EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 1

Running head: VOICE OF AMERICA, EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS

SELLING AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY OVERSEAS:

EDITORIALS BROADCAST BY THE VOICE OF AMERICA

Jill Ayers Moss

George Mason University

Comm 675: Content Analysis

August 7, 2009 EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 2

ABSTRACT

Critics of short-statement editorials broadcast by the Voice of America argue they “…fail to articulate the rational and context that would help others understand U.S. policies,”

(Trachtenberg, 2007). In an effort to reveal if the programming reflects a full range of

United States government policies, in a thorough and sufficient manner, and with balanced discussion from varying perspectives, a census content analysis of 2009 editorials is proposed. The author will recruit two individuals to contextually analyze a census sample of Voice of America editorials broadcast between the months of January and July, 2009. The sample (n=580) for this study will be printed from the VOA Editorial web site and assigned a unique identification number by the author. Coders will be trained up to 30 in preparation for official data collection. To determine intercoder reliability of the categories employed, two coders will co-code a subsample (n=58) representing 10 percent of the entire population. The subsample will be randomly selected from the population, and will also be included in the full sample of this proposed study. The study’s reliability will be measured via simple percent agreement, the most prevalent measure in social sciences. Scotts’ Pi, Cohen’s kappa and Krippendorff’s alpha will also be measured for reliability. EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 3

Selling American Foreign Policy Overseas:

Editorials Broadcast by the Voice of America

Voice of America’s reputation as a credible legacy news organization is in jeopardy. The United States-funded news and information agency was born in 1942 out of a need to battle the Axis powers’ propaganda during World War Two, (Rawnsley,

1996; Krugler, 2000). Since then, VOA has played a valuable role in American foreign policy. United States international broadcasting is intended to enhance the State

Department’s public diplomacy mission, (Alexandre, 1988). VOA’s contribution to this effort is embodied partly in the form of editorial programs aired daily by 45 language services comprising the news agency. Whether VOA’s short-statement editorials persuade the hearts and minds of foreign audiences is questionable. Accordingly, are tax- payer dollars being spent on an effective method of communicating America’s policy positions? To help settle this debate, a review of VOA editorial content is necessary.

VOA editorial programming is mandated by law. In 1976, President Gerald Ford signed the VOA Charter, which guarantees the agency’s journalistic integrity while supporting America’s national security interests. The three tenets of the Charter read: 1)

VOA will serve as a consistently reliable and authoritative source of news. VOA news will be accurate, objective, and comprehensive; 2) VOA will represent America, not any single segment of American society, and will therefore present a balanced and comprehensive projection of significant American thought and institutions; and 3) VOA will present the policies of the United States clearly and effectively, and will also present responsible discussions and opinion on these policies, (VOA Web site, 2009). EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 4

There is perhaps no other document revered in the offices of the Voice of

America as much as the Charter. But to understand the degree to which the charter appears to enshrine protection of VOA newsgathering, it is necessary to examine the document itself.

Review of Literature

The three stated principles in the VOA Charter were designed to appeal to the concerns of three distinct elements involved in the debate over VOA autonomy. The first principle was pushed by VOA journalists who were sworn to professional standards. The news staff wanted this tenet included in the Charter to prevent government intrusions into its journalistic procedure. The second principle of the Charter was included to reassure congressional representatives that the fullest projection of American opinion, not just the current administration’s opinion, would be offered in VOA programming. The third principle was included to console the State Department and executive branch officials who wanted the administration’s views to be disseminated. This is why the Voice of

America broadcasts editorials today.

Taken as a whole, the Charter’s three principles are tied to a supreme mission of furthering American foreign policy objectives. Presently at the Voice of America, approximately 700 international broadcasters communicate on behalf of the United States government to more than 135-million listeners/viewers/internet users worldwide. These highly skilled individuals provide information daily in 45 languages to audiences in

Africa, the Near East, South Asia, Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, East Asia and the Pacific, and Latin America. U.S. international broadcast transmissions include

“direct-to-home satellite, AM, FM, Internet, digital audio satellite, and shortwave,” (BBG EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 5

Web site, 2009). Because of its technical ability to reach virtually every corner of the world at a relatively modest cost, VOA’s potential to inform and persuade populations is significant.

Theoretical Grounding

From the beginning, VOA promised to tell its listeners the truth, regardless of whether the news was good or bad. Walter Lippman (1922) was the first to describe this agenda setting function of mass media in his seminal work, Public Opinion. News and truth, he noted, are not always the same. Yet, the news media’s responsibility, he argued, is to help shape public perception of the world.

McComb and Shaw (1972) further posited in Agenda Setting theory that newsroom staff and broadcasters play an important role in shaping political reality.

Based on what news is reported and in what manner, the scholars argued the public learns not only about issues, but also how much importance to attach to each issue.

The Voice of America, through its editorials, may quite possibly enjoy such salience transfer. Yet, this was not the intention of VOA staff members who drafted the

Charter in the 1950’s. Their formal statement of broadcast principles read: “The long- range interests of the United States are served by communicating directly with the peoples of the world by radio. To be effective, the Voice of America must win the attention and respect of listeners. These principles will therefore govern Voice of

America (VOA) broadcasts,” (VOA Web site, 2009).

Harold Lasswell (1934) maintained that truth’s embrace was synonymous with harnessing the power of propaganda for Good rather than Evil. Seemingly, Lasswell’s notion of “…propaganda-for-good became the foundation of numerous official efforts to EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 6 improve and spread democracy by agencies such as the Voice of America, the United

States Information Agency, the Office of International Information and Educational

Exchange, and the State Department,” (Sproule, 1997, p. 215).

The Nature of Propaganda

U.S. international broadcasting plays a distinct political role simply by nature of the fact it is directed at foreign audiences whose listening motives are mainly political interest or curiosity (Wasburn, 1992). In view of its political charge, is international broadcasting to be labeled propaganda? A meaningful answer must depend on how one defines propaganda. If we take the term in its broad sense -- communication that tries to influence, that aims to affect its audience -- the answer is “yes.” But if we take the word in its pejorative implication -- as signifying sinister manipulation, deceit, and concealing motives, the answer is “no.”

Indeed, United States international broadcasting is part of the State Department’s multi-faceted public diplomacy mission. The term public diplomacy originated as a euphemism for propaganda in 1965. “The phrase gave a respectable identity to the USIA

[United States Information Agency] career officer, for it was one step removed from the

‘vulgar’ realm of ‘public relations’ and by its use of the term ‘diplomacy,’ explicitly enshrined the USIA along side the State Department as a legitimate organ of American foreign relations,” (Cull, 2006, ¶ 14). Today, scholars differ over a common definition, mainly because the practitioner’s approach to public diplomacy emphasizes dialogue rather than propaganda.

Regardless of whether it is called propaganda, public diplomacy or, as is the case of the Voice of America – the dissemination of objective news and information – a EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 7 primary rationale for international broadcasting is to support United States national interests.

Abshire (1976) posits that democracies conduct their relationships with foreign countries through two channels. One channel is static diplomacy. “[The] other channel of relationships between nations is an outgrowth of democratic government, of the concept of popular sovereignty applied to foreign affairs. It conducts no negotiations, dispatches, no notes, signs no treaties, presents no demarches. It has come to be called ‘people-to- people diplomacy’ -- the direct reaching out of peoples to speak to other peoples, quite apart from the formal operations of their governments,” (p. 77).

U.S. international broadcasters are committed to telling the truth, if peaceful and enduring international order is achieved, it must be based on fact. Additionally, they are committed to an open world, where the free flow of information and ideas makes dialogue possible. “The technical apparatus and the general norm of open communications among the peoples of the world create an opportunity to complement statist diplomacy. International broadcasting can play an essential role in this process, for it alone permits something resembling the free intercourse of peoples, as distinct from governments,” (Abshire, p. 78).

In the case of blatant propagandists, the ultimate goal is to change the way people act and to leave them believing that those actions are voluntary, that the newly adopted behaviors—and the opinions underlying them—are their own (Pratkinis & Aronson,

1992.) To accomplish this, though, propagandists must first change the way people conceive of themselves and their social world. During the 1930’s and 1940’s, EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 8 particularly during the height of World War Two, the new media of radio and movies provided propagandists with powerful new tools (Wood, 1992).

But true today, as in 1942 when U.S. international broadcasting was incepted,

Voice of America broadcasts are intended to affect their audiences, but as communication, not manipulation. “…[Western] broadcasters do not distort their messages to impose some predetermined reaction or some monolithic orthodoxy, choosing rather to reflect their own societies’ diversities and divisions,” (Abshire, p. 39).

Information Flow

Regardless, if VOA editorials aim to manipulate, persuade or enlighten audiences, the manner in which the information reaches intended audiences does matter. Katz and

Lazarsfeld (1955) argued that information from the media moves in two distinct stages.

“Opinion leaders,” those who pay close attention to the mass media and its messages, first receive the information. They, thus, pass on their own interpretation to a “primary group” of individuals in their social network. Arguably, VOA is dependent on this two- step flow of information. A portion of VOA’s listening audience is comprised of “elites” in foreign countries – people who tend to have an education and access to technology.

These so-called “elites” are considered “gatekeepers” in Lazarsfeld’s two-step flow. They are people who screen media messages and pass on those that help others share their views. When media effects do occur, they tend to be modest and isolated.

Most research on information flow since Lazarsfeld’s early work has focused on overall patterns of media use, rather than the use of specific content. Critics argue this is a sign media content is being ignored. The impact of powerful individual messages is not routinely assessed – only the amount of use being routinely made of a given medium. EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 9

Although there is value in studying patterns of media use, it is also vital to examine the use of specific content. In this perspective, organized flows of information on a large scale aimed at overseas audiences, such as those represented by the Voice of America and similar institution, continue to deserve special attention. Content within the information flow, particularly VOA editorials, merits attention.

Proposed Research Questions

“If all communication has a goal or purpose – conscious or otherwise – then to one degree or another, all communication becomes, in part, an attempt to exercise influence,” (Singer, 1988, p.164). The third tenet of the VOA Charter serves as a significant means to influence public opinion. Yet, if VOA short-statement editorials are to be persuasive explications of American policy, a thorough review of the content and aim of the editorials is paramount.

In accordance with directives from the independent federal agency that supervises all U.S. nonmilitary international broadcasting services, the Broadcasting Board of

Governors (BBG), editorial programming should focus on local issues of interest to various societies and populations. By “going local” in content, editorial programs are more likely to link information to global American policy concerns, thereby achieving greater program relevance and impact. Daily short-statement VOA editorials may include sound bites of U.S. policy makers, statements and opinions from local officials and unofficial sources in the target country or region. This explicit sourcing is intended to make the editorials more sophisticated and credible.

VOA editorials are cleared by the State Department, albeit not always in a timely fashion. In 2001, an agreement was signed between State and the International EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 10

Broadcasting Bureau Office of Policy calling for vetting and clearing of short-statement editorials within 24 hours. This agreement has not been met by the State Department. In addition, the State Department appears to be hesitant in the use of sound bites from the

President, the Secretary of State and other top U.S. officials.

Critics of VOA short-statement editorials argue they are “…vapid, uninspiring news reports posing as editorial opinions reflecting the views of the United States government.” David Trachtenberg, a former Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for

International Security Policy, claims VOA editorials “…fail to articulate the rational and context that would help others understand U.S. policies,” (Editorials Miss Opportunity”

2007).

Trachtenberg argues the editorials lack depth. “Simply quoting American officials without providing a more robust context for their comments is insufficient to explain US foreign policy to global audiences. It is a detached, achromatic approach that risks conveying neutrality. But the US cannot afford to be neutral for the sake of appearing impartial. What is needed is a more forceful, clear, and compelling articulation of US policy.”

Indeed, reporting the news objectively and broadcasting diverse views are important elements of VOA’s Charter. VOA Director Henry Loomis, under whose guidance the Charter was drafted, once said: “It is my hope, it is my belief that the

Charter, like the Constitution, is so fundamental and so represents the realities of the world and the moral principles that undergird this nation that the Charter will endure for the life of the Voice,” (VOA Web site, 2009). But VOA has a broader mandate. “It has a EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 11 responsibility to the American taxpayer to communicate the views of the United States government intelligently and persuasively,” (“Editorials Miss Opportunity” 2007).

To better determine if VOA short-statement editorials are fulfilling to the letter the authority of the Charter, a census content analysis of 2009 editorials will investigate:

RQ¹: Do VOA editorials reflect a full range of United States policies?

RQ²: Do VOA editorials sufficiently and thoroughly present United States

policies?

RQ³: Do VOA editorials present a balanced discussion and varying opinion on

these policies?

Singer (1988) argues that “…to present arguments or information in a manner that other can understand and accept as being in his or her or its own best interest is perhaps the most common and most effective form of persuasion,” (p. 167). Regarding VOA editorials, the author has formulated the following hypothesis in regard to the research questions.

H1: VOA short-statement editorials are limited predominantly to State

Department policies.

H2: VOA short-statement editorial programming fails to explain, in total,

United States policies.

H3: Individual VOA short-statement editorials impart little discussion and

opinion on the policy(s) presented.

Method

The author will recruit two individuals to contextually analyze a census sample of

Voice of America editorials broadcast between the months of January and July, 2009. EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 12

The population (n=580) for this study will be printed from the VOA Editorial web site

(http://www.voanews.com/uspolicy/) and assigned a unique identification number by the author. Individual hard copy editorials will comprise the sampling unit as well as recording unit in this study. The author believes a sample size (n=580) will sufficiently provide a 95% level of confidence, allowing for a five percent sampling error.

Coders will be trained up to 30 hours to prepare for official data collection.

During this process, the researcher may need to revise the coding instruments (Appendix

A) until the researcher and coders are comfortable with the coding scheme. Pilot coding will be conduced to better inform the researcher of the overall viability of the coding scheme. Disagreements regarding coding will be resolved via discussion before either an inter-coder reliability test or official coding of the full sample.

To determine intercoder reliability of the categories employed, two coders will co-code a subsample (n=58) representing 10 percent of the entire population. The subsample will be randomly selected from the population. The reliability sample will also be included in the full sample of this proposed study. The researcher will not be included among the two reliability coders. These same two reliability coders will also be employed in the official study. Nominal data collected from the coding process will be assessed using PRAM and SPSS statistical computer programs. The study’s reliability will be measured via simple percent agreement, the most prevalent measure in social sciences (Neurendorf, 2002, p. 148). Scotts’ Pi, Cohen’s kappa and Krippendorff’s alpha will also be measured for reliability.

To better guarantee content validity, multiple variables have been proposed to assess the three research questions. An indicator index of these variables may be created EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 13 by combining two or more measures mathematically. “Indices are routinely used in text content analysis…” (Neurendorf, p. 137).

The researcher found it necessary to develop different categories to define the range of topics covered by the VOA short-statement editorials. Fifteen questions with nearly identical wording were derived.

. Was a country or region in Africa the subject of the editorial?

. Was a country or region in the Americas the subject of the editorial?

. Was a country or region in Asia the subject of the editorial?

. Was a country or region in Europe the subject of the editorial?

. Was a country or region in the Middle East the subject of the editorial?

. Was Iran the subject of the editorial?

. Was Iraq the subject of the editorial?

. Was crime the subject of the editorial?

. Was democracy the subject of the editorial?

. Was the environment the subject of the editorial?

. Was health the subject of the editorial?

. Were human rights the subject of the editorial?

. Were American ideals the subject of the editorial?

. Was terrorism the subject of the editorial?

. Was trade the subject of the editorial?

Sourcing of the VOA editorials is also of interest as a possible indication of trend.

. Main source(s) quoted within the editorial? EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 14

Similar questions intended to index the region related to the policy presented in the VOA short-statement editorial were formed.

. Was Africa the world region related to the policy presented?

. Was the Americas the world region related to the policy presented?

. Was Asia the world region related to the policy presented?

. Was the Middle East the world region related to the policy presented?

. Was South Asia the world region related to the policy presented?

. Was Europe the world region related to the policy presented?

. Were Russia and the former Soviet states the region related to the policy

presented?

. Was the United States the region related to the policy presented?

. Were multiple regions of the world related to the policy presented?

In an attempt to discern if United States policies are thoroughly and sufficiently explained in VOA short-statement editorials, eight variables were operationalized.

. Is historical context of the policy mentioned?

. Is a government agency with oversight of the policy mentioned?

. Is current Administration action regarding the policy mentioned?

. Does the editorial relate a recent news story to the policy mentioned?

. Does the editorial explain why the policy needs clarification at this time?

. Does the editorial explain why the United States adopted the policy mentioned?

. Does the editorial explain why the United States supports the policy mentioned?

. Are facts about the policy explained? EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 15

Analysis of balanced discussion within the VOA editorials was operationalized by three variables.

. Is United States public opinion of the policy mentioned?

. Is world opinion for or against the policy mentioned?

. Are position(s) offered that oppose the policy?

Finally, the researcher will attempt to discern methods used to appeal to audiences in the

VOA editorials.

. Does the editorial ask a question and support it with facts?

. Does the editorial invoke humor?

. Does the editorial invoke fear?

. Does the editorial invoke altruism?

. Does the editorial invoke a call to action?

. Does the editorial explain a problem?

. Does the editorial offer a solution to a problem?

. Does the editorial invoke sound reasoning?

. Does the editorial invoke logic?

. Is the editorial merely a narrative or description of the subject? EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 16

References

Abshire, D.M. (1976). International broadcasting: A new dimension of western diplomacy. California: Sage Publications

Alexandre, L. (1988). The Voice of America: From détente to the Reagan doctrine. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Bloch-Elkon, Y. (12007) Studying the media, public opinion, and foreign policy in international crisis: The United States and the Bosnian crisis, 1992-1995. Press and Politics. 12(4): 20-51.

Broadcasting Board of Governors (2009). About the BBG. Retrieved April 26, 2009, from http://www.bbg.gov/about/documents/BBGFactSheet2-09.pdf

Cull, N. J. (2006). ‘Public diplomacy’ before Gullion: The evolution of a phrase. Retrieved April 26, 2009 from USC Center on Public Diplomacy Web site: http://uscpublicdiplomacy.com/index.php/newsroom/pdblog_detail/060418_publi c_diplomacy_before_gullion_the_evolution_of_a_phrase/

Heil, A. L. (2003). Voice of America: A history. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Katz, E. and Lazarfeld, P. (1955). Personal Influence. New York: The Free Press.

Krugler, D. F. (2000). The Voice of America and the domestic propaganda battles, 1945- 1953. Columbia, University of Missouri Press.

Lippman, W. (1922). Public Opinion. New York: Macmillan.

McComb, M. E. (2004). Setting the agenda: the mass media and public opinion. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing Inc.

McCombs, M. E. and Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 176-187.

McComb, M. E. and Shaw, D. L. (1993). The evolution of agenda-setting research: twenty-five years in the marketplace of ideas. Journal of Communication, 43(2), Spring, 58-67.

Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Nikolaev, A.G. and Porpora, D. V. ( 2007) Talking war: How elite U.S. newspaper editorials and opinion pieces debated the attack on Iraq. Sociological Focus. 40(1): 2-25. EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 17

Pratkanis, A.R. and Aronson, E. (1992). Age of propaganda: The everyday use and abuse of persuasion. New York: W.H. Freeman.

Rawnsley, G. D. (1996). Radio diplomacy and propaganda: The BBC and VOA in international politics, 1956-64. London, United Kingdom. MacMillan Press Ltd.

Singer, M. R. (1998). Perception and identity in intercultural communication. Maine, Intercultural Press, Inc.

Sproule, J.M. (1997). Propaganda and democracy; the American experience of media and mass persuasion. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Stiff, J. B. and Mongeau, P. A. (2003). Persuasive communication. New York: Guilford Press.

Trachtenberg, D. J. (2007, August 23). How to spice up Voice of America’s dull broadcasts: Its editorials miss the opportunity to explain US policy persuasively and intelligently. The Christian Science Monitor, p. A16.

Voice of America. (2009). Fast Facts. Retrieved April 26, 2009, from http://www.voanews.com/english/About/FastFacts.cfm

Wasburn, P. C. (1992). Broadcasting propaganda: International radio broadcasting and the construction of political reality. Connecticut: Praeger.

Wasburn, P. C. (1995). Democracy and media ownership: a comparison of commercial, public and government broadcast news. Media, Culture and Society. 17(4): 647- 676.

Wasburn, P. C. (1988). Voice of American and Radio Moscow newscasts to the third world. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media. 32(2): 197-218.

Wood, J. (1992). History of international broadcasting. London, United Kingdom: Peter Peregrinus Ltd. EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 18

Appendix 1

Recording Instrument VOA Editorial Content Analysis

Units of Analysis: Each individual VOA editorial provided in paper format

General Recording Procedure: Individual coders will need to read in entirety each editorial provided -- more than once to fully grasp the subject matter.

On the first reading, which should be relatively uninterrupted, it may be helpful to take notes on a separate piece of paper. Be mindful of the following ideas:

1) What the overall subject matter of the editorial is 2) If a source is quoted, who is it 3) Any unanswered questions you have about the policy discussed 4) If the editorial was balanced and fair

After you have read the editorial and completed the list, proceed to code the Coding Worksheet. Refer to the provided Recording Instrument for clarity if needed. When you are finished, check the Coding Worksheet for legibility. Are all of the questions answered?

Editorial ID numbers will be provided on each individual editorial page. Corresponding Coding Worksheets will also be provided.

Make sure to include a leading “0” for all one-digit numbers in a two-digit coding space. For example, a code for numbers 1-9 should appear on your Coding Worksheets as 01, 02, 03, etc.

Please take your time and work carefully.

Thank You. EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 19

SECTION A: RECORDING INSTRUMENT FOR THE EDITORIAL RECORDING UNIT

1. Editorial ID Number: 2. Coder ID Number: 3. Month editorial was broadcast: (example: January=01, December=12) 4. Day editorial was broadcast: (example: 01, 10, 31) 5. Year editorial was broadcast: (use full year, 2009, 1999, etc.)

SECTION B: SUBJECT AND SOURCING OF EDITORIAL

6. Was a country or region in Africa the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

7. Was a country or region in the Americas the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

8. Was a country or region in Asia the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

9. Was a country or region in Europe the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

10. Was a country or region in the Middle East the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

11. Was Iran the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

12. Was Iraq the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 20

13. Was crime the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

14. Was democracy the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

15. Was the environment the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

16. Was health the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

17. Were human rights the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

18. Were American ideals the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

19. Was terrorism the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

20. Was trade the subject of the editorial? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 21

21. Main source(s) quoted within the editorial? 1 = State Department official 2 = Department of Defense official 3 = White House official 4 = President of the United States 5 = Secretary of State 6 = Secretary of Defense 7 = Mixed 8 = Other

22. Was Africa the world region related to the policy presented? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

23. Was the Americas the world region related to the policy presented? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

24. Was Asia the world region related to the policy presented? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

25. Was the Middle East the world region related to the policy presented? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

26. Was South Asia the world region related to the policy presented? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

27. Was Europe the world region related to the policy presented? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

28. Were Russia or the former Soviet States the region related to the policy presented? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 22

29. Was the United States the region related to the policy presented? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

30. Were multiple regions of the world related to the policy presented? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

SECTION C: UNITED STATES POLICIES THOROUGHLY AND SUFFICIENTLY EXPLAINED

31. Is historical context of the policy mentioned? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

32. Is a government agency with oversight of the policy mentioned? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

33. Is current Administration action regarding the policy mentioned? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

34. Does the editorial relate a recent news story to the policy mentioned? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

35. Does the editorial explain why the policy needs clarification at this time? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

36. Does the editorial explain why the United States adopted the policy mentioned? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 23

37. Does the editorial explain why the United States supports the policy mentioned? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

38. Are facts about the policy explained? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

SECTION D: BALANCED DISCUSSION OF EDITORIAL

39. United States public opinion of the policy mentioned? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

40. World opinion for or against the policy mentioned? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

41. Position(s) offered that oppose the policy? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

SECTION E: APPROACH OR APPEAL MADE IN THE EDITORIALS

42. Does the editorial ask a question and support it with facts? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

43. Does the editorial invoke humor? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

44. Does the editorial invoke fear? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 24

45. Does the editorial invoke altruism? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

46. Does the editorial invoke a call to action? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

47. Does the editorial explain a problem? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

48. Does the editorial offer a solution to a problem? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

49. Does the editorial invoke sound reasoning? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

50. Does the editorial invoke logic? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code

51. Is the editorial merely a narrative or description of the subject? 1 = Yes 2 = No 3 = Unable to code EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 25

CODING WORKSHEET

_____ 1. Editorial ID Number: _____ 2. Coder ID Number: _____ 3. Month editorial was broadcast: _____ 4. Day editorial was broadcast: _____ 5. Year editorial was broadcast: _____ 6. Was a country or region in Africa the subject of the editorial? _____ 7. Was a country or region in the Americas the subject of the editorial? _____ 8. Was a country or region in Asia the subject of the editorial? _____ 9. Was a country or region in Europe the subject of the editorial? _____ 10. Was a country or region in the Middle East the subject of the editorial? _____ 11. Was Iran the subject of the editorial? _____ 12. Was Iraq the subject of the editorial? _____ 13. Was crime the subject of the editorial? _____ 14. Was democracy the subject of the editorial? _____ 15. Was the environment the subject of the editorial? _____ 16. Was health the subject of the editorial? _____ 17. Were human rights the subject of the editorial? _____ 18. Were American ideals the subject of the editorial? _____ 19. Was terrorism the subject of the editorial? _____ 20. Was trade the subject of the editorial? _____ 21. Main source(s) quoted within the editorial? _____ 22. Was Africa the world region related to the policy presented? _____ 23. Was the Americas the world region related to the policy presented? _____ 24. Was Asia the world region related to the policy presented? _____ 25. Was the Middle East the world region related to the policy presented? _____ 26. Was South Asia the world region related to the policy presented? _____ 27. Was Europe the world region related to the policy presented? _____ 28. Were Russia and the former Soviet states the region related to the policy presented? _____ 29. Was the United States the region related to the policy presented? _____ 30. Were multiple regions of the world related to the policy presented? _____ 31. Is historical context of the policy mentioned? _____ 32. Is a government agency with oversight of the policy mentioned? _____ 33. Is current Administration action regarding the policy mentioned? _____ 34. Does the editorial relate a recent news story to the policy mentioned? _____ 35. Does the editorial explain why the policy needs clarification at this time? _____ 36. Does the editorial explain why the United States adopted the policy mentioned? _____ 37. Does the editorial explain why the United States supports the policy mentioned? _____ 38. Are facts about the policy explained? _____ 39. United States public opinion of the policy mentioned? _____ 40. World opinion for or against the policy mentioned? _____ 41. Position(s) offered that oppose the policy? EDITORIALS, CONTENT ANALYSIS, VOICE OF AMERICA 26

_____ 42. Does the editorial ask a question and support it with facts? _____ 43. Does the editorial invoke humor? _____ 44. Does the editorial invoke fear? _____ 45. Does the editorial invoke altruism? _____ 46. Does the editorial invoke a call to action? _____ 47. Does the editorial explain a problem? _____ 48. Does the editorial offer a solution to a problem? _____ 49. Does the editorial invoke sound reasoning? _____ 50. Does the editorial invoke logic? _____ 51. Is the editorial merely a narrative or description of the subject?