Breckinridge : a. Kentucky moderate (not a disunionist) b. Platform: extension of slavery into territories and annexation of Cuba. B. Constitutional Union Party nominated John Bell of Tennessee 1. Wanted to preserve the Union; saw Bell as a compromise candidate. 2. Consisted of former Whigs from the upper South and Know-Nothings 3. Feared that a Lincoln victory would cause Deep South states to secede. C. Republicans nominate Abraham Lincoln 1. Seward the front-runner but perceived as too radical for victory in general election. 2. Republican platform (broadly based) a. Nonextension of slavery (for free-soilers) b. Protective tariff (for industrialists) c. No abridgment of rights for immigrants (disappointed "Know Nothings") d. Pacific railroad (for the Northwest) e. Internal improvements for the West at federal expense f. Free homesteads from the public domain (for farmers) 3. Southern secessionists warned that the election of Lincoln would split the Union. a. Lincoln not an abolitionist; yet issued no statement to quell southern fears. b. Lincoln chose not to campaign; let his record stand on its own

XIX. Presidential election of 1860 A. Lincoln elected president with only 40% of the vote; most sectional election in history. 1. Lincoln won all Northern states except NJ and MO (180 electoral votes to 123) a. Lincoln not allowed on the ballot in 10 southern states b. S.C. rejoiced at the returns; now had their excuse for secession. 2. Breckinridge won all the Deep South states plus AK, MD, and DE 3. Bell won border states of VA KY and mid-slave state of TN 4. Douglas won only MO and NJ but finished 2nd in popular votes B. South still had control of both Houses of Congress and a 5-4 majority on Supreme Court -- Antislavery amendment could be defeated by only 1/4 of states yet South had 15 states (nearly half) that would prevent such an amendment.

XX. Southern states secede from the Union A. Four days after the election of Lincoln, the "Black Republican", South Carolina legislature unanimously called for a special convention in Charleston. -- December, 1860, 170 South Carolina unanimously voted to secede from the other states. B. Within six weeks, six other states seceded (MS, FL, AL, GA, LA, TX) all during Buchanan?s "lame-duck" period. -- Four others seceded in April, 1861, after beginning of Civil War (VA, AK, NC,TN) as they refused to fight their fellow southerners and agree to Lincoln?s call for volunteers. C. Confederate States of America formed in Montgomery Alabama meeting. -- Jefferson Davis chosen as president of provisional government to be located at Richmond, VA (after Fort Sumter). D. President Buchanan did little to prevent southern secession. 1. Claimed the Constitution did not give him authority to stop secession with force. 2. More significantly, northern army was small and weak and scattered on the frontier. 3. Many of his advisors prosouthern 4. Northern sentiment predominantly for peaceful reconciliation rather than war. 5. Ironically, Lincoln continued Buchanan?s vacillating policy when he became president. 6. Buchanan?s serendipitous wait-and-see policy probably helped save the Union. -- Use of immediate force would have probably driven border states of MD and KY to the South. This would have sealed the Union?s fate. E. Reasons for southern secession (mostly related in some form to slavery) 1. Alarmed at the political balance tipping in favor of the North. 2. Horrified at victory of the sectional Republican party which appeared to threaten their rights as a slaveholding minority. 3. Angry over free-soil criticism and abolitionism, and northern interference such as the Underground Railroad and John Brown?s raid. 4. Many southerners felt secession would be unopposed a. Northern industrialists dependent on southern repayment of loans and cotton could not afford to cut economic ties. b. Debts could be repudiated in case of war. 5. Opportunity to end generations of dependence to the North. a. Independent South could develop its own banking and shipping while trading directly with Europe. b. No longer at the mercy of northern industrialists crying for higher tariffs. 6. Morally they were in the right a. 13 original states had voluntarily entered the Union; now southern states were voluntarily withdrawing from it. b. Saw self-determination of the Declaration of Independence as applying to them. (Right to replace gov?t with one that meets the needs of the people) XXI. Crittenden amendments -- final attempt at compromise A.. Proposed by Senator John J. Crittenden of Kentucky (heir to political throne of Clay), B. Designed to appease the South C. Provisions 1. Slavery in the territories was to be prohibited north of 36-30 but was to be given full federal protection south of that line existing or "hereafter to be acquired" (as in the case of Cuba) 2. Popular sovereignty for future states. D. Rejected by Lincoln; all hope of compromise was gone. -- Lincoln saw himself elected on the principle of nonextension of slavery.

POLITICS AND THE ECONOMY DURING THE CIVIL WAR

I. Lincoln?s early presidency A. Inaugural 1. Vowed to preserve the Union; to "hold, occupy, and possess" Federal property in the South; -- "Physically speaking, we cannot separate" -- Ambiguous on how he would do so; careful not to offend border slave states 2. Republicans & Democratic unionists agreed with speech?s firmness & moderation 3. Lower South regarded it tantamount to declaration of war. B. Cabinet 1. William H. Seward, one of America?s best secretaries of state 2. Salmon P. Chase, treasury sec. -- A leading abolitionist; presidential hopes -- Eventually appointed by Lincoln as Chief Justice to the Supreme Court 3. Edwin M. Stanton: "War Democrat" later appointed as secreatry of war. 4. Cabinet frequently feuded and intrigue often plagued it; added pressure to Lincoln C. Lincoln an able leader 1. Developed a genius for interpreting and leading a fickle public opinion. 2. Showed charitableness toward South and patience toward backbiting colleagues 3. Succeeded in placating both Negrophobes and abolitionists in his bid for the presidency.

II. Attack on Fort Sumter begins the Civil War A. Located at the mouth of Charleston Harbor, Ft. Sumter was one of two last remaining federal strongholds in the South (the other Ft. Pickering in Florida) 1. The day after inauguration, Lincoln notified by Major Robert Anderson that supplies to the fort would soon run out and he would be forced to surrender. 2. Lincoln faced with choices that were all bad a. No supplies would mean surrender; would ruin his credibility to "hold, possess, and occupy" b. Reinforcements would surely lead to an armed clash which would begin the Civil War with the North seen as the provocateur. -- Also, Union detachments not available on such short notice. c. Solution: Notified South Carolinians of an expedition to provision the garrison, not to reinforce it. -- Lincoln would let the South start the war if it wished 3. April 9, 1861 -- A ship carrying supplies for Fort Sumter sailed from New York. -- Seen by S.C. as an act of aggression; "reinforcement" B. April 12: Fort Sumter bombarded by more than 70 Confederate canon 1. Anderson?s garrison held for 34 hours until 2:30 p.m. on April 13, when he surrendered. 2. Anderson?s men allowed to return North. 3. No loss of life during bombardment; fort heavily damaged C. Lincoln calls for volunteers 1. Before the attack , many northerners felt that if the South wanted to go, they should not be forced to stay. 2. Attack on Sumter provoked the North to fight for their honor & the Union. -- Lincoln?s strategy paid off; South seen as the aggressors -- North as benign 3. April 15, Lincoln issued call to the states for 75,000 militiamen; 90 day service 4. April 19, Lincoln proclaimed a blockade of Southern seaports -- Initially ineffective; eventually strangled the South. 5. May 3, Lincoln issued a call for 3-year volunteers; militia would not meet need 6. Until April 25, Washington D.C. was virtually under siege and a Confederate assault on the capital was expected at any time. D. 4 more states secede from the Union: VA, AK, TN, NC 1. Northern calls for troops aroused South; viewed Lincoln as waging war. 2. Richmond replaced Montgomery as the Confederate capitol.

III. The Border Slave States (MO, KY, MD, later WV) A. Remained in the Union since the North did not start the war 1. Crucial to Union cause; sent 300,000 soldiers to the Union Army a. "Mountain white" pop. in South sent 50,000 soldiers to the North. b. Lincoln: Hoped to have God on his side but he had to "have Kentucky." 2. West Virginia left Virginia in mid-1861 to join the Union; "mountain white" pop. 3. War began with slaveholders on both sides; not free-soil vs. slavery -- Brothers and family members often split and fought on opposite sides B. Contained over 50% of the South?s white population; fewest number of slaves C. Lincoln used force at times to keep these states in check. 1. Declared martial law in Maryland in certain areas and sent troops since it threatened to cut off Washington DC from the North. 2. Troops also sent to W. Virginia and Missouri where a mini-Civil War raged. D. Politically, Lincoln had to keep border states in mind when making public statements 1. Declared the primary purpose of the war was to preserve the Union at all costs. 2. Declared the North was not fighting to free the slaves. a. Antislavery declaration would have driven the border states to the South. b. Lincoln heavily criticized by abolitionists who saw him as a sell-out. -- Lincoln in Aug. 22, 1862 to Horace Greeley: "My paramount object is to save the Union, and is not either to save or destroy slavery... If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that." E. Indian Territory: most of the Five Civilized Tribes sided with the Confederacy including Cherokees (who owned slaves), Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles.

IV. Confederate Assets A. Only had to fight defensively behind interior lines and tie or stalemate; needed fewer troops -- North had to invade, conquer, occupy, & forcibly return vast Southern territory to Union. B. Until emancipation proclamations of 1862 & 1863, many felt South had superior moral cause, slavery notwithstanding. -- Fighting for self-determination, self-gov?t, its social structure, homes, and fundamental freedoms (for whites) C. Had talented military officers 1. Robert E. Lee -- one of greatest military leaders in American history a. Opposed to slavery and spoke against secession in Jan. 1861 b. Lincoln had offered Lee command of the Union armies but Lee felt compelled to side with his native Virginia after she seceded. 2. Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson -- Lee?s chief lieutenant and premier cavalry officer. 3. Top Union generals were inept during first three years of the war until replaced D. Southern men of fighting stock and self-confident 1. Accustomed to hard life and management of horses and bearing arms. 2. Made excellent cavalry and foot soldiers.

V. Confederate chances A. Lack of significant industrial capacity a crucial disadvantage; South primarily agrarian B. As the war dragged on, severe shortages of shoes, uniforms, and blankets. C. Breakdown of transportation, esp. when railroads were cut or destroyed by the North. D. A number of scenarios might have given the Confederates victory 1. Border state secession 2. Upper Mississippi Valley states turning against the Union 3. Northern defeatism leading to an armistice ("Copperheads") 4. England & France breaking the blockade. E. South did not get foreign intervention which usually helps revolutions to succeed. VI. Northern Advantages A. Population of 22 million (including border states); 800,000 immigrants between 1861-63 1. South only 9 million including 3.5 million slaves 2. Manpower advantages over Lee were 3 to 2 or even 3 to 1 3. Earlier immigrants also enlisted; 20% of army foreign-born. B. Had 3/4 of the nation?s wealth C. Overwhelming superiority in manufacturing, shipping, and banking. D. 3/4 of nation?s railroads: large capacity for repair and replacement that the South lacked. E. Controlled the sea through its blockade of Southern ports. F. Ideal of Union 1. Devotion to Union aroused North against South; "Union Forever" 2. Significant in keeping border states and upper Mississippi states from seceding. 3. Cry for Union gave North strong moral issue until slavery was added to it later. G. Much better logistical planning in the army and weaponry

VII. The Confederacy A. Constitution largely copied from the Union. -- Fatal flaw: Created by secession, it could not deny future secession to the states. B. Jefferson Davis? idea of a strong central gov?t was bitterly opposed states? righters -- Some states didn?t want their troops to fight outside their borders. C. Davis often at odds with his Congress: in danger of being impeached at one point. D. Davis lacked Lincoln?s political saavy.

VIII. European Diplomacy during the War A. Aristocracies of England, France, Austria-Hungary, etc. (except Russia) supported the Confederate cause. 1. Democracy loathed by the aristocracies; the Union a symbol of democracy a. Seen as a threat to their power; Revolutions of 1848 concerned monarchs. b. Britain especially had long sympathized with semifeudal, aristocratic society of South. 2. Europeans sold weapons, warships and supplies to the Confederates. 3. At times, contemplated direct intervention on behalf of South, esp. Britain. 4. British industrial & commercial centers desired an independent Confederacy a. Independent cotton supply w/o northern blockade or interference b. British shippers & manufacturers could profit from South w/o Union tariffs. B. Why did King Cotton fail the South? 1. In 1861, British had oversupply of cotton. 2. By the time British badly needed cotton again, Lincoln had issued the Emancipation Proclamation giving the North the moral cause 3. Workingpeople in England, and to some degree France, supported the North and hated slavery; influenced their governments. 4. As Union armies captured the South, the North shipped considerable supplies of cotton to England. 5. Booming war industries in England, which supplied N. & S. relieved British unemployment. 6. Huge production of northern grain fed Britain who suffered through bad harvests C. British diplomacy 1. Britain officially neutral and observed its neutrality fairly well with exceptions. 2. Trent Affair (1861) a. Union warship north of Cuba stopped a British mail steamer and forcibly removed 2 Confederate diplomats (James Mason & John Slidell) on route to England. -- U.S. captain erred; should have brought ship to port for proper judgment. b. Northerners rejoiced -- had not yet won any important military victories. i. Feared if two envoys had reached England, the Union blockade may have been broken if Rebs persuaded England & France for aid. ii. Recalled impressment days of 1812; sweet revenge. c. Britain outraged and prepared for war; troops sent to Canada. -- Lack of working trans-Atlantic cable and slow steam ships allowed tempers to cool down on both sides. d. Lincoln decided reluctantly to release Mason & Slidell -- Did not want to fight a second war 3. Britain as an unofficial naval base for the Confederacy until 1863 a. Confederate commerce-raiders were being built in Britain. b. Over 250 Yankee ships captured by Rebs including many whalers. c. C.S.S. Alabama --most famous of Confederate commerce-raiders i. North had to divert naval strength to eventually destroy it & others. ii. Manned by Brits w/ Confederate officers under the Confederate flag -- Never entered a Confederate port. d. Union outraged and threatened Anglo-American relations. e. Charles Francis Adams, the American minister in London, i. Responsible for preventing official British recognition of the Confederacy and fostering favorable Anglo-American relations. ii. Hounded British gov't with lists of sinkings & bills for damages by Alabama f. Union war effort not crippled by Confederate commerce-raiders g. Britain eventually apologized for its role in Alabama. 4. Issue of Laird rams in 1863 a. Two Confederate warships with iron rams and large-caliber guns being built in Britain.; more dangerous than Alabama i. South would be able to sink blockade squadrons and then fire upon northern cities. ii. In retaliation, U.S. would probably have invaded Canada resulting in full-scale war with Britain. b. Minister Adams warned if rams were released it would mean war. c. London relented and purchased both ships for their Royal Navy. 5. Canada a. One Confederate raid into Vermont ended in 3 burned banks & 1 death. b. Irish secret brotherhood, Fenians, invaded Canada from U.S. after the war. c. British Parliament established the Dominion of Canada in 1867. -- Partially created to help Canada politically & psychologically against possible future attack from the U.S. D. French diplomacy 1. French leader, Napoleon III, was openly unfriendly to the Union 2. 1863, Napoleon III sent troops to conquer Mexico a. Enthroned Austrian Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico. b. Violated Monroe Doctrine 3. During Civil War, U.S. cautious toward France -- did not want to fight a world war. 4. After Civil War secretary of state Seward prepared to march U.S. forces to Mexico -- Napoleon III abandoned Maximilian in 1867 and Mexico once again independent

IX. Raising Armies: North and South A. Northern troops 1. Initially northern armies comprised of volunteers with each state given a quota based on population 90% of Union army. 2. 1863, Congress passed federal conscription law for first time in U.S. history. a. Purpose: To make up for fewer numbers of volunteers. b. Policy unfair as wealthier youth could hire substitutes for $300. 3. Draft caused biggest stir in Democratic strongholds of North, inc. NYC. -- New York Draft Riot in 1863 sparked by Irish-Americans cost nearly 500 lives lost and buildings burned. 4. Large bounties for enlistment also offered by federal, state, & local authorities. 5. About 200,000 deserters of all classes in North; South similar B. South initially relied mainly on volunteers 1. Smaller population meant numbers troops smaller 2. Confederacy forced to conscript men between ages of 17 & 50 as early as April, 1862; a year earlier than the Union. 3. Rich men could hire substitutes or purchase exemption. 4. Mountain whites refused to enlist C. African-American soldiers in the North. 1. About 180,000 served in Union armies; about 10% of total Union enlistments; 38,000 died -- Most came from slave states but many came from free-soil North as well. 2. Black volunteers initially rejected. a. Initial war aim not to end slavery. b. Racism and fear of arming blacks led to white sentiment of fighting own war. 3. 1862, need for soldiers and emancipation opened door to black volunteers 4. Lincoln attributed the Union?s victory largely on the impact of the black regiments. D. Confederacy did not enlist slaves until a month before the war ended. 1. 10s of thousands forced into labor battalions, building fortifications, supplying armies, and other war-connected activities. 2. Slaves kept the southern farms going while the southern white men fought. 3. Ironically, slaves didn?t revolt back home (despite learning of emancipation proclamation). 4. Many abandoned plantations when Union armies arrived.

X. Financial aspect to the Civil War A. Raising money in the North 1. First income tax in nation?s history levied; relatively small but still raised millions -- Paid for 2/3 of the war?s cost 2. Excise taxes on tobacco and alcohol substantially increased by Congress. 3. Morrill Tariff Act of 1861 -- Raised low Tariff of 1857 about 10% a. About the level of the Walker Tariff of 1846. b. Tariff rates later raised due to demands of revenue and protection during war. c. Protective tariff came to be associated with Republicans for next 70 years. 4. Greenbacks a. About $450 million issued at face value to replace gold. b. Supported by gold; value determined by nation?s credit. c. Though fluctuating during the war, they held value well after Union victory. 5. Sale of bonds through U.S. Treasury: marketed through private banking house of Jay Cooke & Co. which receive commission of 3/8 of 1% on all sales. 6. National Banking System authorized by Congress in 1863 a. Designed to establish standard bank-note currency. -- At the time, North flooded with depreciated "rag money" issued by unreliable bankers. b. Sold gov?t bonds. c. Banks that joined the National Banking System could buy bonds and issue sound paper money backed by the system. d. The first national-type banking institution since Jackson killed the BUS -- Lasted for 50 years until the Federal Reserve System. B. Southern finances 1. Customs duties cut-off to Union blockade 2. Gov?t issued large amounts of bonds sold at home & abroad = $400 million. 3. Significant raise in taxes and 10% tax on farm produce. a. Most states? rights Southerners against heavy direct taxation by central gov?t b. Direct taxation accounted for only 1% of gov?t revenues. 4. Biggest source of revenue: printed large amounts of paper money a. "Runaway inflation" as treasury cranked out more than $1 billion b. Inflation of currency coupled with tax on farm produce worked until the end of the war for the Confederacy. C. War-time prosperity in the North 1. Civil War produced first millionaire class in U.S. history. a. New factories protected by the new tariff emerged. b. Beginning of the "Gilded Age" dominated by "Robber Barons" c. Much dishonesty in supplying goods for gov?t (e.g. poor quality uniforms) 2. New labor-saving machinery spurred expansion while best laborers fought war. a. Sewing machine b. Mechanical reapers numbered 250,000 by 1865 3. Petroleum industry born in PA in 1859 4. Westward movement a. Homestead Act of 1862 i. Provided free land to pioneers heading to virgin land out west. ii. Many pioneers headed west to escape the draft. iii. By 1865, 20,000 settlers had moved west. b. Gold seekers (NV, CA) -- would later constitute a formidible mining frontier with the completion of the transcontinental railroad. c. Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862 i. Each state received 30,000 acres of public lands for each senator and Congressman in Congress. ii. Profits from sale of lands financed agricultural and mechanical collegse in each state. iii. Southern states who rejoined the Union enjoyed the same terms d. Pacific Railway Act (1863) -- established a transcontinental railroad to be built connecting northern states and territories to California. 6. Only Northern industry to suffer was overseas shipping due to Confederate commerce-raiders. D. Demise of the Cotton Kingdom 1. Blockade and destruction wreaked by Union armies ruined southern economy. a. Transportation collapsed. b. Severe shortage of metals & other materials for military purposes 2. Cotton Kingdom eclipsed by new 2 nd Industrial Revolution of the North.

XI. War-time President Lincoln bends the Constitution and suspends certain civil liberties A. Motive: Saving the Union required side-stepping some areas of Constitution. 1. Congress generally accepted or approved Lincoln?s acts. 2. Suspension of liberties not sweeping but more than any other period of U.S. history. 3. Lincoln believed thing would be restored once the Union was preserved. B. Blockade proclaimed when Congress not in session shortly after Fort Sumter. -- Action later upheld by Supreme Court. C. Increased size of federal army and navy 1. Constitution states only Congress could do this 2. Later approved by Congress who actually increased appropriations and size of the army. D. Extended volunteer enlistment to three years E. Directed his sec. of treasury to advanced $2 million without appropriation or security to three private citizens for military purposes. F. Suspended writ of habeas corpus so that anti-Unionists could be summarily arrested. 1. Ex Parte Merriman, 1861 -- Chief Justice Rober Taney ruled that safeguards of habeas corpus could only be set aside by Congress a. 864 people held without trial during first nine months of the war alone. b. Lincoln ignored Taney?s report and took no action. c. Significance: During crisis of wartime, the President could bend the law for the welfare of the country, including suspending the Court?s authority. 2. In 1863, Congress approved Lincoln?s action 3. After 1862, arrests increased: spies, smugglers, blockade-runners and foreigners. G. Arranged for "supervised" voting in Border States -- Voters holding colored ballot indicating party preference had to walk between two lines of armed troops. Intimidation? H. Federal officials also suspended certain newspapers and the arrest of their editors for obstructing the Union war cause. I. Signed a bill outlawing slavery in all the national territories even though it conflicted with the Dred Scott decision. J. Generally, civil liberties and constitutional rights were respected during war. -- Few political opponents were arrested. K. Jefferson Davis, unlike Lincoln, unable to exercise arbitrary power 1. States? righters displayed intense localism. 2. South seemed more willing to lose war than surrendering local rights.

THE CIVIL WAR

I. Union War Strategy A. Initial attempts to strike decisive blows in Virginia failed miserably (Bull Run, Peninsula Campaign, Vicksburg, Chancellorsville) B. Later, developed into four phases: strategy geared more toward attrition 1. Strangle the South by blockading its coasts ? Anaconda Plan 2. Control the Mississippi River to cut the Confederacy in half. 3. Devastate the South by cutting a swath through GA and then sending troops North through the Carolinas. 4. Capture Richmond by annihilating the remaining Confederate armies.

II. WAR IN THE EAST: 1861 A. Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) -- July 21, 1861 (30 southwest of Washington) 1. By summer, 1861, public pressure and proddings from the press urged a quick decisive battle to defeat the Confederacy. 2. Battle initially went well for Union forces but reinforcements from the Shenandoah Valley led by "Stonewall" Jackson surprised fatigued Union forces. 3. By mid-afternoon, Union forces in full retreat back towards defended Washington DC. 4. Casualties: Union lost 2,896 men; Confederates lost 1,982 5. Psychological impact: a. North awoke to the reality of a protracted conflict; began making preparations for a long and bloody war. b. Southerners grew complacent; many deserters since they felt war was over. -- Southern enlistments fell off sharply and preparations for a long war relaxed. B. General George B. McClellan and the Army of the Potomac 1. Lincoln gave McClellan command of the Army of the Potomac in late 1861. -- McClellan a brilliant military strategist and leader; 34-year-old from West Point 2. Fatal flaw: Overcautious; frequently believed he was outnumbered when in fact he always possessed numerical advantages; Lincoln accused him of having "the slows"

III. The Union blockade -- "Anaconda Plan" A. Initially ineffective; 3,500 miles of coastline too daunting for undeveloped Union navy. and undeveloped Union navy. B. Concentrated on principal ports and inlets where bulk materials were loaded -- Eventually pinched blockade-runners C. Respected by England; Britain did not want a future war with North D. Battle of the Ironclads 1. Merrimack (C.S.S. Virginia) -- former U.S. warship plated on sides with old railroad rails; (not really seaworthy); first of the ironclads a. Destroyed two wooden ships of Union navy in Chesapeake Bay, VA b. Threatened entire Yankee fleet blockading Southern ports. 2. Monitor -- Union counterpart to Merrimack built in 100 days a. Engaged Virginia at Hampton Roads, VA on March 8-9, 1862 b. 4 hour battle with neither side winning; Monitor withdrew after Captain wounded; both sides claimed victory. c. Virginia never again a serious threat and eventually blown up at Norfolk by Confederates when ship in danger of falling into Union hands

IV. THE WAR IN THE EASTERN THEATER: 1862 A. The Peninsula Campaign (April 5-June 16, 1862) 1. McClellan persuaded Lincoln to abandon a direct frontal assault by land and to try a flanking approach to Richmond by moving up the peninsula between James & York Riv?s. -- After taking a month to take Yorktown, pushed within a few miles of Richmond. 2. Seven Day?s Battles (June 25-July 1, 1862) a. After Johnstone was injured, Robert E. Lee took command of Confederate army. b. After an unsuccessful battle, McClellan withdrew down the peninsula & later retreated c. Robert E. Lee?s first victory over the Union. 3. Peninsula campaign abandoned by Lincoln -- McClellan removed as commander; replaced by General John Pope. 4. Losses: Confederates 20,141; Union 15,849 B. Second Battle of Bull Run (14 July to 30 August) 1. General Pope put in charge of Union army near Washington. 2. Combined forces of Lee, Jackson, & Longstreet forced Federals to escape once again to Washington. -- Some blamed McClellan for not coming fast enough to support Pope. 3. Casualties: Union 16,054; Confederates 9,197 4. Lincoln once again gave McClellan command of the Army of the Potomac. C. Antietam (September 17, 1862) 1. Lee sought to invade Maryland hoping to wrestle it from the Union and encourage foreign intervention on behalf of the South. 2. Sept. 17 -- Battle of Antietam a. Furious attacks and counterattacks in Sharpsburg, Maryland ended in a stalemate b. McClellan missed opportunity to effectively pursue withdrawing Conf. troops before they crossed the Potomac. -- Removed from command for 2nd time and replaced by Gen. Ambrose Burnside c. Casualties: Feds 12,401 of 80,000 in army; Conf. 10,700 of 40,000 (over 25%) -- Bloodiest day of the war. 3. Considered one of most decisive battles in world history. a. South never again so near victory b. Foreign powers decided not to intervene in support of the South whose military capacity was now questioned in the face of a unexpectedly powerful North.. c. Lincoln received the "victory" he needed to issue the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on Sept. 22, 1862. -- Felt issuing the proclamation after successive military defeats would render the edict impotent.

V. The Emancipation Proclamation A. Became effective Jan. 1, 1863 1. Civil War now became more of a moral crusade: a "higher purpose" -- Moral cause of South weakened 2. Lincoln?s immediate goal not so much to free slaves as to strengthen the moral cause of the Union at home and abroad. 3. Didn?t go as far as Congress? existing legislation for freeing enemy-owned slaves 4. Constitutionality of proclamation questionable at the time a. Yet, foreshadowed the doom of slavery b. Became "legal" with the 13th Amendment in 1865 B. All slaves in areas in rebellion declared now and forever free. -- Justification lay with removing valuable slave labor from the Southern war cause. C. Slaves in loyal Border States not affected nor those in specific areas of conquered South. -- About 800,000 D. In effect, did little immediately to change the plight of the slaves. E. Reaction to Emancipation Proclamation 1. Many Northerners, esp. from Border States and Old Northwest felt Lincoln went too far; opposition to fighting an "abolition war" a. Desertions increased sharply esp. from Border States b. Republicans fared badly in autumn mid-term 1862 elections. -- Lost in NY, PA, OH & IL ; still maintained control of Congress 2. Many abolitionists complained Lincoln did not go far enough. 3. Most moderates and some abolitionists pleased including Greeley and Douglass. 4. South accused Lincoln of trying to stir up slave insurrection. -- European Aristocrats sympathized with southern aristocrats as proclamation only applied to rebel slaveholders. 5. European working classes sympathized with proclamation. -- As a result, diplomatic condition of Union improved.

VI. THE WAR IN THE WEST -- Battle for control of the Mississippi A. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant became Lincoln?s most able general B. Grant captured Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in northern TN in Feb. 1862 1. Significance: KY more secure while gateway opened to rest of TN and GA. -- Boosted northern morale in the face of humiliating losses in Virginia. 2. Confederates out of KY and most of TN. C. Shiloh (April 6 & 7, 1862) 1. Federals moved down through western Tennessee to take the Confederacy?s only east-west railroad linking the lower South to cities on the Confederacy?s east coast 2. Grant victorious but casualties were shocking: 23,746 killed, wounded, or missing 3. Brought shocking realization to both sides that war would not end quickly D. New Orleans taken by Union in spring of 1862; led by David G. Farragut

VII. War in the East: Lee?s last victories and the Battle of Gettysburg A. Lee defeated Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside at Fredericksburg, VA, on Dec. 13, 1862 1. Burnside launched ill-conceived frontal assault on Confederates dug in behind stone wall. 2. More than 10,000 Federals killed or wounded in "Burnside?s slaughter pen" 3. Burnside removed from command and replaced by "Fighting Joe" Hooker. B. Chancellorsville (May 2-4, 1863) 1. Lee?s smaller force split Hooker?s army in two. -- "Stonewall" Jackson made daring move around Union?s flank 2. Union defeated again by a smaller force only half its size -- Hooker shortly after removed and replaced by General George Meade 3. Significance: Stonewall Jackson killed accidentally by own man -- Lee: "I have lost my right arm." 4. Casualties: Confederates lost 13,000 men (22% of Lee?s army) C. Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863) 1. Lee decided to invade the North again, this time through PA in hopes of strengthening peace movement in North and getting direct foreign support. 2. Bloodiest battle of the Civil War: 53,000 casualties. 3. Day 1 -- July 1 ? Confederates took Gettysburg but Union took high ground overlooking the city. 4. Day 2 -- July 2 a. Major engagements occurred on Union right and left; Lee hoped to flank Feds b. Little Round Top held on extreme left; prevented flank from caving in. 5. Day 3 -- July 3 a. Lee ordered Gen. George Pickett?s division to attack the Union center at Cemetery Ridge; Pickett?s division annihilated -- "high tide of the Confederacy" -- Confederates would never again be so close to victory nor on Northern soil. b. Lee retreated while taking full responsibility for the Confederate defeat. 6. Meade neglected to pursue Lee and finish off his army -- Lincoln after Meade?s report that Lee had been repelled: "My God, is that all" 7. Significance: South doomed after Gettysburg and Vicksburg; would never again invade the North and would remain in the defensive till war?s end. 8. Gettysburg Address (November, 1863) a. Established Declaration of Independence as document of founding law b. Equality became supreme commitment of the federal government c. Established idea of nation over union -- The United States is a free country; instead of United States are a free country. d. Most Americans today accept Lincoln?s concept of America e. Attracted relatively little attention at the time but became one of most important speeches in world history. -- Union victory proved men are capable of governing themselves in a free society

VIII. THE END OF THE WAR IN THE WEST A. Vicksburg campaign lasted seven months 1. Vicksburg last Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River. 2. July 4, Confederate army surrendered to Grant; 29,500 men. 3. Significance: Split the Confederacy in two and gave Union total control of Miss. River. -- Boosted Union morale in the face of the Union victory at Gettysburg B. Sherman marches through Georgia 1. William Tecumseh Sherman -- Pushed his way through GA after the battle of Kenesaw Mountain and captured and burned Atlanta in Sept. 1864. 2. "March to the Sea": After taking Atlanta, cut a 60-mile-wide swath through the heart of Georgia before emerging at Savannah on the sea in December, 1864. a. Aimed to destroy supplies destined for the Confederate army and weaken morale of the men at the front by waging war on their homes. b. Pioneer of "total war." -- Despite brutality, war probably shortened thus saving lives. c. Determined to inflict the horrors of war on the South to break its will. -- "War is hell" 3. Turned northward into South Carolina where destruction more severe than in Georgia a. Capital city of Columbia set aflame. b. Sherman?s army reached deep into North Carolina by war?s end.

IX. The Copperheads A. Democratic faction that preached either defeatism with disloyal talk or a "peace at any price" philosophy. 1. Many seized without warrant and held for prolonged periods w/o trial. 2. Came to be known as Copperhead Democrats, named after poisonous snake which strikes without a warning rattle. 3. Appealed to midwestern farmers whose trade routes were disrupted. B. Assailed Lincoln for perpetuating an unjust war. C. Clement L. Vallandigham 1. Ex-congressman from Ohio who demanded an end to the "wicked & cruel war," denounced conscription and suspension of habeus corpus. 2. Convicted by military tribunal in 1863 for treason and sentenced to 2 years in prison. 3. Lincoln banished him to the Confederacy for fear that his imprisonment would make him a martyr to antiwar agitators. 4. Before end of war, returned to Ohio where despite his continued defiance, was not arrested again per Lincoln?s orders. -- Demonstrated Lincoln's moderation toward political opponents.

X. Politics and Election of 1864 A. Congressional Committee on the conduct of the War 1. Formed by anti-Lincoln Republicans tacitly led by Salmon P. Chase 2. Many distrusted his ability and wanted to keep him check. B. Abolitionists (such as Phillips and Greeley) demanded immediate freedom for all slaves. C. Northern Democrats deeply divided as they lacked a leader. 1. War Democrats supported Lincoln (e.g., Stanton) 2. Peace Democrats numbering 10s of 1000s did not support Lincoln (e.g., McClellan) -- Many favored Union through a negotiated peace, not war. 3. Copperheads most radical. a. Some wished the Confederacy victorious; venomously anti-Lincoln b. Strong in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois which contained many Southerners. -- Governors struggled to keep states cooperating with federal gov?t. D. Presidential Candidates 1. Union party -- Coalition of the Republican party and War Democrats a. Republican party temporarily out of existence. b. Republicans feared defeat from anti-Lincoln, anti-Republican sentiment c. Lincoln nominated w/o serious dissent despite early push for Chase d. Andrew Johnson v.p. runningmate; loyal War Democrat from TN who had been a small slaveowner when war began. -- Put on ticket to attract War Democrats and Border States e. Slogan: "Don?t swap horses in the middle of the river." 2. Democratic Party nominated George McClellan a. Copperheads managed to force platform denouncing prosecution of the war as a failure. b. McClellan repudiated this portion of the platform E. Course of the war affected the election. 1. During primaries and during much of the fall, the Union forces were mired in the west and the Wilderness. a. Lincoln believed he would not be reelected. b. Some anti-Lincoln Republicans moved to "dump" Lincoln in favor of a more attractive candidate. 2. Northern victories changed Lincoln?s prospects a. Admiral Farragut captured Mobile, Alabama; "Damn the torpedoes! Go ahead! b. General Sherman took Atlanta c. General Phillip Sheridan destroyed the Shenandoah Valley 3. Northern soldiers furloughed home to vote for Lincoln; others voted at the front. F. Result 1. Lincoln d. McClellan 212 to 21; Lincoln only lost KY, DE, and NJ. -- McClellan received a surprising 45% of popular vote; 1,803,787 to 2,206,938 2. One of most crushing defeats for the South. a. Lincoln?s election assured continued policy of "total war" b. Last real hope for a Confederate victory. c. Confederate desertions increased sharply G. Second Inaugural speech -- "With malice toward none, with charity for all"

XI. END OF THE WAR IN THE EAST: Grant?s Virginia Campaign A. Grant promoted to head of all Union armies after Lincoln?s dismay with Meade after Gettysburg 1. Meade still remained head of the Army of the Potomac 2. Grant?s strategy to attack the enemy?s armies simultaneously thus not allowing them to assist one another; Confederate army would be destroyed piecemeal. 3. Campaign would result in 50,000 Union casualties B. Wilderness (May & June, 1864) Grant embarked for Richmond with over 100,000 men. C. Spotsylvania Courthouse: 24,000 casualties D. Cold Harbor (June 3, 1864) 1. Grant ordered frontal assault at a frightful cost. 2. 7,000 Yankees killed in a half-hour; Confederate losses less than 1,500. 3. Public opinion in North appalled at the losses; Critics: "Grant the Butcher" 4. Grant determined to continue the grind; Lincoln supported him E. Siege of Petersburg (June-Oct. 1864) 1. Contained all railroads that served Lee?s army & Richmond from the south. 2. Lee rushed in time to defend Petersburg; Grant lay siege to the city for 9 months. 3. Along with Richmond, fell on April 2, 1865 F. Siege of Richmond (July-Oct. 1865) 1. Grant hoped to divert Confederate forces from Petersburg 2. Lee sacrificed several detachments in rear guard to evacuate both Richmond & Petersburg successfully. G. Early 1865, Confederates attempted to negotiate for peace between the "two countries." -- Lincoln not willing to accept anything short of unconditional surrender. H. Lee?s surrender 1. Confederate army surrounded near Appomattox Court House in VA. 2. April 9, 1865 -- Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia. a. War in Virginia officially over. b. Remaining Confederate armies surrendered within the next few weeks. 3. Terms of surrender were generous a. The 30,000 captured Confederates were paroled and allowed to go home so long as they vowed never to take up arms against the Union again. b. Confederates allowed to keep their own horses for spring plowing. -- Officers could keep their sidearms 4. Grant: "The war is over; the rebels are our countrymen again."

XII. Lincoln assassinated on night of April 14, 1865 (Good Friday) A. Only five days after Lee?s surrender, Lincoln assassinated at Ford?s theater by John Wilkes Booth B. Lincoln died at the apex of his fame thus becoming a martyr. C. Although initially jubilant over his death, the South came to view it as calamitous. 1. Lincoln?s approach to reconstruction moderate compared to the later actual policy. 2. Assassination increased bitterness in the North against the South especially with rumors that Jefferson Davis had plotted it.

XIII. Prisoner of War Camps A. North treated prisoners better than the South; more resources B. Southern prisons could not provide for POWs since Confederate soldiers often lacked basic necessities. -- Andersonville the most notorious of the POW camps; more than 13,000 died there

XIV. Results and costs of the Civil War A. 620,000 soldiers dead (2% of population!); over 1 million total casualties; unknown civilian casualties. -- South lost the cream of its youth and potential leadership B. Slavery abolished C. Total cost of war: $15 billion (about $1.5 trillion in today?s dollars) -- Does not include pensions and interest on the national debt. D. States righters were henceforth crushed as the Civil War served as the greatest constitutional decision in U.S. history. -- Nullification and secession died with the Confederacy E. Ideal of Union and nation triumphant -- Dangers of two nations and balance of power politics averted F. Monroe Doctrine now had more teeth in it. -- U.S. would now look to the hemisphere and beyond to expand its influence.

RECONSTRUCTION

Overview of principal Reconstruction proposals and plans: -- 1864-65: Lincoln?s 10% plan -- 1865: 13th Amendment -- 1865-66: Johnson?s version of Lincoln?s proposal -- 1866-67: Congressional plan: 10% plan with 14th Amendment -- 1867-77: Military Reconstruction (Congress): 14th Amendment plus black suffrage later established nationwide by 15th Amendment. -- Compromise of 1876: ends Reconstruction

I. Context Setter: Four main questions vis-is the post-Civil War South: 1. Rebuilding the South after its destruction and the emancipation of slavery 2. The condition of African Americans in the South 3. How would the South be reintegrated into the Union? 4. Who would control process of Reconstruction: Southern states, president, or Congress?

II. What should be done with the leaders of the Confederacy? A. Jefferson Davis imprisoned for two years (others as well); eventually released. B. President Johnson pardoned all rebel leaders in December 1868. C. Congress did not remove many civil disabilities until 30 years later.

III. 13th Amendment (Ratified in December, 1865) A. Effective when 3/4 of states ratified it; had passed with required 2/3 vote in Congress. B. Slavery abolished: "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the U.S. or any place subject to their jurisdiction. C. "Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

IV. Rebuilding the South A. Richmond, Charleston, and Atlanta were destroyed B. Economically the South lay in ruins 1. Banks ruined by runaway inflation 2. Factories were closed or destroyed 3. Transportation system was devastated. C. Agriculture 1. Cotton fields now fields of weeds 2. Livestock gone after northern invasion 3. 1860-size crop not until 1870; much from new Southwest D. Planter aristocrats devastated 1. Value in slaves disappeared 2. Many mansions destroyed or ruined

V. African Americans in the immediate post-Civil War South A. Freedmen?s Bureau (created in 1865 by Congress) 1. Headed by Gen. Oliver O. Howard (later founded and served as president of Howard University in Washington D.C.) -- Members included many Northerners including former abolitionists who risked their lives to help the freedmen in the South; one of several northern groups called "carpetbaggers" by white southern Democrats. 2. Purpose: To help unskilled, uneducated, poverty-stricken ex-slaves to survive 3. Provided food, clothing, medicine & education to ex-slaves and poor whites a. Taught about 200,000 blacks how to read; many eager to read the Bible b. Negotiated labor agreements between freedmen and planters. 4. Authorized to provide "40 acres and a mule" from confiscated or abandoned land to black settlers. a. In certain areas, the Bureau distributed no land. b. Sometimes collaborated with planters in expelling blacks from towns and forcing them to sign labor contracts to work for their former masters. 5. Southern violence against "carpetbaggers" and blacks pronounced. a. Anyone aiding African American rights in the South during Reconstruction risked being a victim of violence. b. In Louisiana in summer and fall of 1868, white Democrats killed 1,081 people most of whom were either black or white Republicans. 6. Bureau expired in 1872 -- Johnson had tried to kill it repeatedly as he was a white-supremacist along with most white Southerners

VI. Presidential Reconstruction A. Andrew Johnson 1. Champion of poor whites against planter aristocrats as a politician in TN. -- Yet, owned a few slaves. 2. Refused to secede with Tennessee in April of 1861 and remained in the Senate. -- Served as military governor of TN when Union armies reconquered the state. 3. Lincoln?s vice presidential. candidate for the Union party in 1864 -- Seen as attractive to War Democrats and other pro-Southern groups 4. Champion of states? rights and the Constitution. B. Presidential Reconstruction 1. 1863, Lincoln gave his "10 percent" Reconstruction plan a. 10% of ex-Confederate states? voters in 1860 election had to make a pledge of allegiance to the U.S. and abide by emancipation to be reintegrated into the Union. b. Next step would be creation of a state gov?t which Lincoln would then recognize. c. Congressional Republicans sharply rejected the 10% plan claiming it was much too lenient and did not safeguard Union gains. -- Fear of planter aristocracy regaining power and possible re-enslavement of African Americans. 2. Wade-Davis Bill (1864) a. Passed by Republicans, required 50% of state?s voters in 1860 election to take oath of allegiance and demanded stronger safeguards for emancipation than Lincoln for re-entering the Union. i. States then would have a Constitutional convention that would require approval by Federal gov?t -- "Iron-clad Oath": "Never voluntarily aided the Confederacy" ii. "State suicide theory" --Claimed Confederate states had forfeited all their rights by seceding from the Union; "committed suicide" as Repub. states. iii. States should be readmitted only as "conquered provinces" subject to the conditions and wishes of Congress. b. Lincoln "pocket vetoed" bill by refusing to sign it after Congress had adjourned. c. In response, Republicans refused to seat delegates from Louisiana after it had met the requirements of Lincoln?s 10% plan in 1864. 3. Two congressional factions emerged among Republicans a. Majority moderate group agreed with Lincoln that the Confederate states should be reintegrated ASAP but on Congress? terms, not Lincoln?s. b. Minority radical group wanted South?s social structure uprooted, the planters punished, and blacks protected before states were restored. 4. Johnson recognized several of Lincoln?s 10% governments while Congress was not in session. a. Johnson agreed with Lincoln that states had never legally been outside the Union b. May 29, 1865, issued his own Reconstruction proclamation. i. Disenfranchised certain leading Confederates including those with more than $20,000 in taxable property. -- Yet, granted many pardons for ex-Confederates ii. Called for special state conventions required to repeal ordinances of secession, repudiate all Confederate debts, and ratify the 13th Amendment. -- He reluctantly agreed to include 13th Amendment as a condition c. Pardons of planter aristocrats soon gave many of them the power to control the organization of their states in 2nd half of 1865 d. Republicans were outraged that planter elite once again controlled many areas of the South.

VII. Black Codes A. Designed to regulate affairs of emancipated blacks (as the slave statutes did pre-Civil War.) 1. Purpose: Guarantee stable labor supply now that blacks were emancipated. a. Severe penalties on blacks that "jumped" their labor contracts that committed them to work for the same employer for a year at very low wages. b. Violators could be made to forfeit back wages or forcibly made to work by a paid "Negro catcher." 2. Purpose: Restore pre-emancipation system of race relations (to furthest extent possible) a. Freedom recognized and marital rights granted but few other rights given b. Forbade blacks to serve on juries or testify against whites. c. Some forbade blacks from renting or leasing land. d. Blacks not allowed to vote e. "Vagrancy" -- "Idle" blacks could be sentenced to work on a chain gang. B. Forced many blacks to become sharecroppers (tenant farmers). 1. Result: Many blacks sank to level of pseudo-indentured servants where generations remained on one plot of land, indebted to the plantation owner. 2. Many in the North angered

VIII. Congressional Reconstruction A. Many ex-Confederates became part of state congressional representatives. 1. Angry Republicans did not allow Democrats in on first day of congressional session on Dec. 4, 1865. a. Feared loss of political advantage that had yielded Homestead Act, Morrill Tariff, and the Pacific Railroad Act. i. Blacks now worth one person for representation ii. Black population would increase southern representation and presidential electoral votes by 12. b. Feared southerners might win control of Congress by uniting with northern Democrats, perhaps even the presidency. i. Black codes could then be implemented at federal level or even re-enslavement of blacks. ii. Also concerned about re-routing of federal railroad, rescinding of Homestead Act, and possible repudiation of national debt. B. Johnson clashes with Congress 1. On Dec. 6, 1865, Johnson declared that the ex-Confederate states had met his conditions and that the Union was now officially restored; Republicans outraged 2. February, 1866, vetoed extension of Freedmen?s Bureau; bill later repassed. 3. In response, Congress passed the Civil Rights Bill in March, 1866. a. Gave blacks citizenship and aimed to destroy the Black Codes. b. Johnson vetoed it but Congress overturned his veto in April. c. From then on, Congress frequently overturned Johnson?s vetoes and assumed effective control on the gov?t. C. 14th Amendment (Approved by Congress and sent to states in June 1866) 1. Purpose: Republicans sought to place principles of Civil Rights Bill into a constitutional amendment as protection against a future southern takeover of Congress and subsequent removal of Civil Rights Bill with simple majority. 2. Provisions: a. Gave civil rights inc. citizenship (but not inc. voting rights) to blacks. b. Reduced proportionately the representation of a state in Congress and in the Electoral College if it denied blacks voting rights. c. Disqualified from federal and state office former Confederates who had once held office and had sworn to "support the Constitution of the United States." d. Guaranteed the federal debt while repudiating all Confederate debts. e. Congress given power to enforce the amendment. 3. Johnson instructed Southern states to reject it -- All Southern states except TN rejected it putting it in temporary limbo. 4. Republicans won 2/3 majority in House & Senate in Congressional elections of 1866 a. Significance: Republicans now had control of Reconstruction policy. i. Radicals led in the Senate by Charles Sumner ii. Radicals led in House by Thaddeus Stevens from PA. b. Radical Republicans -- Sought to keep out Southern states from the Union as long as possible & use federal power to effectuate drastic social & economic change in the South. c. Moderate Republicans (consisted of the majority) -- Preferred policies that kept states from infringing on citizens? rights rather than direct federal intervention in peoples? lives. D. Military Reconstruction (see Bailey p. 469 for map) 1. Military Reconstruction Act (March, 2, 1867) a. South divided into five military districts, each commanded by a Union general and policed by the Union army (about 20,000 total) b. Disenfranchised 10s of 1000s of former Confederates. c. Congress also required seceded states to ratify the 14th Amendment before being allowed back into the Union. d. States had to guarantee in their state constitutions full suffrage for blacks -- Paved the way for easy ratification of the 15th Amendment 2. Stopped short of giving freedmen land or education at federal expense a. Military rule ended by 1868 in all but three Southern states. b. Did not want to make federal gov?t directly responsible for protection of black rights. c. Short-sighted policy led to a century of institutional discrimination against blacks. 3. Fifteenth Amendment (Passed by Congress in 1869; Ratified in 1870 during Grant?s presidency) a. Purposes: i. To ensure state guarantees of suffrage would not be rescinded if southerners came to dominate Congress in the future. ii. To strengthen Republican control of southern states b. Provisions: Suffrage for black males c. Loopholes i. Said nothing about holding office ii. Voting requirements not uniform throughout the country. iii. Poll taxes, literacy tests, and property requirements not addressed -- Literacy tests administered unfairly to favor illiterate whites. iv. "grandfather clauses" aimed to reduce number of black voters -- Required citizenship prior to 14th Amendment v. Gerrymandering (especially in Virginia) vi. Intimidation -- Lynchings in 1892 (230) all-time high followed by 1884 (211). vii. Women were excluded -- Female leaders of the abolitionist movement split from the males. viii. Poor whites also disenfranchised d. Result: i. Democratic dominance in the South assured due to circumvention of 14th and 15th Amendments. -- Many southern Republican voters denied suffrage. ii. Full suffrage for blacks not realized until 1965. 4. Civil Rights Act of 1875 a. Crime for any individual to deny full and equal use of public conveyances and public places e.g. hotels, trains, railroads, theaters, and restaurants. b. Prohibited discrimination in jury selection c. Shortcoming: Lacked a strong enforcement mechanism d. Dismayed northerners didn?t attempt another civil rights act for 90 years! 5. The end of reconstruction a. By 1870, all former Confederate states had reorganized their state govt?s and reintegrated into the Union, having adopted the 14th and 15th Amendments. i. Once state govt?s ("radical regimes") seemed on solid footing in the South, Union forces were removed. ii. By 1876, whites again dominated southern politics b. Northerners now became concerned with other moral issues rather than helping the freedmen. c. Panic of 1873-1879 focused politics on economic issues d. Compromise of 1877 i. Election between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes and Dem. Sam Tilden inconclusive. -- Tilden led pop. vote and 184-165 in electoral college; 187 votes needed to win. -- Fraud and violence in SC, FL, and LA and questions of voter eligibility in OR left 20 electoral votes in question. -- 15 member commission eventually gave Hayes all 20 votes but Democrats filibustered. ii. Compromise: North was allowed to have Hayes as president while last remaining federal troops to be removed from SC Fl & LA 6. Military Reconstruction meant Presidential powers had been usurped by Congress and a martial regime had been established. a. Supreme Court had ruled in case Ex parte Milligan (1866) that military tribunals could not try civilians if civil courts nearby. b. Since desperate times call for desperate measures, the Court avoided confronting Congress about its imposition of martial law. c. During subsequent Gilded Age presidents will be weak and faceless while Congress will dominate.

IX. Radical Reconstruction in the South A. Suffrage policy somewhat hypocritical on the part of the North. 1. Lincoln and Johnson both had suggested gradual suffrage for certain blacks who qualified for it through education, property ownership, or military service. 2. In fact, most northern states denied suffrage to blacks until 15th Amendment B. African American suffrage saw temporary gains 1. Blacks made up the majority of voters in AL, FL, LA, MI, and SC but only in SC did they make up majority in the lower house. 2. No senate had a black majority nor were there any black governors during the period coined by white southerners as "black reconstruction." 3. Nevertheless, many black representatives served with distinction; some well-educated. -- Two black senators from MI: Hiram R. Revels and Blanche K. Bruce. C. Corruption in state legislatures 1. "Scalawags" (term coined by white Southern Democrats) a. Southern men, formerly Unionists and Whigs, who supported Reconstruction. b. Hated by former Confederates who exaggerated their corruption and plundering of Southern treasuries through their political influence. 2. "Carpetbaggers" a. Mainly Northern Republicans who supposedly had packed all their possessions into a single carpet-bag suitcase and came to the South to seek their fortune. b. Consisted of Union soldiers, teachers, and businessmen who arrived in the South before 1867. -- Reaped benefits during military reconstruction c. Resented by the white South as federal interference; significant violence occurred. D. Positives from Reconstruction 1. Steps taken to est. adequate public schools. 2. Tax systems were improved 3. Public works projects were launched esp. in transpiration 4. Property rights for women guaranteed. 5. Apportionment made more equal in state legislatures 6. Property requirements eliminated for holding office

X. Rise of the Ku Klux Klan A. Essentially a rebellion against "radical? rule; in effect, terror wing of Democratic party. 1. Goal: Overthrow Reconstruction governments in the South and replace them with white supremacy oriented Democratic government. 2. Many whites resented success and efficacy of black legislators as they did the alleged corruption of Carpetbaggers and Scalawags. 3. KKK, the "Invisible Empire of the South," founded in TN in 1866 4. Consisted of whites from all classes in the South B. Used terrorism while clad in white sheets to intimidate blacks and Carpetbaggers. 1. Flogging, mutilation, or murder common against black and white Republicans. 2. Became effective in many areas for discouraging blacks from attaining their rights. C. Succeeded in decimating Republican organization in many localities. -- In response, new southern governments looked to Washington for survival. D. Force Acts of 1870 and 1871 (also called Enforcement Acts) -- 1871 law also called "KKK Act" 1. Federal troops were sent to quell the KKK?s intimidation while terrorist groups were outlawed. -- Significance: 1st time federal gov?t protected individuals, not local authorities 2. Moderately successful in destroying the KKK yet much KKK intimidation had already had an effect. 3. By 1872, Klan no longer a major political force in the South. 4. Yet, acts repealed by Democrats over 20 years later

XI. Johnson is impeached A. Radical Republicans, rather than curbing his authority, wanted him removed altogether. B. Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act in 1867 over Johnson?s veto. 1. Required the president to secure the consent of the Senate before he could remove his appointees once they had been approved by the Senate. 2. Purposes: a. Keep Sec. of War Edwin Stanton in the cabinet who was secretly serving as a spy for the radicals. b. Provoke Johnson into breaking the law thus laying the foundation for impeachment. C. Johnson, believing the act unconstitutional and depending on support from the Court, fired Stanton in early 1868 to initiate the court case that the Court would supposedly decide in his favor. -- Johnson did not believe the law applied to Lincoln?s holdovers. D. In response, House voted 126 to 47 to impeach Johnson for "high crimes and misdemeanors," as called for in the Constitution. -- Main issue was Johnson?s violation of the Tenure of Office Act. E. Case tried in the Senate between March 5 and May 26 with the House prosecuting 1. May 16, 1868, Radicals failed to remove Johnson by one vote (2/3 needed). 2. Seven Republicans voted "not guilty" F. Outcome probably beneficial for the country -- Johnson?s removal may have set a destructive precedent, severely weakening the executive branch.

XII. Rise of the Solid South A. White supremacist Solid South dominated by Democrats in each state. 1. Remaining Republican govt?s in South collapsed 2. Republican party dead in South for about 100 years. 3. Southern resentment and humiliation would last generations. 4. Beginning increased violence and discrimination toward blacks B. Redeemers: coalition of prewar Democrats, Union Whigs, 1. Confederate army veterans, and individuals interested in industrial development. -- Rise of many ex-plantation owners (sometimes called "Bourbons") 2. Sought to undo changes brought about by the Civil War. 3. Committed to strict economic & political control of blacks and reduce scope of state gov?t. 4. Won many local elections in 1870s vowing to dismantle the "corrupt" Reconstruction system. 5. Policies affected blacks and poor whites alike -- Exacerbated class strife and racial violence that followed the Civil War.

XIII. Purchase of Alaska (1867) A. Russia overextended in North America; realized another war with Britain would probably mean British takeover of Alaska. -- Fur supply exhausted; Alaska a financial liability B. Russia preferred U.S. since they wanted a stronger U.S. to thwart Britain, Russia?s ancient enemy. C. Sec. of State Seward signed treaty w/ Russia to purchase Alaska for $7.2 million, an area approx. 600,000 square miles. 1. Many criticized him for purchasing what seemed to be a wasteland: "Seward?s Folly," "Seward?s Icebox," "Frigidia," "Walrussia" -- U.S. in midst of Reconstruction: antiexpansionist; economic matters more important. 2. Gov?t felt obligated not to shun Russia?s offer since Russia had been very friendly to the North during the Civil War. -- In addition, area rumored to be abundant in furs, fish and gold. D. Alaska was to become a major source of oil for U.S. and a sizable fishery.

XIV Post-Reconstruction Civil Rights: Road to institutional discrimination A. Reconstruction failed to empower blacks politically -- The white South openly disregarded the 14th & 15th Amendments for several generations. B. Sharecropping became a wide-scale practice keeping blacks tied to plantation owners w/ crop lien laws, which facilitated the binding of blacks unable to pay their debts. C. Slaughterhouse Cases, 1873 (still during Reconstruction) 1. 14th Amendment protected against federal infringements of abridged "privileges and immunities," not state infringements. -- Thus, in effect the states were able to discriminate against their citizens. 2. Molded interpretation of 14th Amendment for decades. D. Civil Rights Cases, 1883 1. Court claimed 14th Amendment protected individuals from state action, not individual action. -- Overturned Civil Rights Act of 1875 which protected individuals in states. 2. Significance: a discouraged Congress didn?t pass another Civil Rights law until 1957. E. Wholesale disenfranchisement began in 1890 -- achieved by intimidation, fraud, and trickery. 1. Poll taxes & property requirements; literacy tests admin. unfairly to favor illiterate whites. 2. "grandfather clauses" aimed to reduce number of black voters while enfranchising white voters who did not meet #1 & #2 -- Required citizenship prior to establishment of 14th Amendment 3. Gerrymandering 4. "Jim Crow" laws in 1890s (beginning in 1881) intended to segregate blacks in public facilities: e.g., public schools, railroad cars, restaurants F. Lynchings as a form of intimidation 1. During 1890s, 200 blacks were lynched per year; 4/5 in the South. 2. Lynchings in 1892 (230) all-time high followed by 1884 (211). 3. Lynch law and mob rule competed with justice in many areas. 4. Ida B. Wells-Barnett: Black journalist who launched an international antilynching movement whose goal was a federal antilynching law. G. Booker T. Washington and education for African Americans a. 44% of non-whites illiterate in 1900; most from the South. b. Became head of the black normal and industrial school at Tuskegee, AL in 1881 -- Taught useful trades as a means toward self-respect and economic equality, rather than a classical, education. -- Started with only 40 students who literally built the school. c. Advocated policy of accommodation in which he grudgingly accepted segregation in return for the right to develop economic and educational resources of the black community. i. Urged blacks to adopt white middle-class standards in speech, dress, and habits so blacks would gain respect of whites. ii. Established in the "Atlanta Compromise",1895 (paves way for Plessy v. Ferguson) d. Ironically, Washington labored secretly against Jim Crow laws and racial violence, writing letters in code names and protecting blacks from lynch mobs. -- His efforts, however, were little known in his time. H. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) capped the failure of Reconstruction by making it constitutional to segregate the black and white races: "Separate but equal" 1. Court ruled that separation was legal so long as facilities were equal. 2. This ruling henceforth applied to schools and other public places. 3. Remained intact until Brown v. Board of Education in 1954: I. W.E.B. DuBois opposed Washington and demanded immediate social and economic equality for blacks. 1. His opposition to Washington as well as other blacks led to the formation of the Niagara Movement (1905-1909) a. Demanded immediate end to segregation and to discrimination in the unions, courts, and public facilities. b. Demanded equality of economic and educational opportunity. c. Laid the groundwork for creation of the NAACP. 2. DuBois demanded that the "talented tenth" of the black community be given full and immediate access to the mainstream of American life. J. NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) 1. After Springfield Race Riots in 1909, a group of white progressives inc.Jane Addams, John Dewey, William Dean Howells, and editor Oswald Garrison Villard formed the NAACP (1910) 2. Adopted many of the goals of the Niagara movement 3. DuBois as director of publicity and research, and editor of their journal, Crisis. 4. Goal: attainment of equal rights for blacks through the use of lawsuits in federal courts. 5. Opposed political and economic subordination of blacks for promoting the leadership of a trained, black elite.

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