Instructor’s Resource Manual For Baxter & Babbie’s The Basics of Communication Research

Melissa Wood Alemán James Madison University

1 Table of Contents

1. Introduction 5

2. Suggested Term Project 6

3. Chapter One 9  Chapter Objectives 9  Key Terms 9

 Chapter Outline 9  Test Bank 12  Online Questions 23

4. Chapter Two 26  Chapter Objectives 26  Key Terms 26

 Chapter Outline 26  Test Bank 33  Online Questions 44

5. Chapter Three 47  Chapter Objectives 47  Key Terms 47  Chapter Outline 47  Test Bank 51  Online Questions 61

6. Chapter Four 64  Chapter Objectives 64

 Key Terms 64

 Chapter Outline 64  Test Bank 69  Online Questions 78

7. Chapter Five 82  Chapter Objectives 82  Key Terms 82  Chapter Outline 82  Test Bank 85  Online Questions 92

8. Chapter Six 95  Chapter Objectives 95  Key Terms 95  Chapter Outline 95  Test Bank 99  Online Questions 109

2 9. Chapter Seven 113  Chapter Objectives 113  Key Terms 113  Chapter Outline 113  Test Bank 120  Online Questions 130

10. Chapter Eight 133  Chapter Objectives 133  Key Terms 133  Chapter Outline 133  Test Bank 140  Online Questions 149

11. Chapter Nine 152  Chapter Objectives 152  Key Terms 152  Chapter Outline 152  Test Bank 157  Online Questions 169

12. Chapter Ten 173  Chapter Objectives 173  Key Terms 173  Chapter Outline 173  Test Bank 178  Online Questions 186

13. Chapter Eleven 190  Chapter Objectives 190  Key Terms 190  Chapter Outline 190  Test Bank 193  Online Questions 203

14. Chapter Twelve 206  Chapter Objectives 206  Key Terms 206  Chapter Outline 206  Test Bank 210  Online Questions 222

15. Chapter Thirteen 226  Chapter Objectives 226  Key Terms 226  Chapter Outline 226  Test Bank 231

3  Online Questions 240

16. Chapter Fourteen 244  Chapter Objectives 244  Key Terms 244  Chapter Outline 244  Test Bank 248  Online Questions 257

17. Chapter Fifteen 260  Chapter Objectives 260  Key Terms 260  Chapter Outline 260  Test Bank 264  Online Questions 273

18. Chapter Sixteen 276  Chapter Objectives 276  Key Terms 276  Chapter Outline 276  Test Bank 279  Online Questions 287

19. References 290

4 Introduction

The following instructor’s resource manual offers objectives for each chapter, chapter outlines, and a variety of test questions for use in quizzes or examinations. Given the numerous formats for online testing, such as Blackboard, I have also included rejoinders for each of the test questions. These rejoinders are particularly useful for providing students taking on-line assessments with immediate feedback regarding their incorrect (or correct) answer.

This manual also includes suggested guidelines for a term project. When I teach Introduction to Communication Research I use the textbook as a means towards helping students become literate consumers of communication research through their own participation in the research process. In this way, the continuity projects that you find at the end of each chapter in the textbook are useful ways for students to engage in issues pertinent to the research process. Further, the term project that I suggest in this manual also enables students to understand the various stages of the research process through their own work on a progressive research proposal. This research project helps students to learn that research is a process and that the process necessitates revision.

5 Suggested Major Course Assignment: A Research Proposal

Communication Research Proposal Students will write a 15-17 page research proposal on a narrowly defined topic.

Objectives: 1. To acquaint students with the processes of choosing, reviewing, and critiquing the pertinent literature on a given topic. 2. To understand the relationship between the research question (or hypothesis) and the chosen method. 3. To articulate and justify the research design for the chosen method. 4. To identify how the data would be analyzed. 5. To articulate any foreshadowed problems and/or limitations that the researcher might experience in conducting this study.

Organization of the Final Paper 1. Statement of Purpose & Overview of the Proposal’s Content 2. Literature review 3. Research Question(s) & Justification 4. Statement of Method 5. Discussion of Strengths, Limitations, & Ethical Considerations

The literature review & methods section that was originally handed in to the instructor must be attached as an appendix to the final paper.

General Requirements  Double-space typed pages, using 1-inch margins and a font size no larger than Courier New 12.  Free of spelling, grammatical, and typographical errors.  Clearly organized according to the specifications for each stage.  Paper must be paginated and use proper citation using those guidelines specified in the American Psychological Association Style Manual, 5th Edition.

I suggest that the research proposal be completed in stages. Specifically, I suggest that each stage is graded and returned to the students with comments for revision. The final paper would then be the product of those stages, including suggested revisions. While this is a labor-intensive task for the instructor, the learning outcomes and the students’ accomplishments are well worth the effort.

6 Assignment #1: Research Topic Paper

Students complete a typed statement declaring a narrow communication research topic. Encourage your students to select a communication topic. This brief typed paper should include a title labeling the topic of interest, followed by two paragraphs elaborating the student’s interest in the topic.

Assignment #2: Research Questions & Justification

Students complete a paper justifying two to three tentative communication research questions. These research questions should be based upon an initial (exploratory) review of research in the students’ approved research topic. Students should write a 2-page statement justifying the value of studying 2-3 research questions. The research questions should follow the justification. This assignment is particularly useful following a discussion of Chapter 2 or Chapter 4. This brief justification should use two sources of scholarly support. I instruct students not to become overly attached to their research questions, as they are likely to change following their literature reviews.

Assignment #3: Revised Research Questions & Justification

Students will benefit from revising their research questions after the instructor has made suggestions for direction and revision. In this second statement of justification, students build upon their previous paper by adding two additional sources of support. This functions to help the students learn how to build a literature review. This second paper is a 2-3 page paper justifying the value of studying 2-3 revised research questions using a minimum of four scholarly sources for support. Again, I instruct students not to become overly attached to their research questions, as they are likely to change them following their complete literature review.

Assignment #4: Article Abstracts

Students will summarize minimally 10 of the most current journal articles that research their chosen communication topic. This assignment is designed to introduce students to the most current peer-reviewed primary sources in their area of interest; therefore I do not allow them to use books or conference papers for this assignment. Student abstracts should be in bibliographic format, with each citation followed by an abstract, or summary, of the selected article. Specifically, each citation is followed by a 1-2 paragraph summary of the article. Students, unfortunately, are often confused by the abstracts I include the following statements in this assignment: “You should read each of the chosen journal articles and summarize them in your own words. Do not attempt to write an abstract after only reading the summaries in the indices—GO TO THE LIBRARY AND READ THE ENTIRE ARTICLE. These abstracts that you write will help to lay the foundations for your literature review.”

I also include the following tip to encourage them to get started early:

Tip: Libraries sometimes carry a limited variety of communication journals. It is in your best interest to start this project early. In the event that most of your articles must be accessed through interlibrary loan/article express, you will need to give yourself at least two weeks to assure that you receive the articles. As soon as your topic is approved, you should start collecting relevant sources and summarizing them. Quality research does not occur over night or in one weekend!

Assignment #5: Literature Review

Students will write an 8-10 page paper reviewing the relevant literature on their chosen research topic. Students will review minimally 15 journal articles, book chapters, or books that discuss research and/or theory on your chosen topic. The literature review should synthesize the literature, and not serially summarize each of the chosen articles/books. Students should critically evaluate the literature they read and carefully choose which articles/books should be included in their literature review. Students should determine which articles help to justify their research proposal and include only those articles in the review. The literature review should conclude with a statement justifying the research questions and a revised list and explanation of those research questions.

Reminder: You will earn no greater than a “C” if your paper does not follow APA style.

7 Assignment #6: Statement of Method

In 4-5 pages students will completely describe and justify the method chosen to conduct a study of the proposed research questions. The statement of method will include the participants to be studied, sampling technique(s), methods to insure that participants will be protected. If you are planning a quantitative study, key variables in your study, operational definitions, measurement(s) to be employed, and a complete description of data collection procedures. If you are planning a qualitative study, a complete description of the method of analysis (how data will be inductively derived and interpreted), and the means by which you will insure the criteria for qualitative analysis.

Assignment #7: Final Paper

The final paper should be a 15-17 page paper that includes a statement of purpose/objectives, the literature review revised according to the instructor’s suggestions, the research questions, revised statement of method, and a discussion of the strengths and limitations of the proposed study. The discussion should also include any ethical considerations that the student might face in conducting the study. Attached at the end of your final paper should be the original copies of your literature review and methods section (with my comments on them). These should be bound together with your final paper.

8 Chapter 1 Human Inquiry and Scientific Inquiry about Communication

Chapter Objectives By the end of this chapter students should be able to:  Identify the criteria for making a social scientific claim  Identify and discuss the sources and errors of everyday communication inquiry  Identify the ways that social science guards against the errors of everyday inquiry  Identify the differences between the premodern, modern and postmodern views of reality and their implications for social scientific inquiry  Identify the characteristics of scientific inquiry about communication  Define communication studies  Describe the guiding interests in communication research  Identify a broad range of potential areas of communication research  Identify the ways in which communication research is disseminated

Key Terms observation data analysis logic empirical scientific inquiry social regularities theory aggregate data collection communication studies

Chapter Outline I. Introduction A. The purpose of this book is to help you understand how to make knowledge claims about communication. B. Most of our knowledge is based upon social agreement and beliefs. C. Some knowledge is produced through direct experience, through observation. D. Making knowledge claims is a complicated enterprise.

II. Searching for knowledge about communication A. Ordinary human inquiry about communication 1. People desire to understand their communicative experiences and predict their future experiences. 2. People make sense of their world through attaching meaning to phenomena. 3. People make predictions about their social world based on causal and probabilistic reasoning. 4. Much of human knowledge is based upon social agreement. a. Tradition offers an inherited body of cultural knowledge that functions as the jumping off point for the development of future knowledge. b. People with status, or authority, make knowledge claims that influence our everyday inquiry about communication. 5. People make errors in ordinary inquiry; communication research offers some solutions to avoid these errors a. People make inaccurate observations. i. Most everyday observations are casual and semiconscious. ii. Scientific observation, instead, is a deliberate and conscious activity.

9 b. People tend to make overgeneralizations when looking for patterns in their social worlds. i. People tend to make overgeneralizations when the pressure to understand is high. ii. Communication researchers will often protect themselves against overgeneralization by observing a sufficiently large or diverse sample of observations. iii. Communication research will often replicate a study, or repeat it, to guard against overgeneralization. c. Overgeneralization can often lead to selective observation. i. Selective observation occurs when individuals focus on future events and circumstances that support their generalization. ii. Communication research protects against selective observation by specifying a number of observations necessary to draw a conclusion on a subject. iii. Communication researchers also protect against selective observation by looking for “deviant cases,” those instances that do not fit the expected pattern. d. Illogical reasoning used to explain contradictions that emerge in everyday life can lead to errors in knowledge production. i. Communication researchers use systems of logic consciously and explicitly to avoid the fallacies of illogical reasoning. ii. Scientific inquiry is a conscious and deliberate activity that attempts to reduce the errors of everyday inquiry by taking precautions.

II. What’s really “real”? Philosophical perspectives on human inquiry A. The Premodern View 1. The premodern view has guided most of human history. 2. The premodern view is guided by the belief that things are as we believe them to be. 3. As diversity among groups became evident, people came to see other group’s beliefs as misguided; their “knowledge” remained “correct.” B. The Modern View 1. The modern view accepts diversity as legitimate. 2. While there is a single reality to be examined, people have different perspectives on that reality; therefore the subjectivity of different experiences is recognized. C. The Postmodern View 1. The postmodern view asserts that reality is entirely created through given points of view 2. All different perspectives are equally “true.” 3. In asserting that there is no objective reality, the postmodern view creates a dilemma for communication researchers who are trying to describe and understand what is “really happening” i. Researchers cannot escape their individual subjectivities. ii. Researchers can cope with this dilemma by using established social scientific procedures.

III. The foundations of scientific inquiry about communication A. The pillars of social science, logic and observation, relate directly to the three major aspects of the scientific enterprise: theory, data collection, and data analysis B. Science is an empirical enterprise. 1. Communication researchers base their knowledge claims on observation. 2. Theory is a type of knowledge claim drawn from empirical observation. 3. Scientifically based communication research is not equipped to settle debates over values.

10 C. Communication research aims to identify social regularities, probabilistic patterns of communication phenomena. D. Communication research primarily examines aggregates, not individuals.

IV. Knowledge claims about communication. A. What do communication researchers study? 1. Communication studies is a field of research on the production and uses of symbols (both linguistic and nonverbal, whether face-to-face or mediated) in concrete social and cultural contexts to enable the dynamics of systems, society and culture. 2. Communication researchers position communication as the primary phenomenon of interest. a. Communication researchers study the processes of message production, transmission, and meaning making. b. Communication researchers systematically examine the content or form of communicative messages. c. Communication researchers study the function and effects of messages. 3. There is a wide range of contexts and issues that communication researchers study. a. Communication policy and law b. Communication and technology c. Comparative media systems d. Cross-cultural communication e. Development communication f. Family communication g. Group communication h. Health Communication i. Instructional communication j. Interpersonal communication k. Intrapersonal communication l. Language and social interaction m. Legal communication n. Mass communication o. Organizational communication p. Political communication q. Popular communication r. Public communication s. Public relations B. The dissemination of communication research 1. Communication researchers tend to be affiliated with colleges and universities or various public or private research-based organizations. 2. Communication researchers are typically members of professional associations or societies that sponsor annual meetings in which research is present. 3. Professional associations also produce scholarly journals that publish four to six times annually. 4. Communication researchers also publish in interdisciplinary scholarly journals. 5. Research that is not for public use, proprietary research, is often conducted by communication researchers consulting private organizations. C. Some dissemination sites for communication research 1. Communication researchers often belong to national and international professional associations. a. National Communication Association b. International Communication Association 2. There are also numerous associations that serve specialized interest areas in communication research. a. Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication b. Broadcast Education Association c. The Public Relations Society of America

11 d. The World Association of Public Opinion Research e. The International Association for Relationship Research f. The International Society for Intercultural Education Training and Research g. The Organization for Research on Women and Communication h. Women in Communication Inc. i. Organization for the Study of Communication, Language and Gender

12 TEST BANK FOR CHAPTER ONE

Multiple Choice

1. Epistemology is a. the science of being b. the science of knowing c. the science of methodology d. all of the above

Answer b, p. 4 Rejoinder Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies ways of knowing. Understanding the assumptions that researchers hold about how we “know” is important to understanding the kinds of claims that they are forwarding. See page 4 for an explanation of epistemology.

2. Which of the following criteria must be met before making a social scientific knowledge claim? a. An assertion must be logical and based in tradition. b. An assertion must be based in tradition and authority. c. An assertion must be logical and empirical. d. An assertion must be empirical and must have authority.

Answer c, p. 4 Rejoinder Social science breaks from everyday knowledge production in that it is logical and based on empirical observations. See page 4 for a discussion of social scientific knowledge.

3. Which of the following statements about tradition and authority best reflects their role in human inquiry? a. Tradition and authority often contradict one another and therefore confuse human inquiry. b. Tradition and authority are most often useful points of departure for human inquiry. c. Tradition and authority both assist and hinder human inquiry. d. Tradition and authority only interfere with systematic human inquiry.

Answer c, p. 5 Rejoinder Tradition and authority as ways of knowing, keep researchers from starting from “scratch.” However, tradition and authority can also prevent us from asking questions outside of the current realm of knowledge as well as asking questions that challenge the status quo. See page 5 for a discussion of these qualities of tradition and authority.

4. Which of the following statements describes a problem associated with tradition as a source of knowledge claims? a. Knowledge is cumulative; therefore you are left with little to learn. b. It may interfere with your ability to offer new understandings of something already known or seemingly obvious. c. Tradition forces social scientists to start from scratch to avoid the errors of the past. d. Tradition is based on cultural sets of knowledge.

Answer b, p. 5 Rejoinder Tradition often inhibits new interpretations and new ways of thinking about something already known. See page 5 for a discussion of tradition as an everyday way of knowing.

13 5. Which of the following statements best reflects how scientific inquiry guards against the errors of everyday knowing? a. Scientific inquiry is based upon the agreement of experts. b. Scientific inquiry is deliberate and careful. c. Scientific inquiry is based in tradition. d. Scientific inquiry is rooted in a modern view of knowledge production.

Answer b, pp. 6-7 Rejoinder Scientific inquiry guards against the problems over everyday ways of knowing by using systematic methods that are careful and deliberate. See pages 6-7 for a discussion of the errors of everyday inquiry and the ways that social science protects against these errors.

6. Most of our everyday observations about communication are casual and semiconscious. What kind of error in communication inquiry does this lead to? a. Inaccurate observations b. Overgeneralization c. Selective observation d. Illogical reasoning

Answer a, p. 6 Rejoinder Because we are not deliberate in our everyday interactions, we often make inaccurate observations. See page 6 for a discussion of this error of everyday inquiry.

7. “Sarah is controlling. She is a lawyer. You have met a few other lawyers and they are also controlling. You conclude, therefore, that lawyers are controlling people.” What potential error are you making? a. Illogical reasoning b. Overgeneralization c. Selective observation d. Inaccurate observations

Answer b, p. 6 Rejoinder In this example, you are drawing a conclusion based upon only a few select cases. You are, therefore, making an overgeneralization. See page 6 for a discussion of this error of everyday inquiry.

8. You think lawyers tend to control conversations, only noticing the controlling interactions and ignoring the interactions with lawyers that are not controlling. Because of this belief you attempt to avoid interacting with lawyers. You have missed many opportunities for interesting conversations and relationships based upon what error in your everyday inquiry? a. Illogical reasoning b. Overgeneralization c. Selective observation d. Inaccurate observations.

Answer c, p 6 Rejoinder Your perceptual biases lead you to make selective observations about your social world. In this instance, your selective observations have led you to avoid potentially meaningful and interesting relationships. See page 6 for a discussion of selective observation.

14 9. Which of the following is a valid claim about the relationship between errors in everyday inquiry? a. Overgeneralization is likely to lead to illogical reasoning. b. Overgeneralization often leads to selective observation. c. Inaccurate observation and selective observation are the same. d. Selective observation is likely to produce illogical accounts.

Answer b, p. 6 Rejoinder When we make generalizations based upon only a few cases, we are likely to only observe instances that support our “generalization.” See page 6 for a discussion of the relationship between overgeneralization and selective observation.

10. Communication researchers protect against overgeneralization by a. observing a sufficiently large sample of cases b. observing a diverse sample of cases c. replicating the study with another sample of cases d. All of the above guard against overgeneralization

Answer d, p. 6 Rejoinder Social science guards against overgeneralization in many different ways. By observing a sufficiently large sample of cases, observing a diverse sample of cases, and replicating studies with new samples of cases social science protects against the tendency to make overgeneralizations in everyday life.

11. Which philosophical viewpoint starts with the assumption that there is no objective reality? a. Realist view b. Premodern view c. Modern view d. Postmodern view

Answer d, p. 7-9 The postmodern view assumes that no objective reality exists. Instead multiple realities are constructed through discursive practices. See pages 7-9 for a discussion of the postmodern view.

12. Which philosophical viewpoint would state that an interruption is an interruption, but different individuals may evaluate the meaning of that interruption differently? a. Realist view b. Premodern view c. Modern view d. Postmodern view

Answer c, p. 7 Rejoinder The Modern view recognizes that a particular reality exists. However, different people have different interpretations of that reality. See page 7 for a discussion of the modern view.

15 13. Which philosophical view most closely parallels the criteria for making a social scientific claim? a. Realist view b. Premodern view c. Modern View d. Postmodern View

Answer c, pp. 4 & 7 Rejoinder Social science was initially derived from a modern view of reality. A reality exists and can be observed. Although there are multiple interpretations or judgments of that reality, it is the empirical evidence of that reality that is important and interest to social scientists.

14. Which of the following issues is created by the postmodern view of reality? a. Researchers cannot escape their individual subjectivities in making observations. b. Researchers must attempt to be completely objective when making observations. c. Researchers must set aside their values so that they can make value-free knowledge claims. d. Researchers are forced to determine what is “real” amongst diverse perspectives.

Answer a, pp. 7-9 Rejoinder Postmodern philosophy has created a new dilemma for social scientists. Because the postmodern view asserts that researchers have individual subjectivities that they carry with them when making observations, it is impossible for them to make the “distanced” observations of “reality” that the modern view asks of them. See pages 7-9 for a discussion of this dilemma.

15. Which of the following tasks of social science brings the logical and observational components together to search for patterns in observations? a. Theory b. Data collection c. Data analysis d. None of the above

Answer c, p. 9 Rejoinder Data analysis enables researchers to use the theoretical framework to make sense of the empirical observations. See page 9 for a discussion of this relationship.

16. Communication research is based upon observations. This statement means that communication research is . a. logical b. empirical c. an aggregate d. theoretical.

Answer b, p. 9 Rejoinder Social scientific communication research is empirical. That is, social scientific claims are based upon empirical evidence. See page 9 for a discussion of this characteristic of social science.

16 17. Which of the following statements describes the role of theory in communication research? a. Theory is used to help draw conclusions about important cultural values. b. Theory enables us to use science to settle debates over value. c. Theory is made up of speculations guided by cultural agreement. d. Theory is guided by empirical observation and is at the center of the scientific enterprise.

Answer d, p. 9 Rejoinder While theory does not allow researchers to draw conclusions or settle debates over cultural values, it is guided by empirical observation (and guide observation) and is therefore at the center of the social scientific enterprise. See page 9 for a discussion of theory and empirical observation.

18. Communication researchers study probabilistic patterns of communication phenomena. In doing so communication researchers are examining a. aggregates b. theory c. regularities d. exceptions

Answer c, p. 10 Rejoinder Communication researchers examine regularities, or probabilistic patterns, in communication. See page 10 for a discussion of regularities.

19. Which of the following examples best illustrates the concept of social regularities? a. The researcher examines the patterns of interruptions in cross-sex interactions. b. The researcher collects a large group of cross-sex friends to participate in a study. c. The researcher defines an interruption as an overlap during a turn of talk. d. All of the above are examples of social regularities in scientific inquiry.

Answer a, p. 10 Rejoinder While all of the examples are activities that communication researchers might participate in, the examination of patterns of interruptions is an illustration of the study of social regularities. See page 10 for a discussion of social regularities.

20. Which of the following examples best illustrates the concept of an aggregate? a. The researcher examines the patterns of interruptions in cross-sex interactions. b. The researcher collects a large group of cross-sex friends to participate in a study. c. The researcher defines an interruption as an overlap during a turn of talk. d. All of the above are examples of aggregates in scientific inquiry.

Answer b, p. 10 Rejoinder An aggregate is a group or collective. Communication researchers may study the communication patterns among a group, a collection of texts, the communication strategies of a group of individuals, etc. See page 10 for this characteristic of social scientific research.

17 21. Which of the following interests guides a communication researcher who examines the impact of violent television messages on children’s conflict management styles? a. an interest in studying the processes of message production. b. an interest in studying the content or form of communication. c. an interest in studying the functions and effects of messages. d. an interest in studying meaning making.

Answer c, p. 11 Rejoinder A communication researcher who is examining the impact of violent television messages on children’s conflict management styles is studying the functions and effects of messages. For a discussion of this research interest, see page 11.

22. Which of the following interests guides a communication researcher who describes how individuals plan to ask for a favor? a. an interest in studying the processes of message production. b. an interest in studying the content or form of communication c. an interest in studying the functions and effects of messages. d. an interest in studying meaning making.

Answer a, p. 11 Rejoinder The study of message planning, such as the example of the researcher studying how individuals plan to ask for a favor, illustrates an interest in studying the processes of message production. See page 11 for a discussion of this research interest.

23. A researcher who examines patterns of conflict between marital partners studies what area of communication studies? a. Group communication b. Interpersonal communication c. Language and social interaction d. Intrapersonal communication

Answer b, p. 12 Rejoinder Interpersonal communication is a field of study that focuses on the communication practices and processes that are used in everyday interactions and personal relationships. See page 12 for an explanation of interpersonal communication.

24. Which of the following areas of communication examines how organizations communicate with various publics? a. Public communication b. Organizational communication c. Public Relations d. Mass Communication

Answer c, p. 12 Researchers of public relations examine the ways that organizations communication with both external and internal publics. See page 12 for an explanation of public relations research.

18 25. If you are interested in finding the most recent knowledge about communication you should look to a. a textbook b. a website c. a book chapter d. a scholarly journal

Answer d, p. 13 Rejoinder Scholarly journal publish the most recent knowledge about communication in a peer reviewed form. See page 13 for a discussion of the different channels for presenting research findings.

26. What is the function of professional associations in communication studies? a. They sponsor annual meetings where research is presented. b. They sponsor scholarly journals that publish research four to six times a year. c. They support the generation of knowledge about communication. d. All of the above are functions of professional associations in communication studies.

Answer d, p. 13 Rejoinder Professional associations have many functions in communication studies. They sponsor annual meetings, scholarly journals, and support the generation of knowledge about communication. See page 13 for a discussion of the role of professional associations.

27. Proprietary research is a. accessible to anyone b. not designed for public consumption c. typically sponsored by professional associations d. often published in scholarly journals

Answer b, p. 13 Rejoinder Propriety research is commissioned by an organization for its own private consumption. It is, therefore, not designed for public consumption. See page 13 for a discussion of proprietary research.

28. Which professional organization was the first to sponsor research publications in communication studies? a. National Communication Association b. International Communication Association c. American Communication Association d. Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication

Answer a, p. 14 Rejoinder The National Communication Association (originally the National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking) was the first professional association to sponsor publications in communication studies. For an overview of the National Communication Association see page 14.

19 29. Which of the following statements best illustrates the characteristics of social scientific research? a. Social scientific claims are logical statements drawn from indirect experience with an aggregate. b. Social scientific claims are drawn from empirical evidence of the behavior of either an individual or a group. d. Social scientific claims are logical statements based on empirical evidence of probabilistic patterns of behavior of an aggregate. e. Social scientific claims are always based on causal reasoning.

Answer c, pp. 9-10 Rejoinder Social scientific claims are rooted in logic, empirical observation, and probabilistic patterns. See pages 9- 10 for a discussion of social scientific claims.

30. Which of the following communication questions CANNOT be answered using social science? a. What is the relationship between the use of defensive communication practices and communication satisfaction in conflict interactions? b. What functions of group communication are associated with efficient decision making techniques? c. What crisis management strategies are associated with public confidence in an organization? d. What strategies for asking favors are wrong?

Answer d, pp. 9-10 Rejoinder Social scientists cannot answer questions over cultural values – such as what strategies for asking favors are wrong? Social science can, however, offer descriptions of the ways that cultural groups define communication ethics. See pages 9-10 for a discussion of the kinds of claims that social science forwards.

31. Which of the following definitions best characterizes the field of communication studies? a. The study of the production and uses of symbols in specific contexts to enable the dynamics of systems, society and culture b. The study of the relationships between personality, social contexts and symbols c. The study of the role of communication in managing social and cultural systems d. The study of verbal and nonverbal symbols as it relates to individuals, culture, and society

Answer a, p. 11 Rejoinder Communication studies is characterized by the study of the production and uses of symbols in specific contexts to enable the dynamics of systems, society, and culture. For a discussion of the scope of communication studies see page 11.

32. Which of the following statements about the field of communication studies is TRUE? a. Communication studies represent a narrow range of interests centered on a set of specific contexts and relationships. b. Communication studies represents a broad range of interests in both humanistic and social scientific traditions in which communication is the central phenomenon of study. c. Communication studies examine communication as a means toward understanding other phenomena. d. Communication studies focuses primarily on the processes of message transmission.

Answer b, p. 11 Rejoinder

20 Communication studies reflects a broad range of interests and traditions with a share focus on communication. See page 11 for a discussion of the scope of communication studies.

True/False

1. Social scientific research is interested in making generalizations based upon specific individuals or cases. Answer False, p. 10 Rejoinder Social scientific research is interested in making generalizations based upon aggregates, not individual cases. For a discussion of the characteristics of social science see page 10.

2. Most of our personal knowledge is produced through direct observation Answer False, p. 3 Rejoinder Little of our personal knowledge is produced through direct observations. See page 3 for an introduction to everyday inquiry and knowledge claims.

3. The modern philosophical view assumes that there is no single reality, but only subjective experiences. Answer False, p.7 Rejoinder The modern view recognizes an objective reality, but also acknowledges that there are multiple interpretations of that reality. See page 7 for a description of the modern view of reality.

4. The premodern philosophical view accepts diverse perspectives as equally valid. Answer False, p. 7 Rejoinder The premodern view asserts one way of knowing, disregarding all other ways as illegitimate. See page 7 for a discussion of the premodern view.

5. Communication researchers guard against overgeneralization by collecting large and diverse samples of observations. Answer True , p. 6 Rejoinder Overgeneralization plagues our everyday inquiry as we draw conclusions based on few observations. Instead, social science collects large and diverse samples of observation to guard against overgeneralization. For a discussion of overgeneralization and social scientific guards against it see page 6.

6. Social scientific knowledge claims about communication are based on observations. Answer True, p. 9 Rejoinder Social science makes claims based upon empirical evidence. For a discussion of social science as an empirical enterprise see page 9.

7. Tradition offers systematic knowledge claims about communication. Answer False, p. 5 Rejoinder Tradition instead perpetuates knowledge claims based upon "the way we do things." Social science counters the problems with tradition based knowledge claims by following rigorous and systematic practices of observation. For a discussion on tradition as a way of knowing see page 5.

21 8. Knowledge claims rooted in tradition can often interfere with communication inquiry. Answer True, p. 5 Rejoinder Tradition can interfere with communication inquiry when it disables our ability to forward different understandings of communicative experience. See page 5 for a discussion of the problems associated with tradition as a source of knowledge about communication.

9. Communication researchers are only interested in studying the functions and effects of messages. Answer False, p. 11 Rejoinder Communication researchers study many different facets of communication including the functions and effects of messages. Communication researchers are also interested in the processes of message production and the content and form of messages. See page 11 for a discussion of the areas of interest to communication researchers.

10. All communication research is designed for public consumption and knowledge. Answer False, p. 13 Rejoinder Not all research is for public consumption. Proprietary research is often commissioned for the use of private organizations. See page 13 for the different sites of communication dissemination.

11. Social scientific claims must be both logical and empirical to be accepted as a knowledge claim. Answer True, p. 4 Rejoinder Social scientific knowledge claims are built upon logic and empirical observations. For a discussion of the characteristics of social scientific ways of knowing see page 4.

12. Human inquiry is driven by a desire to understand and predict our experiences. Answer True, p. 4 Rejoinder Most ways of knowing are guided by a desire to make sense of our experiences and predict future experiences.

13. Theory deals with the observational component of scientific inquiry. Answer False, p. 9 Rejoinder Theory deals with the logical component of scientific inquiry, while data collection deals with the observational component. For a discussion of the relationship between theory, data collection and data analysis see page 9.

Short Answer/Essay

1. Discuss the ways that tradition and authority can both help and hinder communication inquiry.

Rejoinder Essays should focus on the starting points that tradition and authority offer us. Tradition and authority, however, hinder inquiry when they limit the kinds of explanations and understandings that can be forwarded. See page 5 for a discussion of tradition and authority.

2. Identify and explain the central errors in everyday communication inquiry. Discuss the ways that social science seeks to guard against those errors.

22 Rejoinder Essays should discuss the problems associated with inaccurate observations, overgeneralization, selective observation, and illogical reasoning. Each error should be countered with social scientific guards. For example, standards for measurement used in social science guard against the problem of inaccurate observation. See pages 6-7 for a discussion of ordinary inquiry.

3. Compare and contrast the premodern, modern and postmodern views of knowledge production. Use examples to illustrate how each view understands reality differently.

Rejoinder Essays should compare the premodern, modern, and postmodern views on the nature of reality. In particular, essays should examine the premodern views acceptance of one objective reality, and rejection of views that diverge from that reality; the modern view acceptance of one objective reality, with multiple interpretations of that reality. Finally, the postmodern view's assertion that reality is constructed and therefore there is not a single objective reality. Examples should be used to show a direct comparison between there perspectives. See pages 7-9 for a discussion of these views of reality.

4. Which philosophical view, the premodern, modern, or postmodern, seems to be guiding the criteria for social scientific inquiry as described in Chapter One? Create an argument justifying your claim.

Rejoinder In evaluating this essay, look to the strength of the argument and the appropriate use of each of the "views." When I discuss the modern view, I talk about its close association with the scientific enterprise.

5. In a brief essay discuss the three basic foundations of scientific communication inquiry: (1) social science is an empirical enterprise; (2) social science examines social regularities; (3) social science examines aggregates. Why are these three characteristics central to making sound knowledge claims about communication?

Rejoinder Essays should weigh these three characteristics against the errors of everyday inquiry. Further, essays should address these characteristics in light of the relationship between theory, data collection, and data analysis. See pages 9-10 for a discussion of the foundations of social science.

6. What characterizes the field of communication studies? Discuss the three central guiding interests of communication researchers. In discussing each interest, provide an example of a possible research topic as an illustration.

Rejoinder Essays should first define communication studies as a broad area of study with diverse interests in both the humanities and social sciences with a focus on the production and uses of symbols in specific contexts to enable the dynamics of systems, society, and culture. Second, essays should discuss the three areas of interest to communication researchers: (1) the study of processes of message production, transmission, and meaning making; (2) the study of the content and form of messages; and (3) the study of the functions and effects of messages. See page 11 for a discussion of these areas of interest.

23 STUDY QUESTION AVAILABLE TO STUDENTS ON-LINE

1. Which of the following describes why we seek out information about communication? a. We want to understand our immediate communicative experiences. b. We want to predict our future communicative circumstances c. We want to understand how what we are doing now will affect what will occur later. d. All of the above

Answer d, p. 4 Rejoinder People seek information about communication because we want to understand our immediate communicative experiences and we want to be able to predict our future communicative experiences. In order to predict our future communicative experiences, we seek to understand how what we are doing now will impact what will occur at a later time. For a discussion of the reasons for studying communication see page 4.

2. Which of the following is NOT an error of everyday inquiry? a. Everyday observations are casual and therefore often inaccurate. b. People often base generalizations on only a few cases. c. People often use illogical reasoning to explain their experiences. d. Everyday observations are deliberate and based on direct experience.

Answer d, p. 6-7 Rejoinder Our everyday inquiries are not deliberate and careful, nor are they often based on direct experiences. Instead, science is deliberate and based on direct observations. Thus, science seeks to guard against the errors of everyday inquiry.

3. Your friend Elizabeth is a lawyer. You think lawyers are controlling, but your friend Elizabeth is not. You argue, “Elizabeth is the exception that proves the rule” in arguing that your belief that lawyers are controlling is accurate. What potential error are you making? a. Illogical reasoning b. Overgeneralization c. Selective observation d. Inaccurate observations

Answer a, p. 6 Rejoinder Your conclusions regarding the nature of all lawyers and your empirical support for such a conclusion are guided by fallacious, or illogical, reasoning. While an exception does not suggest that a conclusion is inaccurate, it cannot prove that conclusion. Therefore, this is an example of the way that illogical reasoning functions in our everyday inquiry. See page 6 for a discussion of errors in everyday inquiry.

4. Which philosophical viewpoint is guided by the assumption that there is one correct way of understanding the world? a. Realist view b. Premodern view c. Modern view d. Postmodern view

Answer b, p. 7 Rejoinder Guiding most of human history, the premodern view is grounded on the assumption that there is a single correct vision of reality. From a premodern standpoint, those who do not accept that vision of reality are misguided and “wrong.” See page 7 for a discussion of the premodern view.

24 5. Which of the following guides the logical aspect of social scientific knowledge production? a. Theory b. Data collection c. Data analysis d. None of the above

Answer a, p. 9 Rejoinder Theory guides the logical aspect of the social scientific process. As you will later learn in Chapter Three, theory is a collection of statements about a particular phenomenon that helps us to make sense of the phenomenon. Theory is derived from a logical system. See page 9 for a discussion of the role of theory, data collection, and data analysis in the social scientific process.

6. Making generalizations based upon a large number of cases of observations, rather than individuals, means that social scientists study a. aggregates b. theory c. regularities d. exceptions

Answer a, p. 10 Rejoinder Instead of studying individual cases, social scientists study aggregates. That is, social scientists combine individual responses into groups to study. Studying aggregates enables generalizations to be made about particular groups of people. For a discussion of the role of aggregates in the social scientific process see page 10.

7. Which of the following characteristics highlight communication as a process? a. meaning making and production b. production, uses, and dynamics c. transmission, meaning, and uses d. linguistic and nonverbal symbols

Answer b, p. 11 Rejoinder “Communication studies is a field of research on the production and uses of symbols (both linguistic and nonlinguistic, whether face to face or mediated) in concrete social and cultural contexts to enable the dynamics of systems society and culture” (p. 11) In examining the production, uses, and dynamics of communication, communication is thereby defined as a process. See page 11 for a discussion of the field of communication studies.

8. Which of the following areas of communication studies examines how talk is enacted in specific contexts? a. Interpersonal communication b. Intrapersonal communication c. Language and social interaction d. Development communication

Answer c, p. 12 Rejoinder The study of language and social interaction (LSI) specifically examines the role of talk in particular social contexts. In studying the enactment of talk in particular contexts and communities, LSI scholars will often examine rules, structures, and codes of communication. See page 12 for a discussion of the area of language and social interaction.

25 9. Communication researchers guard against selective observation by predetermining the number and kind of observations they will make before drawing a conclusion or making a claim. a. True b. False

Answer a, p. 6 Rejoinder In predetermining the number and kinds of observations they will make, social scientists avoid the possibilities of looking at only instances in which their beliefs are confirmed (or selective observation). See page 6 for a discussion of selective observation and some solutions.

10. Researchers in communication studies center communication as the primary phenomenon of interest, while other disciplines might examine communication as a means of studying other phenomena. a. True b. False

Answer a, p. 11 Rejoinder While communication studies is a diverse and broad field of study, what binds communication scholars together is the centrality of communication as the topic of interest. Other scholars, such as psychologists, sociologists and anthropologists may study communication as a means of understanding other phenomenon. See page 11 for a discussion of the field of communication studies.

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