World War II

World War II Ruinous Effects of Nazism  The creation of the “new order” enabled the National Socialists to eliminate unemployment; provide the German workers and farmers with a tolerable standard of living; enrich the elite ruling group of the state, industry, and finance; and build a stupendous war machine.  Hitler boasted that National Socialism had solved the problems of German society and would endure for 1000 years. The Third Reich  That the party resolved problems with which the Weimar Republic was powerless to cope, and that it transformed the weak republic into an industrially and politically powerful state is a matter of record.  Equally of record and undeniable is that the cost of that transformation included the horror of World War II, the bloodiest and most destructive conflict in human history, from which Germany emerged beaten, divided and impoverished.  After the war a small neo-Nazi movement continued to exist in West Germany. Neo-Nazism gained some popularity after the reunification of Germany in 1990. The movement is largely composed of discontented young males who target Jews, blacks, homosexuals, and members of other minority groups with acts of violence. Neo-Nazi groups have also sprung up in other countries, including the United States.

Axis Powers – Germany, Italy, Japan Allied Powers – Britain, France, US, Russia (switches sides, starts w/Axis), and many others

Winston Churchill – England – Prime Minister – considered a great man Henri Petain – Vichy government – French leader who sets up a puppet government in France and cooperates with the Germans. Former WWI hero now in shameful situation. A resistance government sets itself up in London to oppose the Germans in France. Josef Stalin – took over after Lenin – executed millions of political opponents, originally signs an agreement with Germany to help them attack and divide Poland; enters the war on the side of the Allies when Germany attacks them in 1941.

Weimar Republic – Reichstag – The Weimar Republic was the name of the democratic German government established after World War I and the Reichstag was the name of the German legislature. The Weimar Republic was not able to cope with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles which required to give up all its colonies, take full responsibility for the war, dismantle its military and related industries, and pay heavy reparations.

Adolf Hitler – Der Fuhrer – Der Fuhrer means “the leader” Personal life – Born in Austria the illegitimate son of a minor customs official and a peasant girl. He was a poor student who did not complete high school. He applied to the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna twice but was rejected for lack of talent. He lived on an orphan’s pension and drew pictures and read voraciously. From his reading he developed anti-Jewish and anti-democratic convictions, an admiration for the individual and a contempt for the masses. He served in World War I from 1914-1916 as a dedicated soldier but he was never promoted beyond the rank of Private First Class because his superiors thought him lacking in leadership qualities. After Germany’s defeat in 1918, he returned to Munich and remained in the army until 1920. Political career/Rise to Power National Socialist German Workers’ Party/Flag – National Socialism was similar to Italian Fascism gut included a German tradition of military authoritarianism and expansion and racist doctrines declaring the Aryans were not only physically superior to other races but also carriers of a superior morality and culture. The flag was a red background with a white circle and a black swastika inside the circle. Convinced of the necessity, indeed, the value, of violence to achieve its ends, the Nazi party soon organized the Sturmabtelungen – Storm Troops – Brown Shirts (SA), to defend its meetings; to disrupt the meetings of liberal democrats, socialist, Communists, and trade unionists; and to persecute the Jews, especially Jewish merchants. It was aided in these activities by some disgruntled army officers, notably Ernst Rohm. In 1921 Hitler was elected “unlimited chairman” of the party.

Beer Hall Putsch - On November 8, 1923, with 600 armed SA, Hitler marched on a beer hall in Munich, at which Gustav von Kahr, head of the provincial Bavarian government was addressing a public meeting. Hitler took von Kahr and his associates prisoner and declared in von Kahr’s name the formation of a new national government. Immediately thereafter von Kahr was released and he turned against Hitler. Following a brief skirmish with the Munich police on Novemenber 9th, Hitler and his associates fled, and the so-called “beer hall putsch” (putsch = revolt) failed. Hitler was tried and received a five-year prison sentence, and the party was outlawed. Mein Kampf – the book Hitler dictated while in prison. It outlined his entire plan and became the “Bible” of National Socialism. Hitler was released in less than a year and the National Socialist Party was in a state of virtual dissolution. During the following years, with the aid of a small number of loyal associates, Hitler slowly rebuilt the party. In 1926 he established himself as Fuhrer and organized the armed and black-shirted Schutzstaffein – Protective Units – Black Shirts – Totten Kaupf – Death’s Head (SS). Their job was to supervise and control the party and its semi-military arm, the SA. The failure of the Beer Hall Putsch taught Hitler that he must use legal means to obtain power. Following the onset of the world economic depression of 1929, the flow of foreign capital into Germany ceased, the country’s foreign trade declined, the wheels of German industry slowed, and unemployment increased greatly, and agricultural prices fell. As the depression deepened, a situation ripe for revolution began to emerge. Hitler explained the Great Depression as a Jewish-Communist plot, an explanation accepted by many Germans. Promising a strong Germany, jobs, and national glory, he attracted millions of voters. Nazi representation in the Reichstag (parliament) rose from 12 seats in 1928 to 107 in 1930. During the following two years the party kept expanding, benefiting from growing unemployment, fear of Communism, Hitler’s self-certainty, and the diffidence of his political rivals. Nevertheless, when Hitler was appointed chancellor in January 1933, he was expected to be an easily controlled tool of big business. Once in power, however, Hitler quickly established himself as dictator. A subservient legislature passed the Enabling Act that permitted Hitler’s government to make laws without the legislature. The act effectively made the legislature powerless. Hitler used the act to Nazify the bureaucracy and the judiciary, replace all labor unions with one Nazi-controlled German Labor Front, and ban all political parties except his own. The economy, the media, and all cultural activities were brought under Nazi authority by making an individual’s livelihood dependent on his or her political party loyalty. Thousands of anti- Nazis were taken to concentration camps and all signs of dissent were suppressed. Hitler relied on his secret police, the Gestapo, and on jails and camps to intimidate his opponents, but many Germans supported him enthusiastically. On the evening of June 30, 1934, later known as the Night of the Long Knives, Hitler ordered the SS to murder members of the unruly SA, a group Hitler feared would agitate the Reichswehr (army). A number of SA and party leaders (including Ernst Rohm) and between 400 and 1000 of their followers, many of them innocent of any opposition to Hitler, were killed. Also included in the purge were other enemies such as General Kurt von Schleicher and some monarchists who had advocated the restoration of the Hohenzollern dynasty. The most crucial problem the party leadership confronted on coming to power was unemployment. Germany industry was then operating at about 58% of capacity. Estimates of the number of unemployed people at that time in Germany vary from 6-7 million. Hitler’s armament drive (weapons building) wiped out unemployment, an ambitious recreational program attracted workers and employees, and his foreign policy successes impressed the nation. He thus managed to build support among the German people. Discrediting churches with charges of corruption and immorality, he imposed his own brutal moral code. He derided the concept of human equality and claimed racial superiority for the Aryans, of which he said the Germans were the highest form. As the master race, they were told, they had the right to dominate all nations they subjected. The increasingly ruthless persecution of the Jews was to inure (harden, toughen up) Germans to this task. Hitler successfully appealed to a Germany that was humiliated by defeat in World War I and the Treaty of Versailles. Many Germans and even other Europeans, believed that the terms of the treaty were too harsh, and Hitler was successful in defying some of them. His efforts to rearm Germany in 1935 met with little protest from other European countries. During the Spanish Civil War, Hitler supported Nationalist leader Francisco Franco, supplying airplanes and weapons. Having denounced the disarmament clauses of the Versailles Treaty, created a new air force, and reintroduced the draft, Hitler tried out his new weapons on the side of right-wing military rebels. The venture brought him into collaboration with Mussolini, who was also supporting the Spanish revolt after having seized Ethiopia in a small war. Eva Braun - Hitler’s mistress The War Begins

Lebensraum – living space, Germans wanted more area for agricultural land and natural resources needed by industry

How did Hitler conquer the following countries? Austria – 1938 Hitler takes over Austria without resistance claiming that Germans were being persecuted in Austria. Czechoslovakia – Sudetenland - September 1938 – First takes the Sudetenland where Hitler claims Germans are being oppressed. He encouraged them to make unreasonable demands to give him an excuse to march into the entire country. Poland – September 1939, Germans attack. Poland anticipated several weeks of preliminary skirmishes. Instead the Germans hit the railroads with bombing raids, snarling movement of troops. Blitzkrieg – lightning war: using armor, air power, and mobile infantry in a pincer movement to encircle the enemy. Two German army groups drove rapidly towards Warsaw and Brest. German cavalry consisted of armored tanks (Panzers) while the Polish cavalry was still on horseback. Britain and France were too stunned to react in time. Denmark – April 2, 1940 – Quick surrender without any real resistance, having learned from Poland the futility of defending against the Germans. Norway – April 9, 1940 – Norwegians try to resist with help from 12,000 British and French but have to admit defeat on May 3rd. Soviet-Finnish War – On November 30, the Soviets tried a blitzkrieg of their own. However, the Finns were experts at winter warfare. The Soviet troops were often badly led because political purges had claimed many of the senior officers. Outnumbered by at least 5 to 1, the Finns held their own and kept fighting into the new year. The attack on Finland aroused world opinion against the Soviet Union. Stalin fearing outside intervention, ended his war on March 8th on terms that cost Finland territory but left it independent. Luxembourg – Attacked through the Ardennes forest because it was not a good area for tanks so it would not be expected for the Germans to attack there. Quick, easy march for Germans through the country. Belgium & Holland – Same as Luxembourg, Over by May 26. British and French try to help but are driven back to the sea and evacuated by boats from the beach at Dunkirk. 338,226 men survived because they were plucked from the beaches after the German commander stopped the tanks to save them for the next phase of the war. France – The drive into France began on June 5 and picked up on June 9. Italy declared war on France and Britain on June 10. The Germans swept around the Maginot Line, an elaborate permanent fortification extending about 200 miles along the northeastern border of France. It was designed to prevent a frontal assault; the Germans flanked the line. On June 17, Marshal Henri Petain, a World War I hero who had become premier the day before asked for an armistice. The armistice gave the Germans control of northern France and the Atlantic coast. Petain then set up a capital at Vichy in the unoccupied southeast. The Vichy government existed until 1945. Battle of Britain and how people coped In the summer of 1940 Hitler dominated Europe. His one remaining active enemy was Britain and its new prime minister, Winston Churchill. The British army had left most of its weapon on the beaches of Dunkirk. The Germans hoped to subdue the British by starving them out. In June 1940 they undertook the Battle of the Atlantic, using submarine warfare to cut the British overseas lifelines. The Germans now had submarine bases in Norway and France. At the outset the Germans only had 28 submarines but more were built- enough to keep Britain in danger until the spring of 1943 and to carry on the battle for months thereafter. Invasion was the expeditious way to finish of Britain but that meant crossing the English Channel; Hitler would not risk it unless the British air force (RAF) could be neutralized first. As a result the Battle of Britain was fought in the air, not on the beaches. In August 1940, the Germans launched daylight raids against ports and airfields and in September against inland cities. The objective was to draw out the British fighters and destroy them. The Germans failed to reckon on a new device, radar, which greatly increased the British fighters’ effectiveness. Because their own losses were too high, the Germans had to switch to night bombing at the end of September. Between then and May 1941 they made 71 major raids on London and 56 on other cities, but the damage they wrought was too indiscriminate to be militarily decisive. On September 17, 1940, Hitler postponed the invasion indefinitely, thereby conceded defeat in the Battle of Britain. The British people coped with the raids by sending children out of the cities to stay with friends or relatives in the country. In the cities the subway served as an air raid shelter and people used very heavy drapes to blackout all light coming from windows at night. Street lighting and signs were turned off.

World Reaction to Hitler’s aggression Appeasement - Stalin was in no mood to challenge Hitler. U.S. Response - The U.S., shocked by the fall of France, began the first peacetime conscription in its history and greatly increased its military budget.

What was Hitler’s plan when he attacked the USSR and why did it go wrong? Describe the siege at St. Petersburg (Leningrad) This was certainly the most tragic period in the history of this city. It was full of suffering and heroism. For everyone who lives in St. Petersburg, the blockade (siege) of Leningrad is an important part of their heritage, and for the older generation it brings out memories that they will never forget. Less than two and a half months after June 22, 1941, when the Soviet Union was attacked by Nazi Germany, German troops were already approaching Leningrad. The Red Army was outflanked and on September 8, 1941 the Germans had fully encircled Leningrad and the siege began. It lasted for about 900 days, from September 8, 1941 till January 27, 1944. Two million 887 thousand civilians (including about 400 thousand children) plus troops didn't even consider any calls for surrender. Food and fuel supplies were very limited (enough for 1 or 2 months only). All public transportation has stopped. By the winter of 1941-42 there was no heating, no water supply, almost no electricity and very little food. In January 1942, in the middle of an unusually cold winter, the lowest food rations in the city were only 125 grams (about 1/4 of a pound) of bread per day. In just two months, January and February, 1942, 200 thousand people (!!!) died in Leningrad of cold and starvation. But a portion of the war industry continued to work and the city did not surrender. Several hundred thousand people were evacuated from the city across Lake Ladoga via the famous "Road of Life" ("Doroga zhizni") - the only route that connected the besieged city with the mainland. Turning the tide at Stalingrad The Battle of Stalingrad was a major turning point in World War II and is considered one of the bloodiest battles in recorded human history. The battle was marked by brutality and disregard for military and civilian casualties on both sides. The battle is taken to include the German siege of the southern Russian city of Stalingrad, which is today Volgograd, the battle inside the city, and the Soviet counter-offensive which eventually trapped and destroyed the German Sixth Army and other Axis forces in and around the city. Total casualties for both sides are estimated to be over two million. The Axis powers lost large numbers of men and equipment, and never fully recovered from the defeat. For the Soviets, who also suffered great losses during the battle, the victory at Stalingrad marked the start of the liberation of the Soviet Union, leading to eventual victory over Nazi Germany in 1945.

Tell what end of the war decisions were made at the following conferences Casablanca Conference From January 14 to January 24, 1943, the first war conference between the Allied Powers, was held in Casablanca, Morocco. The purpose of the conference was relatively vague. It took steps toward planning the allied strategy and the end of the war. Initially, it was to be a Big Three meeting between Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin. It became a Big Two meeting when Stalin declined the invitation. With his country besieged by both Hitler and the harsh winter, Stalin didn't feel that he could leave. Even without Stalin, or perhaps due to his absence, the Casablanca Conference was successful. It set basis and direction for the rest of the war. And most importantly, it established terms of unconditional surrender.

No sitting President had ever been to Africa, nor had a U.S. President ever left the country during a time of war. But in the middle of January 1943, FDR became the first President to do these things. At the time, these firsts were very important in the public's mind. All newspaper articles of the time reminded the public again and again of these firsts. For example, a long detailed article about the entire Conference started by describing these firsts. (Appointment 11) How and when Roosevelt left the U.S. and arrived in Morocco was kept secret. The President's trip itself wasn't disclosed to the public until he was already safely back in Washington. Based on newspaper headlines of the time, like "Bullets, Mystery, Secrecy, and Censorship Plagued Reporters of Casablanca Conference," it is safe to assume that the press wasn't happy about the lack of information provided. Both Roosevelt and Churchill went to Casablanca equipped with modern aircraft, cars, jeeps, caravans and most importantly guards. The Conference took place in a hotel, likened to a mansion, in a room called simply Villa Number 2. The hotel was heavily guarded and surrounded by barbed wire, but that didn't stop Churchill and Roosevelt from taking jeep trips to the medieval marketplace in town and presenting a unified front to German spies and the world. The most significant accomplishment of the Casablanca Conference was the approval by both Roosevelt and Churchill of the policy of unconditional surrender of the Axis powers. To most, the condition of unconditional surrender seemed to make the most sense. None of the newspapers were surprised by the declaration. In fact, some of them even pointed out that it was a logical idea. (Allied 17) A year earlier, the idea would have been unthinkable. But the Allied position had changed much for the better in the previous twelve months, making the proposal valid. In fact, the big doings were agreed upon without much disapproval. Still, the Conference did have its critics. There was more than one unfavorable editorial written about the Conference. One critic felt that Roosevelt would have been better off visiting a battle and seeing the horrors first hand. The critic, Wendel Willkie, went on to say that the Conference wasn't a big success because Stalin was missing.

The importance of the unconditional surrender declaration can be seen in several ways. First, it showed both the British and American desire to permanently eliminate the threat of Germany. This assured the Soviets that the U.S. and Britain were in the fight to the end, thus encouraging the Soviets to keep fighting on the western front, even while a cross- channel attack was being delayed. Secondly, the declaration crushed any hope Hitler may have had of a peace negotiation It was believed that this declaration hung Hitler out to dry, leaving him to face his foreseeable defeat. This Conference helped to pave the way for the final Allied victory in Europe, V-Day.

The Conference was also the first time that the two disassociated French leaders, Henri Giraud and Charles de Gaulle, were brought together. When first invited to Casablanca, Giraud quickly accepted the invitation, but de Gaulle initially refused. Only after Churchill threatened to withdraw support from him and his French government, operating from Britain, did de Gaulle hesitantly accept the invitation. At the Conference, a picture of the two French leaders shaking hands was taken. They also issued a joint statement saying, "'We have met. We have talked. We have registered our entire agreement on the end to be achieved which is the liberation of France . . . This end will be attained by a union in war of all Frenchmen.'" (Allied 17) This photography and statement were very superficial and deceiving. The two French leaders were still unwilling to cooperate. Despite the efforts by Roosevelt, Giraud and de Gaulle both refused to join together forming a single unified Free French command.

The Casablanca Conference marked the beginning of the end for Hitler and his Nazis. The Conference helped to unite the Allied powers. The unconditional surrender declaration, resulting from the Conference still affects us today. Had the Allies not insisted on total unconditional surrender, Hitler might have negotiated a peace settlement and could have continued to be in power and cause additional disasters. The Casablanca Conference is notable for historical reasons, not relating to the war. Historically, it has been shown to be one of the last times when Great Britain could try to assert itself over the United States. The decline of the British economy along with the increase in U.S. Nationalism and the U.S. economy, brought about the inevitable shift in power. The U.S. was destined to be a superpower, but Great Britain was not. Still, at Casablanca the two leading Allied nation were able to work together on equal ground. Under the leadership of Roosevelt and Churchill, the two nations began the task of preparing for the end of the war and a new global era. Tehran Conference – Nov. 28–Dec. 1, 1943, meeting of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Premier Joseph Stalin at Tehran, Iran. The conference was held to strengthen the cooperation of the United States, Great Britain, and the USSR in World War II. It followed the Cairo Conference with Chiang Kai-Shek and was the first three-power war conference attended by Stalin. Agreement was reached on the scope and timing of operations against Germany, including plans for the Allied invasion of France. Stalin reaffirmed his pledge to commit Soviet forces against Japan after the defeat of Germany. The final communiqué also stressed the need for cooperation through the United Nations in meeting the problems of peace. A separate protocol pledged the three powers to maintain the independence of Iran.

Katyn Forest massacre - In 1943, German soldiers discovered a mass grave in the Katyn forest near Smolensk in western Russia. The grave held the bodies of between 4,000 and 5,000 Polish army officers. Hoping to drive a wedge between the Soviet Union and its Western allies, Nazi officials publicized the grave and accused the Soviets of the massacre. Moscow denied the charge and claimed the Germans were attempting to cover up their own atrocity. Despite evidence that the Kremlin was indeed behind the massacre, Britain and the United States chose to look the other way. London's wartime prime minister, Winston Churchill, opposed a call by the Polish government-in-exile for an investigation by the International Red Cross into the incident. Following the war, at the Nuremberg war crime tribunals, the issue of Katyn was originally included on the list of crimes attributed to the Nazis. But it was later dropped, apparently out of concern that any revelations about the massacre would embarrass the Soviets.

It wasn't until 1990 that Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev admitted Soviet involvement in the Katyn forest massacre. Two years later, the Russian government handed over to Polish President Lech Walesa previously secret documents showing that Soviet leader Joseph Stalin had directly ordered the killing of the Polish army officers. Most of the victims in Katyn forest were Polish army reservists -- lawyers, doctors, scientists and businessmen -- who were called up to active service following the Nazi invasion of Poland in 1939. But instead of fighting the Germans, about 15,000 Polish officers found themselves prisoners of the Red Army, which had occupied eastern Poland under the terms of a secret Moscow-Berlin treaty. In the spring of 1940, about 4,500 of these officers were taken by their Soviet captors to the Katyn forest. Most were then gagged, bound, shot once in the head and buried on the spot. The other Polish POWs were taken to other locations, where many of them were also executed. The mass liquidation killed off much of Poland's intelligentsia and facilitated the Soviet takeover of the nation.

Yalta Conference - The Yalta Conference was held towards the end of World War II. So you’re asking yourself: "What does some stupid conference have to do with the Cold War?". Well, many decisions were made at this conference which led to many fronts of the Cold War, most notably, Germany. The Yalta Conference was held in a resort town called Yalta on February 4th-11th in 1945. The "Big Three" met there to decide the fate of post-war Europe. The United States was represented by Franklin D. Roosevelt, Great Britain was represented by Winston Churchill, and Josef Stalin was there on the Soviet Union’s behalf. The goal of this conference was to discuss many aspects of the time. Among them were:

 The dividing up of Germany

 The formation of the United Nations

 German war reparations

 The entry of Soviet forces into the Far-Eastern front (Japan)

 The final, and most difficult issue, the future of Poland

Dresden - The Dresden Bombing came about as a result of a tactic used during World War Two by Royal Air Force and United States Air Force was "Firestorms". Incendiary bombs, filled with highly combustible chemicals, were dropped in clusters over a specific target. After the area caught fire, the air above become extremely hot and rose rapidly. Cold air rushed in at ground level, and people were sucked into the fire.

1945, Arthur Harris decides to target a firestorm for Dresden. 13th February 1945: 773 Avro Lancasters bombed Dresden. Over the next two days the USAAF sent over 527 heavy bombers to bomb Dresden. Dresden was almost totally destroyed. More then 135,000 were killed during the Dresden Bombing. Liberation of France Operation Overlord - The Battle of Normandy was fought in 1944 between the German forces occupying Western Europe and the invading American, British and Canadian forces. Sixty years later, the Normandy invasion, codenamed Operation Overlord, remains the largest sea borne invasion in history, involving almost three million troops crossing the English Channel from England to Normandy in occupied France. The Normandy invasion began with overnight paratrooper and glider landings, massive air and naval bombardments, and an early-morning amphibious assault. The battle for Normandy continued for more than two months, with campaigns to establish, expand, and eventually break out of the Allied beachheads. It concluded with the liberation of Paris and the fall of the Chambois pocket.

Dwight Eisenhower He commanded the Allied Forces landing in North Africa in November 1942; on D-Day, 1944, he was Supreme Commander of the troops invading France.

"D-Day" refers to the starting date of the invasion, and has colloquially become synonymous with the invasion. Normandy Invasion – D-Day, June 6, 1944 The invasion itself gave prominence to land forces but provided major roles for air and sea components. Allied air forces carried three airborne divisions into battle, protected the force as it crossed the English Channel, and attacked targets throughout the invasion area before and after the landing in support of the assault forces. More than 5,000 ships--from battleships to landing craft--carried, escorted and landed the assault force along the Normandy coast. Once the force was landed, naval gunfire provided critical support for the soldiers as they fought their way across the beaches. In the invasion's early hours, more than 1,000 transports dropped paratroopers to secure the flanks and beach exits of the assault area. Amphibious craft landed some 130,000 troops on five beaches along 50 miles of Normandy coast between the Cotentin Peninsula and the Orne River while the air forces controlled the skies overhead. In the eastern zone, the British and Canadians landed on GOLD, JUNO and SWORD Beaches. The Americans landed on two beaches in the west-- UTAH and OMAHA. As the Allies came ashore, they took the first steps on the final road to victory in Europe. Battle of the Bulge - On December 16, 1944, the German Army launched its last great counter - offensive of World War II. The Battle of the Bulge was meant to be Hitler's "last stand" in order to break apart and defeat the Allied forces. Hitler believed the bond was weak between the British, the US, and Russia. Hitler thought that he had enough troops left to launch a surprise attack on the Western Front through the thinly held line in the Belgian Ardennes Forest. He also believed that factors such as bad weather, bad terrain, and the Christmas holiday would help him to catch the Allies by surprise. The Allies regarded the Ardennes as unsuitable for an attack, even though, four years earlier, the German Blitzkrieg (Lightning War) had shattered the Allied front which led to France's surrender. In trying to figure out ways to break up the Allies, Hitler planned on reducing Allied air power, taking Antwerp, and thus cutting off a main supply base for the Allied armies on the Western Front. He would then be able to surround Canada's 1st army, Britain's 2nd army, and, in addition, the US's 1st and 9th armies. In Hitler's mind, all of this would result in the northern forces being surrounded and cut off from their supplies. The southern forces would then be pushed out of Germany. Ultimately, he expected it to be an easy battle.

On the night before the battle, Hitler sent in troops to infiltrate the front. Some were dropped by parachute, while others came in driving captured American jeeps. These men spoke perfect English and wore US uniforms. They managed to spread confusion by cutting off telephone lines, giving false directions, and changing road signs. The battle began at the crack of dawn on December 16th. After a two hour bombardment, Hitler managed to push back American forces. The element of surprise, lack of communication, and the fact that troops were outnumbered, all led to Hitler's success. In spite of this, after two days of fighting, the Germans had made very little progress. Hitler managed to attack two American southern divisions that were in front of Elsenborn Ridge, and surrounded only the least experienced division of the US VIII Corps.

On December 17, 72 American POW's were captured outside the town of Malmedy, which is just south of Ardennes. An SS unit, commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Joachim Peiper, massacred these prisoners of war. He simply brought them out to an open field, and machine gunned them to death. Their bodies were then buried beneath the deep snow. Much of the battle depended on the weather. At the start, the land was foggy and the ground was unfrozen, but not muddy. For Hitler, these conditions were ideal because the Allied air power could not intervene. A little snow had fallen around the Schnee Eifel, a group of low-ranging hills to the east, where the heaviest German concentration had been assembled. According to one soldier, "the rest of the Ardennes lay bare and ugly". The Allies desperately needed fair weather to begin their air attack. However, a great snowstorm fell upon them during the first week.

On December 22, Hitler sent a message to American Major-General Anthony Mcauliffe, at the Bartongre Garrison, telling him to surrender. His response to Hitler's request was simply "Nuts!" On this same day, skies cleared up, and reinforcements were sent by airdrop to the Bartongre Garrison, and Allied airplanes began their attack on German tanks. Then, on December 23, Americans began their first counterattack on the southern flank of the Ardennes "bulge".

At midday on December 24, 16 German jet aircraft attacked a ball-bearing factory and tool-die warehouse in Ciege. They then proceeded to attack railway yards supplying the Allies. This was the first jet bomber attack in history. However, by evening, the German offensive had been halted. Their advance was less than sixty miles, at its furthest point. This was nowhere close to the seventy mile objective of the assault. The fighting grew more intense on Christmas Day, and for some weeks thereafter. The period of surprise was now gone, and the panzer armies were simply trying to blast their way through the front. Instead of beginning a retreat, more and more guns were sent forward to the Bulge. This was done in an attempt to hold what had been gained, and in order to expand the front, if possible.

Losses from exposure to the cold grew as large as the losses from fighting. The Germans began attacking in white suits, in order to blend in with the snow. Men were fighting for shelter and warmth, in addition to the enemy. Some of the people of Ardennes opened their homes to the American soldiers. They shared food, blankets, and fuel. In addition, these people helped the wounded and the ill.

Germans were plagued by lack of supplies. Tanks simply ran out of gas and could go no further. Lieutenant-Colonel Jochen Peiper, commander of the 1st SS Panzer Division, was eventually surrounded by Allied forces. Peiper's battle group, ringed in and also out of fuel, began to make their way back to Germany on foot. Therefore, tanks and other vehicles were abandoned. The struggle between the Allies and Germany ended in January, after the Allies' original line in Ardennes was restored. It turned out to be the largest land battle of WW II. Of the American soldiers, there were 81,000 casualties, 23,554 captured, and 19,000 killed. Germany's losses included 100, 000 men who were either killed, wounded, or captured.

Hitler's faith in "the attack as the best defense" proved to be the worst defense. What he believed to be the turning point of the war in Germany's favor, turned out to be nothing but a big disaster. The final days in Germany V-E Day – Victory in Europe Day – May 8, 1945 Hitler’s Death - Several attempts were made on Hitler's life during the war, but none was successful. As the war appeared to be inevitably lost and his hand-picked lieutenants, seeing the futility, defied his orders, he killed himself on April 30, 1945. His long-term mistress and new bride, Eva Braun, joined him in suicide. By that time, one of his chief objectives was achieved with the annihilation of two-thirds of European Jewry.

Benito Mussolini – Il Duce – Il Duce means “the leader”

How did Mussolini come to power in Italy? In the post World War I era, Mussolini and other young war veterans founded the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919. This movement attracted lower middle-class support and took its name from the fasces, an ancient symbol of Roman discipline. Fascism spread into the countryside, where its black-shirt militia won support from landowners. When Fascists threatened to march on Rome, King Victor Emmanuel III invited Mussolini to form a coalition government (October 28, 1922).

What country in Africa did Italy conquer? Ethiopia in 1935-36.

What role did Italy play in World War II? They were unprepared in the beginning and did not enter the war until June 1940. Italy fought the British in Africa, invaded Greece, and joined the Germans in carving up Yugoslavia, attacking the Soviet Union, and declaring war on the United States. The Italian Army was not very good and after suffering several defeats, King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini in July 1943 and made peace with the Allies (who had already begun an invasion of Italy) soon after.

Describe the fighting in North Africa. Identify Rommel, the Desert Fox, Afrika Korps Rommel spent most of 1941 building his organization and re-forming the shattered Italian units, who had suffered a string of defeats at the hands of British Commonwealth forces under Major General Richard O'Connor. An offensive pushed the Allied forces back out of Libya, but it stalled a relatively short way into Egypt, and the important port of Tobruk, although surrounded, was still held by Allied forces under an Australian General, Leslie Morshead. The Allied Commander- in-Chief, General Archibald Wavell swapped commands with the British Commander-in-Chief India, General Claude Auchinleck. Auchinleck launched a major offensive to relieve Tobruk which eventually succeeded. However, when this offensive ran out of steam, Rommel struck.

In a classic blitzkrieg, Allied forces were comprehensively beaten. Within weeks they had been pushed back into Egypt. Rommel's offensive was eventually stopped at the small railway halt of El Alamein, just 60 miles from Cairo. The First Battle of El Alamein was lost by Rommel because he was suffering from the eternal curse of the desert war, long supply lines. The Allies, with their backs against the wall, were very close to their supplies, and had fresh troops on hand. Rommel tried again to break through the Allied lines during the Battle of Alam Halfa. He was decisively stopped by the newly arrived Allied commander, Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery; mainly due to the fact that the allies had devised a machine capable of deciphering German communications, thus alerting them to Rommel's battle plan prior to the battle. This was known as the "Ultra".

With Allied forces from Malta interdicting his supplies at sea, and the massive distances they had to cover in the desert, Rommel could not hold the El Alamein position forever. Still, it took a large set piece battle, the Second Battle of El Alamein to force his troops back. After the defeat at El Alamein, despite urgings from Hitler and Mussolini, Rommel's forces did not again stand and fight until they had entered Tunisia. Even then, their first battle was not against the British Eighth Army, but against the US II Corps. Rommel inflicted a sharp reversal on the American forces at the Battle of the Kasserine Pass.

Turning once again to face the British Commonwealth forces in the old French border defences of the Mareth Line, Rommel could only delay the inevitable. He left Africa after falling sick, and the men of his former command eventually became prisoners of war. The main factor leading to Rommel's failure to achieve total victory in Africa, was that the Allies had developed a machine which deciphered German communications, alerting them to Rommel's battle plans.

Some say that Rommel's withdrawal of his army back to Tunisia against Hitler's dreams was a much greater success than his capture of Tobruk (in sharp contrast to the fate suffered by the German 6th Army at the Battle of Stalingrad under the command of Friedrich Paulus).

Describe Mussolini’s last days. The Germans rescued Mussolini and had him organize a puppet government in northern Italy. In the final days of the war, Mussolini attempted to escape to Switzerland with his mistress, Clara Petacci. Italian partisans (democratic freedom fighters) captured and shot them on April 28, 1945 at Giulino di Mezzegra. Identify the problems between the US and Japan. Japan did not formally adopt fascism, but the armed forces’ powerful position in the government enabled them to impose a similar type of totalitarianism. They used a minor clash with Chinese troops near Mukden in 1931 as a pretext for taking over all of Manchuria, where they proclaimed the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932. In 1937-38 they occupied the main Chinese ports. During the 1930s, the military established almost complete control over the government. Many political enemies were assassinated, and communists persecuted. Indoctrination and censorship in education and media were further intensified. Navy and army officers soon occupied most of the important offices, including the one of the prime minister.

Already earlier, Japan followed the example of Western nations and forced China into unequal economical and political treaties. Furthermore, Japan's influence over Manchuria had been steadily growing since the end of the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05. When the Chinese Nationalists began to seriously challenge Japan's position in Manchuria in 1931, the Kwantung Army (Japanese armed forces in Manchuria) occupied Manchuria. In the following year, "Manchukuo" was declared an independent state, controlled by the Kwantung Army through a puppet government. In the same year, the Japanese air force bombarded Shanghai in order to protect Japanese residents from anti Japanese movements.

In 1933, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations since she was heavily criticized for her actions in China.

In July 1937, the second Sino-Japanese War broke out. A small incident was soon made into a full scale war by the Kwantung army which acted rather independently from a more moderate government. The Japanese forces succeeded in occupying almost the whole coast of China and committed severe war atrocities on the Chinese population, especially during the fall of the capital Nanking. However, the Chinese government never surrendered completely, and the war continued on a lower scale until 1945.

In 1940, Japan occupied French Indochina (Vietnam) upon agreement with the French Vichy government, and joined the Axis powers Germany and Italy. These actions intensified Japan's conflict with the United States and Great Britain which reacted with an oil boycott. The resulting oil shortage and failures to solve the conflict diplomatically made Japan decide to capture the oil rich Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) and to start a war with the US and Great Britain. Emperor Hirohito Hirohito, the grandson of Emperor Meiji, was born in Japan on 29th April 1901. His father, Emperor Taisho, came to power in 1912. In 1915 Hirohito was tutored by Kimmochi Saionju, the former prime minister of Japan. As a young man he became very interested natural science and marine biology. When Hirohito visited Europe in 1921 he became the first Japanese prince to travel to the west. He spent some time in Britain and had meetings with George V. Hirohito became emperor on the death of his father in December 1926. He therefore became the 124th emperor in direct lineage.

Under the constitution of Japan the Emperor could not act except on the advice of his ministers and the chiefs of staff. However, when a group of officers in the Japanese Army led a military coup against the political leaders in February, 1936, Hirohito ordered his senior advisers, against their wishes, to put the rebellion down. As a result of Hirohito's action, the ringleaders were executed. Hirohito reluctantly supported the war against China (1931-32) and the invasion of Manchuria in 1937. However, he approved the attack on Pearl Harbor that led to Japan and the United States being drawn into the Second World War. When the promised quick victory over the Allies did not take place, Hirohito became critical of the political leaders and this led to the removal of Hideki Tojo on 18th July 1944. After the loss of Okinawa Hirohito called on his ministers to seek a negotiated end to the conflict. However, his government refused, claiming that Japan and Germany could still win the war.

After atom bomb were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki Hirohito called a meeting of the Supreme Council on 9th August, 1945. After a long debate Hirohito intervened and said he could no longer bear to see his people suffer in this way. On 15th August the people of Japan heard the Emperor's voice for the first time when he announced the unconditional surrender and the end of the war. Naruhiko Higashikuni was appointed as head of the surrender government. Some Allied leaders wanted Hirohito to be tried as a war criminal but General Douglas MacArthur head of the occupation forces, refused, arguing that Japan would be easier to rule if the emperor remained in office.

The American-imposed Japanese constitution reduced the emperor to a ceremonial role. On 1st January 1946, Hirohito made a formal statement where he explained that the role of the emperor in Japan had changed. He explained that the ties between himself and the Japanese people had always involved "mutual trust and affection". He went on to say: "They do not depend upon mere legends and myths. They are not predicated on the false conception that the Emperor is divine and that the Japanese people are superior to other races."

Other reforms introduced by General Douglas MacArthur encouraged the creation of democratic institutions, religious freedom, civil liberties, land reform, emancipation of women and the formation of trade unions. After the war Hirohito retained the affection of the Japanese people and showed that the Japanese monarchy was indeed modernized when he gave permission for Crown Prince Akihito to marry a commoner. Hirohito, who was a notable marine biologist, died after a long illness on 7th January, 1989.

Pearl Harbor – December 7, 1941 The surprise was complete. The attacking planes came in two waves; the first hit its target at 7:53 AM, the second at 8:55. By 9:55 it was all over. By 1:00 PM the carriers that launched the planes from 274 miles off the coast of Oahu were heading back to Japan. Behind them they left chaos, 2,403 dead, 188 destroyed planes and a crippled Pacific Fleet that included 8 damaged or destroyed battleships. In one stroke the Japanese action silenced the debate that had divided Americans ever since the German defeat of France left England alone in the fight against the Nazi terror.

Approximately three hours later, Japanese planes began a day-long attack on American facilities in the Philippines. (Because the islands are located across the International Dateline, the local Philippine time was just after 5 AM on December 8.) Farther to the west, the Japanese struck at Hong Kong, Malaysia and Thailand in a coordinated attempt to use surprise in order inflict as much damage as quickly as possible to strategic targets. Although stunned by the attack at Pearl Harbor, the Pacific Fleet's aircraft carriers, submarines and, most importantly, its fuel oil storage facilities emerged unscathed. These assets formed the foundation for the American response that led to victory at the Battle of Midway the following June and ultimately to the total destruction of the Japanese Empire four years later.

Japanese Internment On February 19, 1942, soon after the beginning of World War II, Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066. The evacuation order commenced the round-up of 120,000 Americans of Japanese heritage to one of 10 internment camps—officially called "relocation centers"— in California, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Wyoming, Colorado, and Arkansas.

Why Were the Camps Established? Roosevelt's executive order was fueled by anti-Japanese sentiment among farmers who competed against Japanese labor, politicians who sided with anti-Japanese constituencies, and the general public, whose frenzy was heightened by the Japanese attack of Pearl Harbor. More than 2/3 of the Japanese who were interned in the spring of 1942 were citizens of the United States.

Conditions in the U.S. Camps The U.S. internment camps were overcrowded and provided poor living conditions. According to a 1943 report published by the War Relocation Authority (the administering agency), Japanese Americans were housed in "tarpaper-covered barracks of simple frame construction without plumbing or cooking facilities of any kind." Coal was hard to come by, and internees slept under as many blankets as they were alloted. Food was rationed out at an expense of 48 cents per internee, and served by fellow internees in a mess hall of 250-300 people. Leadership positions within the camps were only offered to the Nisei, or American-born, Japanese. The older generation, or the Issei, were forced to watch as the government promoted their children and ignored them. Eventually the government allowed internees to leave the concentration camps if they enlisted in the U.S. Army. This offer was not well received. Only 1,200 internees chose to do so.

Legal Challenges to Internment Two important legal cases were brought against the United States concerning the internment. The landmark cases were Hirabayashi v. United States (1943), and Korematsu v. United States (1944). The defendants argued their fifth amendment rights were violated by the U.S. government because of their ancestry. In both cases, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the U.S. government. Closure of the Camps In 1944, two and a half years after signing Executive Order 9066, fourth-term President Franklin D. Roosevelt rescinded the order. The last internment camp was closed by the end of 1945.

Government Apologies and Reparations Forced into confinement by the United States, 5,766 Nisei ultimately renounced their American citizenship. In 1968, nearly two dozen years after the camps were closed, the government began reparations to Japanese Americans for property they had lost. In 1988, the U.S. Congress passed legislation which awarded formal payments of $20,000 each to the surviving internees—60,000 in all. This same year, formal apologies were also issued by the government of Canada to Japanese Canadian survivors, who were each repaid the sum of $21,000 Canadian dollars.

Other Groups in the Camps While Japanese-Americans comprised the overwhelming majority of those in the camps, thousands of Americans of German, Italian, and other European descent were also forced to relocate there. Many more were classified as "enemy aliens" and subject to increased restrictions. As of 2004, the U.S. Government has made no formal apology or reparations to those affected.

Rape of Nanking Between December 1937 and March 1938 at least 369,366 Chinese civilians and prisoners of war were slaughtered by the invading troops. An estimated 80,000 women and girls were raped; many of them were then mutilated or murdered. Thousands of victims were beheaded, burned, bayoneted, buried alive, or disemboweled. To this day the Japanese government has refused to apologize for these and other World War II atrocities, and a significant sector of Japanese society denies that they took place at all.

Island-hopping - Describe the fighting in the Pacific The United States then adopted an “island-hopping” strategy for pushing the enemy back toward Japan. The idea was to capture certain key islands, one after another, until Japan came within range of American bombers. The plan eventually succeeded, but only after a long and difficult struggle. Japanese soldiers believed in fighting to the death.

Kamikazi – divine wind is a word of Japanese origin, which, in the English language, usually refers to suicide attacks carried out by Japanese aircrews against Allied shipping towards the end of the Pacific campaign of World War II. Air attacks were the predominant and best-known aspect of a wider use of — or plans for — suicide attacks by Japanese personnel, including soldiers carrying explosives, and boat crews (see Japanese Special Attack Units). Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, After the bombing of Pearl Harbor Nimitz was was placed in charge of the Pacific Fleet. Urged on by Admiral Ernest King, Commander in Chief of the US Fleet, Nimitz sent William Halsey to attack the Marshall Islands and Frank Fletcher to raid the Gilbert Islands. Nimitz, King and General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander of the Southwest Pacific, decided that their first objective should be to establish and protect a line of communications across the South Pacific to Australia. This resulted in the battles of Coral Sea and Midway, where the Japanese Navy lost all four of her carriers.

Throughout the war Nimitz met regularly with Admiral Ernest King and General Douglas MacArthur. King and MacArthur constantly clashed over strategy. Whereas MacArthur favoured an early return to the Philippines King wanted the islands bypassed so that all available resources could be employed to take Formosa. King believed that the island could then be used as a base for invading mainland China. Unable to gain agreement the matter was eventually passed to Franklin D. Roosevelt to make the decision. In December 1944 Nimitz, William Leahy and Ernest King were all given the five star rank of Fleet Admiral. At the end of the Second World War Nimitz was succeeded by Raymond Spruance as commander of the Pacific Fleet. In November 1945 Nimitz replaced King as Commander in Chief of the US Fleet. Admiral Yamamoto In 1938 Yamamoto was appointed a Minister of the Navy and the following year Yamamoto was promoted to admiral and became commander in chief of the Combined Fleet. In this position he attempted to improve the training of men in the Japanese Navy. However, he made a crucial mistake of not fitting Japanese ships with radar.

Yamamoto was opposed the signing of the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany as he feared it would lead to war with the United States. He told the Japanese prime minister, Fumimaro Kondoye, that the navy would do well during the first six months but did not believe the country could win a long-term war. In the early months of 1941, Yamamoto, under instructions from his government, began planning the war with the United States. Yamamoto feared that he did not have the resources to win a long war and therefore advocated a surprise attack on the US Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor. Yamamoto's plan was eventually agreed by the Japanese Imperial Staff and the strike force under the command of Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo sailed from the Kurile Islands on 26th November, 1941.

Nagumo's fleet was positioned 275 miles north of Oahu. On Sunday, 7th December, 1941, 105 high-level bombers, 135 dive-bombers and 81 fighter aircraft attacked the the US Fleet at Pearl Harbor. In their first attack the Japanese sunk the Arizona, Oklahoma, West Virginia and California. The second attack, launched 45 minutes later, hampered by smoke, created less damage. In two hours 18 warships, 188 aircraft and 2,403 servicemen were lost in the attack. Luckily, the navy's three aircraft carriers, Enterprise, Lexington and Saratoga, were all at sea at the time. The following day, President Franklin D. Roosevelt and a united US Congress declared war on Japan. Yamamoto then organized the invasion of the Soloman Islands and New Guinea. He also made raids into British colonies such as Ceylon.

In the summer of 1942 Yamamoto decided to try and capture the US base on Midway Island. He believed that the Japanese Air Force would be able to launch air attacks on the US Fleet at Pearl Harbor. Yamamoto devised a complex plan where the Combined Fleet was split into eight task groups. Two of these groups made a diversionary attack on the Aleutian Islands. The rest of the fleet led by Yamamoto, Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo and Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondo, would head for Midway. Unknown to Yamamoto the US intelligence service and broken the Japanese communication code and informed Admiral Chester Nimitz of the Japanese plans. Nimitz was able to assemble two task forces under Admiral Frank Fletcher and Rear Admiral Raymond Spruance. With the carriers Yorktown, Enterprise and Hornet, eight cruisers, and fifteen destroyers, they also headed for Midway.

On 3rd June, 1942, 100 aircraft from Nagumo's carrier force bombed Midway. The US Marine fighters were outnumbered and were unable to stop extensive damage being caused. While the Japanese aircraft were being rearmed they were attacked by carrier planes from Spruance's Task Force. While this was taking place Yorktown and Enterprise arrived and scored hits on the Japanese ships, Akagi, Soryu and Kaga. The Hirpu managed to sink the Yorktown before it was set afire by the Enterprise. The Japanese Navy had now lost all four of her aircraft carriers and Yamamoto was forced to order a withdrawal.

Yamamoto now had to organize what was left of his forces to support the 15,000 Japanese troops blockaded on Guadalcanal. Attempts to land large numbers of Japanese troops ended in failure in October 1942. The naval battle at Guadalcanal (12-14 November) ended Japanese efforts to recapture the island. Yamamoto made plans to visit the Japanese controlled Bougainville on 18th April. He sent out details of his itinerary and this information was intercepted by US intelligence. When Admiral Chester Nimitz heard the news he consulted with William Knox, the Navy Secretary, and Admiral William Halsey, and it was decided to try an assassinate the man responsible for Pearl Harbor.

Operation Vengeance began on 18th April 1942, when 18 aircraft led by Major John W. Mitchell, went out to find the plane carrying Yamamoto. At 9.30 am the US pilot, Thomas G. Lamphier, identified Yamamoto's aircraft approaching Kahili Field on Bougainville. Two bursts from his guns hit the target and the aircraft crashed into the jungle. The Japanese government did not announce the death of Isokoru Yamamoto until 21st May 1943. He was replaced as commander in chief of the Combined Fleet by Mineichi Koga.

Battle of Midway – The battle of Midway was the most important in the fight for the pacific in the WW2, finishing the Japanese rule over on the last six months since the Pearl Harbour attack the 7th of December of 1941. This battle was the best demonstration about the value of aircraft carriers on sea war, and the less importance of Great War ship.

General Douglas MacArthur In World War Two, after the attack on Pearl Harbour, Douglas MacArthur was put in charge of the Philippines where he had to defend the islands against an attack by the Japanese. In this he failed, but few western commanders had been successful against the Japanese at the start of the Pacific War – as the British had found at Singapore.

The withdrawal of American forces from the Philippines was a huge blow to America’s military but it only made Douglas MacArthur more determined to take back the islands. By 1943, America was in a position to attack the Japanese. However, rather than take every single island in the area, Douglas MacArthur decided on what became known as ‘island-hopping’. This tactic meant that the Americans took the larger more important islands captured by the Japanese in the Pacific (such as Iwo Jima and Okinawa) and left the smaller ones to "wither on the vine" (Douglas MacArthur). Regardless of this, America’s casualties were still high and any attack on mainland Japan itself was fraught with dangers. American intelligence estimated that 1 million American soldiers would be killed or wounded if America attempted to take Japan itself. As a result of this, President Truman ordered the use of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Douglas MacArthur had a detailed knowledge of Japan and Japanese culture. As Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in the Pacific, MacArthur became the head of the occupation forces in Japan from their surrender in August 1945 to 1951. One of the first things he did was for the emperor, Hirohito, to announce on radio to the people of Japan, that he was not a god and just a mortal. He also used his influence to ensure that the emperor was not put on trial for war crimes as he feared that it might provoke a massive negative reaction amongst all those people who were still in Japan. Only those in the government or the military, such as Tojo, faced a public trial.

Douglas MacArthur did a great deal to rebuild a nation severely damaged by the war. Japan was given a democratic constitution and internal reforms – dominated by MacArthur himself – moved Japan forward as a nation. Ironically, there was more resentment in Washington DC for what Douglas MacArthur was doing, than there was in Japan. Some American politicians disliked the power MacArthur had accrued.

Guadalcanal In the six months between August 1942 and February 1943, the United States and its Pacific Allies fought a brutally hard air-sea-land campaign against the Japanese for possession of the previously-obscure island of Guadalcanal. The Allies' first major offensive action of the Pacific War, the contest began as a risky enterprise since Japan still maintained a significant naval superiority in the Pacific ocean.

Nevertheless, the U.S. First Marine Division landed on 7 August 1942 to seize a nearly-complete airfield at Guadalcanal's Lunga Point and an anchorage at nearby Tulagi, bounding a picturesque body of water that would soon be named "Iron Bottom Sound". Action ashore went well, and Japan's initial aerial response was costly and unproductive. However, only two days after the landings, the U.S. and Australian navies were handed a serious defeat in the Battle of Savo Island.

A lengthy struggle followed, with its focus the Lunga Point airfield, renamed Henderson Field. Though regularly bombed and shelled by the enemy, Henderson Field's planes were still able to fly, ensuring that Japanese efforts to build and maintain ground forces on Guadalcanal were prohibitively expensive. Ashore, there was hard fighting in a miserable climate. At sea, the campaign featured two major battles between aircraft carriers that were more costly to the Americans than to the Japanese, and many submarine and air-sea actions that gave the Allies an advantage. Inside and just outside Iron Bottom Sound, five significant surface battles and several skirmishes convincingly proved just how superior Japan's navy then was in night gunfire and torpedo combat. With all this, the campaign's outcome was very much in doubt for nearly four months and was not certain until the Japanese completed a stealthy evacuation of their surviving ground troops in the early hours of 8 February 1943.

Guadalcanal was expensive for both sides, though much more so for Japan's soldiers than for U.S. ground forces. The opponents suffered high losses in aircraft and ships, but those of the United States were soon replaced, while those of Japan were not. Strategically, this campaign built a strong foundation on the footing laid a few months earlier in the Battle of Midway, which had brought Japan's Pacific offensive to an abrupt halt. At Guadalcanal, the Japanese were harshly shoved into a long and costly retreat, one that continued virtually unchecked until their August 1945 capitulation.

Battle of the Philippine Sea The Battle of the Philippine Sea in the Marianas in June 1944 was marked by the destruction of huge numbers of Japanese aircraft with low losses to the United States Navy. The Americans had set up an extensive program, including building a carrier that had no hangar deck, to train both aircrew and deck handlers. American pilots were entering combat with some 600 hours in the air. In contrast, the Japanese were sending green pilots into combat with only 50 hours of flight time and little combat training.

On June 18, 1944, as the Americans were landing all over the Marianas, Ozawa's search planes discovered the American Fleet. A more aggressive commander would have advanced on the Americans, but Ozawa was not Yamamoto. Cautious and slow, he chose to launch the next day when his pilots would have light to see. The Americans were alerted to his presence by then. During the day of June 19, 1944, 429 of Ozawa's planes were shot down for the loss of twenty-nine US Navy planes. The one-sided engagement was the end of Japanese carrier- based air power. The coming fight for the Philippines would depend on the battleships of the Imperial Japanese Navy in a war that was defined by airpower. The Americans would have 1200 aircraft on their carriers; the Japanese would have ninety. The few optimists left in Japan found their faith severely shaken. Battle of Leyte Gulf - was the largest air-sea engagement in history. American forces destroyed much of the Japanese main fleet. General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Southwest Pacific, was then able to recapture the Philippines. Two-and- a half years earlier, MacArthur had been driven from the islands by the Japanese. At that time, he made the pledge “I shall return.” He kept his promise.

Iwo Jima  The Naval bombardment of only 3 days leading up to the invasion was far short than what was required. The Marines had requested 13 days of prelanding bombardment but were denied this request because of commitments to MaCarthur's campaign in Luzon.

 The U.S. had underestimated the Japanese strength on the island by as much as 70 percent.

 The change in Japanese tactics was not ever contemplated because of earlier invasions on Saipan, Tarawa and Peleliu. These all had early Banzai attacks that were easily defeated and turned the tide of each invasion. This would not be the case with Iwo Jima.

 The nature and the difficulty of the soil on the island was never examined before the invasion.

 The estimates made on the U.S. casualties was underestimated by 80 percent. 23,000 Casualties out of 70,000 Marines. Over third of the total Marines who participated in the invasion were either Killed, Wounded or suffered from Battle Fatigue.

 This would be a strong warning of what was to come with the invasion of Okinawa.

Okinawa The campaign began on March 26, 1945 with the capture of small islands near Okinawa, where forward naval bases were established. An amphibious assault on Okinawa took place on 1 April, and the fighting lasted until June. Here, for the first time, Americans were invading what the Japanese defenders considered their home soil, and the defense was fanatic in the extreme. American troops suffered heavy casualties, and the Navy, too, had heavy personnel losses as Japanese suicide flyers, the Kamikazes, sank some 25 American ships and damaged 165 others in a desperate attempt to save the Ryukyus.

Capture of the Ryukyus gave Allied naval and air forces excellent bases within 700 miles of Japan proper. Throughout June and July, Japan was subjected to increasingly intensive air attack and even to naval bombardment. Allied forces were now in position for the final assault. In preparation for the invasion of Japan, a reorganization of U.S. Pacific forces had been effected on April 3, 1945, in which General MacArthur was given command of all Army forces and Admiral Nimitz of all naval forces. MacArthur's new command was designated U.S. Army Forces, Pacific (AFPAC). The war ended before the reorganization could have any effect on operations. Hiroshima – Enola Gay - Nagasaki – Bock’s Car - Fat Man and Little Boy – The Manhattan Project The United States concealed its project to develop an atomic bomb under the name "Manhattan Engineer District." Popularly known as the Manhattan Project, it carried out the first successful atomic explosion on July 16, 1945, in a deserted area called Jornada del Muerto ("Journey of the dead") near Alamagordo, New Mexico. Dropping the First Atomic Bomb At 2:45 A.M. local time, the Enola Gay, a B-29 bomber loaded with an atomic bomb, took off from the US air base on Tinian Island in the western Pacific. Six and a half hours later, at 8:15 A.M. Japan time, the bomb was dropped and it exploded a minute later at an estimated altitude of 580 + 20 meters over central Hiroshima. The Hiroshima Bomb Size: length - 3 meters, diameter - 0.7 meters. Weight: 4 tons. Nuclear material: Uranium 235. Energy released: equivalent to 12.5 kilotons of TNT. Code name: "Little Boy". Initial Explosive Conditions Maximum temperature at burst point: several million degrees centigrade. A fireball of 15- meters radius formed in 0.1 millisecond, with a temperature of 300,000 degrees centigrade, and expanded to its huge maximum size in one second. The top of the atomic cloud reached an altitude of 17,000 meters. Black Rain Radioactive debris was deposited by "black rain" that fell heavily for over an hour over a wide area. Demaging Effects of the Atomic Bomb Thermal Hear. Intense thermal heat emitted by the fireball caused severe burns and loss of eyesight. Thermal burns of bare skin occurred as far as 3.5 kilometers from ground zero (directly below the burst point). Most people exposed to thermal rays within 1-kilometer radius of ground zero died. Tile and glass melted; all combustible materials were consumed. Blast. An atomic explosion causes an enormous shock wave followed instantaneously by a rapid expansion of air called the blast; these represent roughly half the explosion's released energy. Maximum wind pressure of the blast: 35 tons per square meter. Maximum wind velocity: 440 meters per second. Wooden houses within 2.3 kilometers of ground zero collapsed. Concrete buildings near ground zero (thus hit by the blast from above) had ceilings crushed and windows and doors blown off. Many people were trapped under fallen strunctures and burned to death. Radiation. People exposure within 500 meters of ground zero was fatal. People exposed at distances of 3 to 5 kilometers later showed symptoms of aftereffects, including radiation-induced cancers. Atomic Demographics Population. The estimated pre-bomb population was 300,000 to 400,000. Because official documents were burned, the exact population is uncertain. Deaths. With an uncertain population figure, the death toll could only be estimated. According to data submitted to the United Nations by Hiroshima City in 1976, the death count reached 140,000 (plus or minus 10,000) by the end of December, 1945. Health Card Holders. Persons qualifying for treatment under the A-bomb Victims Medical Care law of 1957 received Health Cards; holders as of March 31, 1990, numbered 352,550. Nagasaki. The atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki exploded at 11:02 A.M. on August 9. Dropped by Bock’s Car – Nickname “Fat Man” Using plutonium with an explosive power of 20 kilotons of TNT-equivalent, it left an estimated 70,000 dead by the end of 1945, although both population and the deaths are uncertain.

V-J Day August 15, 1945, marked Victory over Japan Day or V-J Day, taking a name similar to Victory in Europe Day, which was generally known as V-E Day. The cost of the War  In all, 61 countries with 1.7 billion people, 3/4ths of the world’s population took part  110 million people were mobilized for military service, more than half of those by 3 countries: USSR (22-30 million), Germany (17 million), US (16 million)  Most statistics are estimates. The war’s vast and chaotic sweep made uniform record keeping impossible. Some governments lost control of the data and some resorted to manipulating it for political reasons.  A rough consensus has been reached on the total cost of the war. In terms of money spent, it has been put at more than $1 trillion, which makes it more expensive than all other wars combined.  The human cost, not including the Holocaust, is estimated to have been around 55 million dead – 25 million military and 30 million civilian

Economic Statistics  The US spent the most money on the war, an estimated $341 billion, including $50 billion for Lend-Lease supplies, of which $31 billion went to Britain, $11 billion to the Soviet Union, $5 billion to China, and $3 billion to 35 other countries.  Germany was next, with $272 billion; followed by the Soviet Union, $192 billion; and then Britain, $120 billion; Italy, $94 billion; and Japan $56 billion  The Soviet government has calculated that the USSR lost 30% of its national wealth, while Nazi exactions and lootings were of incalculable amounts in the occupied countries.  The full cost to Japan has been estimated at $562 billion. In Germany, bombings and shelling had produced 4 billion cubic meters of rubble.

Human Losses  The human cost of the war fell heaviest on the USSR, for which the official total, military and civilian, is given as more than 20 million killed.  The Allied military and civilian losses were 44 million; those of the Axis 11 million. The military deaths on both sides in Europe numbered 19 million and in the war against Japan 6 million.  The US, which had no significant civilian losses, sustained 292, 131 battle deaths and 115, 187 deaths from other causes.  The highest number of deaths, military and civilian, were as follows: USSR more than 13 million military and 7 million civilian China 3.5 million military and 10 million civilian Germany 3.5 million military and 3.8 million civilian Poland 120,000 military and 5.3 million civilian Japan 1.7 million military and 380,000 civilian Yugoslavia 300,000 military and 1.3 million civilian Romania 200,000 military and 465,000 civilian France 250,000 military and 360,000 civilian British Empire 452,000 military and 60,000 civilian Italy 330,000 military and 80,000 civilian Hungary 120,000 military and 280,000 civilian Czechoslovakia 10,000 military and 330,000 civilian  Perhaps the most significant casualty over the long term was the world balance of power. Britain, France, Germany and Japan ceased to be great powers in the traditional military sense, leaving only two, the United States and the USSR.