The Industrial Revolution

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The Industrial Revolution is a term used to describe a period when social and economic life changed from being mainly agricultural and rural, to being industrial and urban. It is difficult to say exactly when the Industrial Revolution began. It was a gradual process and occurred at different times in different countries. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain around 1750, spreading to France and other European countries and then to the United States around 1850, and to Canada around 1900.

The Industrial Revolution brought great change. Before that time, people’s lives centred around small villages or rural communities. Transportation was difficult and often tedious, so people seldom travelled far from home. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, it would not be uncommon for a person to spend his or her entire life within a few miles of home. In the late 18th century, however, a number of significant innovations and inventions dramatically changed people’s lives. Machines could now do work that had previously been done by hand. This was most evident on farms where machines made farm work much less labour-intensive.

In 1769, James Watt invented the steam-powered engine in England. That, along with other inventions and innovations, quickly led to the development of machines that allowed large-scale production of specialized items for consumers. The large machines were housed in factories that were located in urban centres close to mass transportation and an available work force. New jobs attracted more and more people to the towns and cities as machines on the farms reduced the number of people needed to perform tasks there. Parents who had never left their local area saw their children forced to leave home to seek work in cities and new industries.

Social organization changed considerably as a result of the Industrial Revolution, especially in the shift from an agricultural labour force to a factory labour force. Goods previously produced in the home were now produced at the factory. New class distinctions arose based on ownership or control of production. There was a marked difference between those who owned the factories (capitalists) and those who worked in them (working class). The urban worker, no longer a landowner producing his or her own food and basic needs, became much more dependent upon the factory employer. Sometimes, these factory owners did not have the best interests of the workers at heart.

Often, factory conditions were harsh and the hours were long; eventually, the union movement arose in response to the harsh conditions and a need to promote the rights of workers. Canada was a young colony when the Industrial Revolution was taking place in Europe. In the early 19th Century, rapid industrial and scientific expansion drastically changed life in what is now Canada. Living conditions, working conditions, population distribution, and large urban centres all changed as a result of the Industrial Revolution. CHANGE AGENT: THE INVENTION OF THE STEAM ENGINE

The increased production and growing factories of the Industrial Revolution period where made possible by the power and efficiency of the steam engine. James Watt, a Scottish instrument maker, is often credited with the invention of the steam engine in 1763. In fact, the arrival of the Watt steam engine is sometimes used as a marker for the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. But James Watt did not invent the steam engine on his own. Actually, like most inventions, the steam engine developed over time and under the thoughtful work of many people.

A crude steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery, an Englishman. Savery used his new machine to help to pump water out of coal mines. While the machine improved Savery’s work day, it still required a great deal of coal to run and it was not able to pump very much water at one time. While similar attempts to construct such machines were also going on in other countries, it was another Englishman, Thomas Newcomen, who made the next improvement. Savery’s pump had no moving parts so, in some sense, it cannot be called a machine. However, Newcomen’s new product used steam to push a movable piston in one direction. This true “engine” was also used to pump water out of coal mines. When a Newcomen engine was sent to James Watt for repairs, Watt saw ways in which the engine’s construction could be improved.

Over the next several months, he invented a way to push a piston back and forth in its cylinder and turn a wheel. By using a “crankshaft”, the steam engine could now produce a circular motion. His new, improved engine could cool the used steam in a separate cylinder and was substantially more efficient than Newcomen's. Watt could not afford to pursue his invention without financing, so he went to Matthew Boulton, a successful Birmingham businessman. The two spent several years improving and producing steam engines in Boulton’s factory. Most of the new machines were still purchased by colliery owners to help to rid the mines of water. Watt’s machine was much more powerful than the previous pumps and a great deal less expensive to operate, so it became very popular with the mine owners.

In 1783 Richard Arkwright purchased Watt’s steam engine and began using it in his textile mill. The mproved production resulting from the use of the steam engine quickly caught the attention of other factory owners and the “mining pump” began to sell rapidly to a range of factory owners. By 1800 there were over 500 of Watt’s machines in Britain's mines and factories. Watt was able to obtain a patent on his invention and for the next 25 years the Boulton and Watt company had a virtual monopoly over the production of steam engines, making Watt a wealthy man.

Have you heard the term “horse power?” This term was also invented by Watt. In presenting his machine to customers, Watt would compare what it could do to the work accomplished by a horse. Watt calculated that a horse exerted a pull of 180 lbs (82 kg); and so, he would compare the work his machine could do with the number of horses required to do the same, e.g., “a 20 horse-power engine.”

CHANGES IN AGRICULTURE Between 1850 and 1920, there was rapid change in the way farming was done in Canada. In 1851, only 13% of the population lived in towns and cities, while the majority of the population lived on farms. By 1901, the number of people living in towns and cities had increased to 35%. There were several reasons for this move to the cities. One of the main changes that occurred was the way farming was done. The work that had once been done by hand was now done by machinery, thanks in part of the development of the steam engine.

One of the farm implements to be changed was the plough. Over this period, it changed from a single-handled, single-boarded, wooden implement pulled by an ox to a double- handled, double-boarded plough that could be pulled by teams of horses. These were eventually replaced by steam-driven tractors that had the power of 50 horses and could pull enormous steel ploughs with up to 16 boards. These new machines greatly increased the amount of land that could be prepared for seeding.

Another farm implement that changed over time was the seed drill. Before 1900, most farmers seeded by a method called “broadcasting,” or throwing seeds into the wind. The problems with this method however were that much of the seed remained on the surface of the soil and did not germinate or it was blown away and eaten by birds. The invention of the seed drill greatly improved the rate of germination. Farmers could now plant seeds at a specified depth and cover them with a think layer of soil. The results were that farmers used less seed and had a higher rate of germination.

The kinds of seeds planted on the prairies also improved. Charles Saunders, whose father was a druggist in London, Ontario, became a chemist and worked on developing new strains of wheat. This was a process that could take years of research, but Saunders discovered that by simply chewing on the kemels, he could determine the amount of gluten in the wheat and thus the quality of bread that could be produced.

Saunders discovered ‘Markham’ wheat which was a cross between Canadian Red Fife and an Indian variety. Charles changed the name of the wheat to ‘Marquis’ because it sounded more regal. Marquis wheat yielded more bushels and ripened one week earlier than Red Fife. The result was that by 1920, 90% of the wheat grown on the prairie was Marquis wheat.

Harvesting methods also changed as a result of invention. In 1850, most farmers hand harvested grain with cradle scythes. By 1900, these were being replaced by large threshing machines powered by steam-driven tractor engines. Farmers could now harvest much larger crops more efficiency.

Although steam-powered tractors and threshing machines were far more efficient than horses, they also created problems. The engines were very heavy because of the large boilers needed to generate the steam. Consequently, they could only be used on relatively dry fields. The steam tractors also needed large quantities of water, and often huge tankers had to transport water to the fields so the tractors could function. The development of the internal combustion engine led to the use of gasoline-powered tractors that were much lighter and could run even more efficiently. By 1920, very few steam-powered engines were still in extensive use on the farm. This period of rapid change and innovation saw the rise of several entrepreneurs in Canada. One such entrepreneur was Hart Massey, was born in 1823 in Cobourg, Ontario. His father ran a small farm machinery company that Massey eventually took over. Massey had good business sense and he obtained the rights to make and sell some American- invented farm machinery in Canada. He quickly developed a company that sold a whole range of farm equipment, and he rapidly become the most successful farm machinery manufacturer in the British Empire. Hart and his sons set up their headquarters in Toronto, where they had access to rail transportation. This allowed them to sell their product across Canada. Hart also had the foresight to buy patents for American inventions that allowed him the sole right to manufacture them in Canada. His company produced some of the best farm machinery and used extensive advertising to sell its product. One of their products, the Toronto Binder, cut grain, formed into a bundle, tied the bundles with twine, then dropped the bundles onto the field. This invention reduced harvesting time and increased farm productivity.

In the 1850s, most farmers grew food and raised livestock to feed their own families. With the new advancements in machinery and farming techniques, farmers were now able to grow food for other people. Many farmers began to grow specialized crops or cash crops such as wheat in the western prairies. Farmers could now plant and harvest larger tracts of land in a less labour-intensive way, reducing the number of people needed to work the farms. As a result, many people moved from farms to the cities, creating additional changes in social structure.

TRANSPORTATION

In the late 19th century, cities looked much different from the way they do now. Many of the streets and incoming roads were little more than dirt trails, dusty in the summer and a sea of mud in the spring. While that may seem odd to us now, it only made sense to people who relied on animals, not machines, as their primary mode of transportation. People rode on horseback, goods were delivered by horse-drawn wagons, and even emergency vehicles like pumpers for the fire department were pulled by horses.

Long distance travel was accomplished by the relatively new development of steam locomotives and steam driven ships. The Canadian Pacific Railroad had lines stretching across Canada. Trains moved grain from the Prairies west to the port of Vancouver and east to the ports of Montreal and Quebec. Two local rail companies, the Canadian Northern Railroad from Manitoba and the Grand Trunk from Eastern Canada, were just beginning to expand into the west. This was a welcome move for two reasons. First, the Canadian Pacific line was finding it difficult to handle the whole load, and second, the new companies would provide competition which should result in lower freight rates.

The Canadian government at the time was in favour of expanding the rail lines in an effort to help the West to develop a strong economy. To help encourage expansion, the government provided financial assistance to both railway companies. Ufortunately, there was not enough freight business to support three rail lines and so the two newcomers were fairly quickly forced out of business. With that, the Canadian government stepped in with the newly formed Canadian National Railway. The government remained active in Canada’s rail industry for nearly a century. Meanwhile, a new industry was beginning to establish itself around the globe. In 1899, Henry Ford founded the Detroit Automobile Company nine years after Daimler Motors was started in Germany. In Canada, Sam McLaughlin convinced his father to start making automobiles at his carriage shop in Oshawa, near Toronto. He signed an agreement with Buick to produce auto bodies while Buick supplied the engines. This arrangement lasted until 1918, when Buick bought out McLaughlin and made him the first Canadian President of what would eventually become General Motors.

The invention of the automobile led to major changes in Canadian society. While at first cars were little more than playthings for the very wealthy, as production methods improved and prices fell, they became accessible to the average worker. Production shot up from a hundred or two hundred cars per year to many thousands per year. With the invention of the automobile, for the first time in history people had the freedom to travel much more easily. They were no longer tied to going where the waterways and rail lines took them, and they didn’t have to concern themselves with rail or steam ship schedules.

Even those who couldn’t afford a car were not left out completely. Bicycles became extremely popular. Early models cost up to $125, an equivalent of several weeks' wages for the average worker. Increased efficiency in production soon brought that price down to less than $25, still a large sum for the time but within reach for most people. Increased mobility brought tremendous freedom to the population. People now had the opportunity to choose to live further from their places of employment. They could either drive or ride distances which would have been too far to walk. COMMUNICATION

There were several great changes in communication in the early years of the 20 th century. Three such changes were the introduction of the telephone, the ability to send wireless radio messages, and the increased distribution of newspapers. The telephone became an important part of many households in the early 20 th century. Usually, several households would share one telephone line, thus creating what has been popularly called a “party line.” Party lines continued to be common in rural areas in for much of the 20th Century.

Telephone operators, the majority of whom were women, would connect callers through a switchboard. The popularity of the telephone had a direct effect on employment in Canada since it created new jobs for Canadian women and infrastructure (i.e., phone lines) jobs, which, at the time, were done by men. The telephone also allowed people to order goods on the telephone which, in turn, affected local businesses.

Another turn-of-the-century “first” in communication was the first transatlantic wireless radio message. The first successful transmission was sent from Cornwall, England to a hilltop at St. John’s, Newfoundland on December 12, 1901, where it was received by Guglielmo Marconi. While he was not a Canadian, Marconi’s achievement precipitated the formation of the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of Canada Ltd.

A wireless station was set up in Nova Scotia from which official transatlantic wireless communication was conducted. In 1906, the first radio voice broadcast was delivered. This technology began as a tool to communicate to and to entertain crew members on transatlantic ships. During World War I, radio inventor and first-time broadcaster, Reginald Aubrey Fessenden, allowed the Allied governments to use his technology for military purposes. This had a great impact on military ship-to-shore communication and communication on land during the war. Commercial radio did not appear until 1920.

As communication methods continued to improve, newspapers expanded companies and editions. Faster and more accurate reporting of daily events through improved technology encouraged newspaper owners to publish more than one edition. By the early 1900s, newspapers could be found not only in larger cities but in small towns.

As literacy rates increased, so did the newspaper’s audience and market. For many people, the newspaper, whether weekly or daily, was their main source of news and information. At this time, photographs were not included in newspapers, but a variety of columns for information, entertainment and local gossip might be included; newspapers rapidly became one of Canada’s key communication media. MANUFACTURING

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries many people worked either in their home, on the farm, or in a small, local workshop. Machinery for mills or other industrial applications was mostly driven by water wheels. This meant that any factories which did exist had to be located near a source of running or falling water to drive the water wheel.

The development of steam, and later electrical, power changed all of that. Factories could now be located wherever the owners wanted them. They could now be built either near the source of the raw materials or near their final market. Steam and electrical power also allowed factories to become far larger and more efficient, as they were not limited by the size of the water source or weather conditions. Jobs which were previously done in the individual homes were now centralized in one location. The increased efficiency which resulted from this centralization had two major impacts which overshadowed all others: � It reduced the cost of manufactured goods. � It provided a steady, reliable source of income for large numbers of workers.

For the first time in history, goods which were previously considered to be reserved for the wealthy were available to the common person. The worker was able to save money after paying for the basic necessities of life. This money was used by workers to purchase consumer goods and even homes of their own. An example of how prices dropped and helped an item become almost a necessity was the bicycle. In the early years after its invention, a bicycle would cost well over $100. As production increased, prices fell to less than $25, well within the range of most workers. This had the added effect that the worker now had increased mobility and wasn’t forced to live within walking distance of a job.

Henry Ford’s invention of the automobile assembly-line attracted no little interest north of the border. Sam McLaughlin started the McLaughlin Motor Company where, using imported Buick engines from the United States, he manufactured automobiles for those Canadians who could afford them. By the beginning of World War I, McLaughlin was selling 1000 cars a year.

Improved technology meant that companies which had previously manufactured limited quantities of goods for local distribution were now able to make large quantities for distribution nationally or even internationally. Of course, this would not have been possible either if it had not been for similar advances in communication and transportation technology.

From Canada: A Changing Society - Curriculum Unit: Grade 8 History, Resource ID : ELO1004230