ENGLISH

Jen Waters, writing in The ‘Washington Times’, wrote that the English of today may not be the English of tomorrow. The nature of language is that it's always changing, says Naomi Baron, professor of linguistics at American University. The English language, and for that matter any language in the world, is a progressively altered form of the languages spoken in previous generations, all the way back to the origin of language itself. The English language has an attested history of about 13 centuries, says Professor Jay Jasanoff, chairman of the department of linguistics at Harvard University who holds a doctorate in linguistics. "There are written records of it from about 700 A.D.," he says, "but the English of that period was as different from modern English as a foreign language. And the English of 700 A.D., of course, was descended from the prehistoric English of 600 A.D., which was descended from the prehistoric English of 500 A.D., and so on." In about 449, the British Isles were invaded by a group of Germanic tribes that didn't speak the same language. As time passed, French became the biggest contributor to the English vocabulary, other than native English, namely because England was invaded by the French- speaking Normans in the eleventh century, Jasanoff says. English, like other European languages, also has words borrowed from Latin and Greek roots. To put it into categories, English progressed from Old English to Middle English (Chaucer's Canterbury Tales) to Early Modern English (Shakespeare) to Modern English. Pronunciation and vocabulary are the two areas of language in which variations are more readily noticeable over long stretches of time, says Anca Nemoianu, a professor of linguistics at Catholic University with a doctorate in linguistics. Starting in the end of the fifteenth century, the way people pronounced vowels began to change, creating a passage from Middle English to Modern English. In academic circles, this progression is frequently called "the great vowel shift." Language adapts to accommodate society, says Bill Frawley, dean of arts and sciences at George Washington University. He holds a doctorate in linguistics. "Look at the preposition used: the war on Iraq, the war with Iraq, the war in Iraq, the war against Iraq," he says. "What is it? It's all of them. Thus, we have a lot of words in English that reflect how the world has changed." As the world's de facto language -- English is the first language of some 400,000,000 people and is spoken by as many as 1,500,000,000--the changes in usages and meanings is on a scale unknown in history. The origins of the English language have to be studied in perspective as its vocabulary has been derived from various languages. The language arrived in England from the Northern Europe during the fifth century and began to spread over the British Isles. After the Norman invasion many nobles from England fled to the north of Scotland and thus the language spread through the Scottish lands. As England grew in power, so did the language. Students who have studied German or French will notice similarities between English and French/German. The German word 'milch' is very close in sound to the English 'milk'. Likewise, the German 'wasser' and English 'water', 'brot' and 'bread', 'fleisch' and 'flesh' closely resemble each other. Latin words like 'ad hoc', 'bona fide', 'modus operandi' have been lifted exactly the way they are in English. In Greek words as 'aeon' means 'an age', 'kudos' means 'glory'. As Britain’s colonies grew, so did the spread of the language and its dominance. The first English dictionary was compiled by English schoolteacher Robert Cawdrey in 1604. The only surviving copy is found at the Bodleian Library in Oxford. Yet this early effort, as well as the many imitators which followed it, was seen as unreliable and nowhere near definitive. Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield was still lamenting in 1754, 150 years after Cawdrey's publication, that it is "a sort of disgrace to our nation, that hitherto we have had no… standard of our language; our dictionaries at present being more properly what our neighbors the Dutch and the Germans call theirs, word-books, than dictionaries in the superior sense of that title." It was not until Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) that a truly noteworthy, reliable English Dictionary was deemed to have been produced, and the fact that today many people still mistakenly believe Johnson to have written the first English Dictionary is a testament to this legacy. By this stage, dictionaries had evolved to contain textual references for most words, and were arranged alphabetically, rather than by topic (a previously popular form of arrangement, which meant all animals would be grouped together, etc.). Johnson's masterwork could be judged as the first to bring all these elements together, creating the first 'modern' dictionary. Johnson's Dictionary remained the English-language standard for over 150 years, until the Oxford University Press began writing and releasing the Oxford English Dictionary in short fascicles from 1884 onwards. It took nearly 50 years to finally complete the huge work, and they finally released the complete OED in twelve volumes in 1928. It remains the most comprehensive and trusted English language dictionary to this day, with revisions and updates added by a dedicated team every three months. One of the main contributors to this modern day dictionary was an ex-army surgeon, William Chester Minor, a convicted murderer who was confined to an asylum for the criminally insane!

HINDI The Hindi language is spoken in Himachal Pradesh, North Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh (and Uttaranchal), Madhya Pradesh (and Chhattisgarh) and Bihar (and Jharkhand). The language is a confluence of several local languages and dialects such as Khadi Boli (खडडी बबोलल), Hindustani (हहहिंदससस्तानडीद ), Bangaru (बस्ताहिंगर), Vraja

(व्रज), Bundeli (बदहिंददेलल), Awadhi (अवधडी), Bagheli (बघदेलल), Gadhawali (गढवस्तालल), Chhattisgadhi

(छततससगढल), Magahi (मगहल), Bhojpuri (भबोजपदरल), Kanauji (कननन्नौजडी), Maithili (ममैथथिलल),

Marwadi (मस्तारवस्ताडडी), Mevati (मदेवस्तासडी) and Malavi (मस्तालवडी). Linguistically speaking there are two distinct ways in which Hindi is spoken - western Hindi and eastern Hindi. Khadi Boli, Bangaru, Vraja, Kanauji and Bundeli combine to form western Hindi. Khadi Boli is spoken in its original form in Merut and Bijnore. Bangaru is also called Haryanawi

(हररयस्ताणवडी) and is spoken in Haryana. Vraja is spoken in Mathura and its surrounding areas. Kanauji is spoken in the plains of the Ganga and the Jamuna. Bundeli is spoken in Bundelkhand. Awadhi, Bagheli and Chhattisgadhi combine to form eastern Hindi. Awadhi is spoken in Awadh and Chhattisgadhi in Chhattisgadh. Bihari, Rajasthani and Pahadi are also dialects of Hindi. Bhojpuri, Magahi and Maithili are branches of Bihari. Of all these Bhojpuri is the more widely spoken language. Shahabad, Champaranya and Saran districts of Bihar and Gorakhpur and Banaras in Uttar Pradesh are the regions where Bhojpuri is spoken. Magahi is spoken in Patna and Gaya while Maithili is spoken in the region to the north of the Ganga. Rajasthani is spoken in all of Rajasthan and Malwa. Mevati, Malavi, Jaipuri and Marwadi are branches of Rajasthani. Of these Marwadi is the most widely spoken language. Khadi Boli Hindi is the language of contemporary Hindi literature and is written in the Devanagiri script. It is the national language of India. About the 8th century is considered the time when Hindi literature began to take shape.

Buddhism had spread wide in northern India at the time. The Vajrayan (वज्रयस्तान) sect of

Buddhism was Tantrik (सस्ताहिंतत्रिक) in nature and was very popular. The monks of these sects were known as Siddha (ससद). The Siddha produced a lot of literature in the local language and these books are said to be among the first in Hindi literature. The Siddha opposed the alcoholism and sexuality that had entered the practices of the Vajrayan sect at the time through their writings.

The writing was in poetry form. Among the writers were Sarhapa (सरहपस्ता), Shabarapa (शबरपस्ता) and Luipa (लदईपस्ता). Along with the Buddhist Siddha, the Jains also contributed to the literature of the language. Chief among them were Svayambhudeva (सवयहिंभभददेव), Devasen Soori (ददेवसदेन सभरल) and Pushpadanta (पदषपदहिंस). The Jain writers wrote biographies, stories from the Ramayana and Mahabharata and love stories too. They preached the high values of religion through their works. Although both the Buddhist and Jain writers used several forms of literature, the chief verse form used by both was the doha (दबोहस्ता).

From the Siddha came the Natha (नस्ताथि) sect. The Natha sect attacked the intense ritualism of the time and focused on good conduct. Chief among the authors from this sect was Gorakhnath

(गबोरखनस्ताथि). The Natha poets wrote of renunciation and yoga in their poetry. Hence, it is very stark in nature. The sect produced many poets like Gahininath (गहहनडीनस्ताथि), Charpatanath

(चपर्पटनस्ताथि), Chauranginath (चन्नौरहिंगडीनस्ताथि) and Bhartruhari (भसर्पहरलर ). These poets composed their works between the 13th and the 14th century. Of these poets Bhartruhari is more well-known for his works on aesthetics, morals and renunciation. The work of these poets created valuable literature in the language and at the same time brought to the common people the values and morals of the time in their language. Between the 11th and the 12th century the Muslim invaders politically split northern India and several small kingdoms were formed. A new form of poetry emerged at the time. The Bhat (भस्ताट) or Charan (चस्तारण) poets began writing poems in praise of the local kings. The poems were called

Raso (रस्तासबो). Some portions of these poems were historical but a large portion was fictitious, praising the qualities of the kings that the poets worked for. The Charan literature has some famous compositions like the Munj Raso (मदहिंज रस्तासबो), Sandesh Raso (सहिंददेश रस्तासबो), Prithviraj Raso

(पथवडीरस्ताजर रस्तासबो) and Khuman Raso (खदमस्ताण रस्तासबो). The Bisaldev Raso (तबसलददेव रस्तासबो) of

Narpatee Nalha (नरपसडी नस्तालह) is important from the poetic point of view. Chand Bardai's (चहिंद

वरदस्ताई) Prithiviraj Raso is famous for its size.

It was around the same time that Sheikh Farid (शमैख फरलद) wrote poetry in Punjabi mixed with

Hindi. Amir Khusrao (अमडीर खदसबो) is also from the same period. He wrote poetry that spoke about the common men and women and their everyday travails and traditions. Some of Khusrao's compositions are very well-known.

अममस्ता मदेरदे बस्ताबस्ता कबो भदेजबोरल- कक सस्तावन आयस्ता

बदेटल सदेरस्ता बस्ताबस्ता सबोबभढस्ता रल - कक सस्तावन आयस्ता

अममस्ता मदेरदे भस्ताई कबो भदेजबोरल- कक सस्तावन आयस्ता

बदेटल सदेरस्ता भस्ताई सबो बस्तालस्तारल- कक सस्तावन आयस्ता

अममस्ता मदेरदे मस्तामभ कबो भदेजबो रल - कक सस्तावन आयस्ता

बदेटल सदेरस्ता मस्तामद सबो बस्ताहिंकस्ता रल- कक सस्तावन आयस्ता

Khusrao also wrote several poems in the Qawwali (कववस्तालल) form that was very popular with the Sufi saints and continue to attract listeners and singers alike. One of his more popular Qawwali goes like this -

छस्ताप-तसलक सज दलनहलहिं रदे सबोसदे नमैनस्ता समलस्ता कदे। पदेम बटल कस्ता मदवस्ता पपलस्ताकदे,

मसबस्तारल कर दलनहलहिं रदे ममोंसदे नमैनस्ता समलस्ताकदे।

खदसरबो तनजस्ताम पमै बसल-बसल जइए

मबोहदे सदहस्तागन ककीनहलहिं रदे मबोसदे नमैनस्ता समलस्ताकदे। Vidyapati was another popular poet of the time and he wrote in Maithili. One of his compositions speaks of Shri Krishna -

असभनव कबोमल सदनदर पस्तास।

सगर कस्तानन पहहरल पट रस्तास।

मलय-पवन डबोलय बहद भस्ताहिंतस

अपन कद सदम रसदे अपनहह मस्तातस।।

ददेखख-ददेखख मस्ताधव दमन हलसहिंस।

तबररनदस्तावन भदेल बदेकस बसहिंस।।

कबोककल बबोलस्ताम सस्ताहर भस्तार।

मदन पस्ताओल जग नव अथधकस्तार।।

पस्ताइक मधकरद कर मध द पस्तान।

भसम-भसम जबोहय मस्तातनतन-मस्तान।।

हदसस-हदसस सदे भसम पवपपन तनहस्तारर।

रस्तास बदझस्तावय मदहदस मदरस्तारर।

भनइ पवदयस्तापतस ई रस गस्ताव।

रस्ताधस्ता-मस्ताधव असभनव भस्ताव।। About the 14th century this form of literature began to dry up. The Muslim rulers consolidated their hold over north India and gradually drove the literature towards devotion. The poets took to the Vraj language to express their feelings of love and devotion towards Shri Krishna. At the end of the Charan period the battle field as a setting for composing poetry was replaced with the temples and places of pilgrimage. Vraj and Ayodhya became centres where literature was produced. Vraj and Awadhi were spoken in these places and they prospered adding their soft sounds and words to the flow of Hindi. Broadly, the evolution of the Hindi language is spread over some important periods. The first among these is the Bhakti Kal (भतकस कस्ताल) (1400-1600). During this period Ramanujacharya

(रस्तामस्तानदजस्ताचस्तायर्प) was spreading the message of the Vaishnava (वमैषणव) sect in south India. Among his disciples was Ramanand (रस्तामस्तानहिंद). He began the spread the message of devotion to Rama in the north. At about the same time Vallabhacharya formed the Pushtimarg sect and advocated devotion to Shri Krishna. The Islamic rule was established in north India by this time. The Vaishnava poets writing at the time invented a devotional path that would suit both the Hindus and Mussalmans. The Nirgun (तनगदर्पण) path was a result of this. Worshipping the divine as omnipresent and without human attributes (गदण) was this new path. There were two branches of this kind of devotion – the Dnyanashrayee (जस्तानस्ताश्रयडी) and the Premashrayee (पदेमस्ताश्रयडी). The first sought the divine through knowledge of the divine and the second through love. Kabir (कबडीर) belonged to the first and Jayasi (जस्तायसडी) to the second. One of Kabir's famous compositions rendered by the famous singer Kumar Gandharva speaks of the creation of the human body and how it should be treated by men.

झडीनडी झडीनडी बडीनडी चदररयस्ता ॥

कस्ताहदे कमै सस्तानस्ता कस्ताहदे कमैभरनडी,

कन्नौन सस्तार सदे बडीनडी चदररयस्ता ॥१॥

इडस्ता पपङगलस्ता सस्तानस्ता भरनडी, सदखमन सस्तार सदे बडीनडी चदररयस्ता ॥२॥

आठ कक वल दल चरखस्ता डबोलमै,

पस्ताकच सततव गदन सडीनडी चदररयस्ता ॥३॥

सस्ताक कबो ससयस मस्तास दसलस्तागदे,

ठमोंक ठमोंक कमै बडीनडी चदररयस्ता ॥४॥

सबो चस्तादर सदर नर मदतन ओढल,

ओहढ कमै ममैलल ककीनडी चदररयस्ता ॥५॥

दस्तास कबडीर जसन करर ओढल,

जयमों ककीहिं तयमों धर दलनडी चदररयस्ता ॥६॥

Jayasi, in the following poem, describes the form of Shiva as he goes to meet Parvati.

ससखन पहदकचदे आइ महदेसभ । बस्ताहन बमैल, कद तसट कर भदेसभ ॥

कस्ताथिरर कयस्ता हडस्तावरर बस्ताकधदे।मदहिंड-मस्ताल औ हतयस्ता कस्ताकधदे ॥

सदेसनस्ताग जस्ताकदेक कठमस्तालस्ता ।सनद भभदतस, हससडी कर छस्तालस्ता ॥

पहदकचडी रुद-कवलक कमै गटस्ता । ससस मस्ताथिदे औसदरसरर जटस्ता ॥

चकवर घहिंट औक डवर हस्ताथिस्ता । गन्नौरस्ता पस्तारबसडी धतनसस्ताथिस्ता॥

औ हनदवहिंस बडीरक सग आवस्ता । धरदे भदेस बस्तादर जस छस्तावस्ता॥

अवसहह कहदेतनह न लस्तावहद आगडी । सदेहह कमै सपथिद जरह जदेहह लस्तागडी ॥

The other form of worship called Sagun (सगदण) involved worshipping the divine as having human attributes. These too had two branches. The first was the worship of Rama advocated by

Tulsidas (सदलसडीदस्तास) and the second was the worship of Krishna advocated by Soordas (सदरदस्तास). Tulsidas speaks of the form of Rama in this composition. श्रडी रस्तामचकद कर पस्तालद भजद मन हरण भवभय दस्तारुणम।म

नवकहिंज-लबोचन, कहिंज-मदख, कर कहिंज, पद कहिंजस्तारुणम।।म

कहिंदपर्प अगखणस असमस छतब, नवनडील-नडीरद सदहिंदरम।म

पट पडीस मस्तानहद सडड़िस रुथच शदथच नन्नौसम जनक-सदसस्तानरम।।म

भजद दलनबहिंध द हदनदेश दस्तानव-दमैतय-वहिंश-तनकहिंदनम।म

रघदनहिंद कआनदकहिंद कबोशलचहिंद दशरथि-नहिंदनम।।म

ससर मदकद ट कहिंडलद तसलक चस्तारु उदस्तारु अहिंगपवभ भषणम।म

आजस्तानदभदज शर-चस्ताप-धर, सहिंगस्ताम-तजस-खर-दषणमभ ।।म

इतस वदतस सदलसडीदस्तास -शहिंकर शदेष-मदतन-मन रहिंजनम।म

मम म हृदय-कहिंज-तनवस्तासद करु, कस्तामस्ताहद खल-दल-गहिंजनम।।म One of Soordas' compositions rendered by the Hindustani classical maestro Pandit Jasraj speaks of Shri Krishna thus -

रस्तानडी सदेरबो थचरजडीयबो गबोपस्ताल ।

बदेथगबडबो बहढ हबोय पवरध लट, महरर मनबोहर बस्ताल॥

उपतज पयर्यो यहहिंखखभ क भस्तागय बल , समद सडीप जमैसदे लस्ताल।

सब गबोकद ल कदे पस्ताण जडीवन धन, बमैररन कदे उरसस्ताल॥

सभर ककसबो तजय सदख पस्तावसह , तनरखस शयस्ताम समस्ताल।

रज आरज लस्तागबो मदेरल अहिंखखयन, रबोग दबोष जहिंजस्ताल॥

It was around the same time that the Sufi (सभफकी) saints began to compose a new kind of poetry. Their devotion was Nirgun and they preached love for the divine.

The compositions of these saint poets were called 'baniya' (बस्तातनयस्ता). These are not composed in a specific meter. They are poetically simple and their language is the language of the everyday life of people. Kabir (कबडीर) for instance translated the complex and mystic into the everyday with metaphors drawn from the everyday experiences of life. The compositions of Guru Nanak (गदरु

नस्तानक) fall in the same stylistic category. All these poets focussed on spirituality and love and devotion to the divine. Yet, their social and religious comment was striking, especially with respect to amity between religions. The Sufi saints spoke of love and their poetry spoke of love for God. Their poetry took the form of human love stories that led to divine revelation and blessing. Mulla Daud (मदललस्ता दस्ताऊद) wrote the Chandayan (चनदस्तायन) in 1377. Shaikh Kutban (शमैख द कसबन) wrote the Mrigavati (मगस्तावसडीर ) in 1503. Jayasi (जस्तायसडी) wrote the famous Padmavat (पदस्तावस) in 1520.

After the Bhakti Kal came the Reeti Kal (रलतसकस्ताल) (1600-1850). This period saw the emergence of poetic technique in Hindi. The figures of speech, use of the metaphor and other expression developed during this time. Acharya Keshavdas (आचस्तायर्प कदेशवदस्तास) is considered the the originator of this form of writing. Kavipriya (कपवपपय), Rasikpriya (रससकपपय), Ramchandrika

(रस्तामचहिंहदकस्ता), Veersinghdevacharit (वडीरससहिंहददेवचररस) and Nakhashikh (नखसशख). In the Ramachandrika the poet has recited the story of Rama. This is the first Reeti poem in Hindi.

Adhunik Kal (आधतनकद कस्ताल) or the modern period started from 1850. It was the period when the British had begun consolidating their hold over India. The exposure to English language literature brought about a change in the perspectives on society, politics, rights and duties. The educated people now began to articulate their realities in prose. Prose writing in Khadi Boli spread in the 19th century. The process was started by Lalluji Yadav (लललदजडी यस्तादव) and Sadal

Mishra (सदल समश्र) who wrote books in Hindi for English officers. Both were employed with the Fort William College in Kolkata. The Christian missionaries began to write in Hindi spreading the message of Christ. The first school text books in Hindi for children were written by

Raja Shivaprasad (रस्ताजस्ता सशवपसस्ताद). This period when Hindi literature began expressing modernity is also called the Bharatendu

Yuga (भस्तारसदेनद द यदग) because of the contributions of Bharatendu Harishchandra (भस्तारसदेनदद

हररशचहिंद). It was a period of self inquiry, of the rational over the spiritual, of reality over fiction. Several newspapers were produced during this period. The period saw the all round growth of Hindi literature in India. The later period of growth is characterised by the contributions of several writers and composers.

Pandit Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi (पहिंडडस महस्तावडीर पसस्ताद दपववदेदल), the editor of Saraswati

(सरसवसडी), brought discipline and structure to Hindi prose. This period is known as the Dwivedi

Yuga (दपववदेदल यदग) (1900-1920). The modern novel in Hindi emerged in 1910. Among the popular novelists were Prasad (पसस्ताद), Guleri (गदलदेरल), Premchand (पदेमचहिंद), Sudarshan (सददशर्पन) and Vrundavanlal Varma (वहिंदस्तावनलस्तालर वमस्तार्प). After this period came the Swacchandata Yuga

(सवचछहिंदसस्ता यदग) (1920-1940). The self expression and inquiry that had started in the earlier period found its complete expression and growth in this latter period. While the earlier period focussed on novels and short stories, newspaper columns and fiction, this period saw the writing of plays in a large number. Among the famous playwrights of the time were Jayshankar Prasad

(जयशहिंकर पसस्ताद), Premi (पदेमडी), Ugra (उग) and Govind Vallabh Pant (गबोपवहिंद वललभ पहिंस).

A new wave of existential writing emerged after 1940. It was called Yatharthavad (यथिस्ताथिर्पवस्ताद). Farmers, Dalits, women, the exploited classes and marginalised society found expression in this writing. Among the important writers of this time were Pant (पहिंस), Nirala (तनरस्तालस्ता),

Bhagavaticharana (भगवसडीचरण), Ramvilas Sharma (रस्तामपवलस्तास शमस्तार्प), Kedarnath Agarwal

(कदेदस्तारनस्ताथि अगरवस्ताल), Nagarjuna (नस्तागरजदनस्ता), Trilochana (तत्रिलबोचन), and Shamsher Bahadursingh

(शमशदेर बहस्तादरससहिंगद ). MARATHI Marathi is the official language of the state of Maharashtra. It is one of the very well evolved and rich languages in India. Stories, novels, biographies, essays, plays, history, poetry, literature by the saints, folk literature, encyclopaedias, science writing are some of the genres that are abundantly found in this language. From about the twelfth century a lot of literature has been produced in this language. The language traces similarity to Aryan Sanskrit. However, Marathi did not originate from Sanskrit. In fact, historians and anthropologists have differing views on the origins of Marathi. There are influences on Marathi of the Jainas and the Buddhists too. A book titled Kuvalayamala (कद वलयमस्तालस्ता) written by Udyotasuri (उदयबोससदरल) in the year 778 compares 18 Indian languages. Writing about the Marathi language the author says that the

Marathi people pronounce 'dinnale' (हदणणलदे), 'gahille' (गहहललदे). These sounds, according to the author, are peculiar to the Marathi language. Another book available from the year 1129 is written by Someshwar (सबोमदेशवर). It is titled Manasollas (मस्तानसबोललस्तास) or

Abhilashitarthchintamani (असभलपषसस्ताथिर्पथचहिंसस्तामणडी). It has several Marathi words and metaphors and in one place it also has a Marathi verse.

जदेणदे रसस्तासळ उणद मतसयरपदे वदेद आखणयलदे ।

मनद सशवक वस्ताखणयलदे सन्नौ ।

सहिंसस्तार सस्तायर सस्तारण मबोहहिंसबो।

रस्तावबो नस्तारस्तायणद जबो गडीचडी ॥ It means - The one who, taking the form of the fish, brought the Vedas from the bottom of the sea, whom Manu and Shiva have described, who takes us across the sea of attachments and destroys desire. Sing the praises of that Rajanarayana.

The oldest known author in Marathi is Mukundraja (मदकहिंदरस्ताजद ). He wrote the Viveksindhu

(पववदेकससहिंध)भ in 1188. It must be understood that these books do not indicate the beginning of the language but its high state of evolution. Therefore, it is safe to assume that the Marathi language was in use at least some centuries before the book was composed. However, no book in Marathi prior to this one is available today. The Viveksindhu speaks of the philosophy of the Vedas and the Upanishad. The writing is in poetry form. The use of metaphor is not to make the verse sound good but to explain the finer points of philosophy. An example of the verse is -

नदल उगवडी तसथिरस्तावसडी । सरर सदेथच समद हबोसडी ।

आहबो आधस्तार कस्ता न हबोसडी । आखणकस्ता नहदयस्ताहिंसडी॥

समैसस्ता आपदलस्ता उगवभ । जरर न सस्ताहिंडडसस्ता हस्ताजडीवद ।

सरर अहिंगस्तासस यदेसस्ता थिबोरस्तावद । परब्रहमडीचस्ता ॥

The twelfth century in Maharashtra was influenced heavily by the Mahanubhava (महस्तानदभस्ताव) sect founded by Chakradhar (चक्रधर). Marathi owes a lot to this sect. Chakradhar and his disciples appear to insist on the usage of Marathi instead of Sanskrit. Mukundraja did write in Marathi but he makes it clear that he did so out of the compulsion of wanting the people to understand what he wrote.

About 1278, Mahendra (महहद) or Mahimbhatt (महहमभट), a member of the Mahanubhava sect, wrote the Lilacharitra (ललळस्ताचररत्रि) in verse form. In the book Mahendra speaks about his teacher

Chakradhar, his preaching and events in his life. Later, Kesoba (कदेसबोबस्ता), another of Chakradhar's disciples put together 114 examples that Chakradhar used to explain the intricacies of life. Chakradhar's audience, it would appear, comprised various strata of society then. His examples speak of everyday moral and philosophical conflicts and how to resolve them. Chakradhar, in this context, used the folk media form of pravachan (पवचन) or the informal public discourse to spread his own philosophy of life. Between 1278 and 1363, as many as seven important books were written by disciples of Chakradhar. These books laid the foundation on which Marathi grew in later centuries. Among these books is found articulated the initial grammar of the Marathi language. This was done by Bhishmacharya (भडीषमस्ताचस्तायर्प) in the book Panchavartik (पहिंचवस्तातसर्पक). The tradition of writing books in Marathi, started by the Mahanubhav sect, continued unabated till the 17th century. However, with changing times, nothing new was added to enrich and evolve the language further. To make matters worse, some members of the sect produced a different script that they used to write their works in. Only a few members of the sect could decipher this script. This process started in the 14th century and gradually, although the sect produced a lot of literature, it was made unavailable to the mass society.

Dnyaneshwar (जस्तानदेशवर) was born within a short span from Chakradhar (1275-1296). This was a time when all kinds of complicated behaviour were prescribed and a one dimensional perspective was made part of the everyday discipline of living. Several sects had crowded around a general philosophy that prescribed distancing oneself from material things and walking the path of renunciation. The dominant groups within society had usurped social power and articulated all social activity into rituals that were framed within religious contexts. It was in this kind of environment that Dnyaneshwar chose to present the Bhavarthadipika (भस्तावथिर्पदलपपकस्ता), a critique of the Bhagvad Gita in Marathi. The book comprises 9000 verses in the ovee (ओवडी) form. The Gita then was only available in Sanskrit. Both the Gita and the Bhagvat, that the dominant groups used to gain social power from, were ancient texts. In his critique of the Gita, Dnyaneshwar provided a new interpretation that spoke of equality of all mankind before God. By this interpretation Dnyaneshwar challenged the existing dominant class. Right at the beginning of the book, Dnyaneshwar announces that he is going to present the discussions between Krishna and Arjuna in the Marathi language and promises to place Sanskrit and Marathi on the same throne. He further adds -

मस्ताझस्ता मर हस्ताटस्ताथच बबोलद कन्नौसदकदे ।

परल अमसस्तासदेहलर पमैजस्ता तजहिंकदे।

ऐसडी अक्षरदे रससकदे ।

मदेळवडीन ॥

Dnyaneshwar, Nivrutti (तनवतसडीर ), Sopan (सबोपस्तान), Muktabai (मदकसस्ताबस्ताई) and Changdev (चस्ताहिंगददेव) are the five important composers in Marathi in this time followed by Namdev (नस्तामददेव), Savata

Mali (सस्तावसस्ता मस्ताळडी), Chokhamela (चबोखस्तामदेळस्ता), Gora Kumbhar (गबोरस्ताहिंभस्तारद क ), Narahari Sonar

(नरहरल सबोनस्तार), Joga Paramanand (जबोगस्ता परमस्तानहिंद) and other saints. The Varkari (वस्तारकरल) sect was formed by Dnyaneshwar and propagated by the saints after him. The years between 1050 and 1350 could be considered the ancient period of Marathi literature. The Mahanubhav sect and then the Varkari sect spread a new awareness, a renaissance among the Marathi speaking people of the time. The thought was taken first by Nagadevacharya

(नस्तागददेवस्ताचस्तायर्प) from the Mahanubhav sect and later by Namdev of the Varkari sect right up to the Punjab. However, this first wave social and spiritual renaissance died about 1347. The Islamic invaders descended in the region from north about the 13th century but their socio- political impact was felt a hundred years later. The Yadav clan ruling over Devagiri was defeated and within 25 years of Dnyaneshwar's death the entire region around today's Maharashtra was ruled by the Islamic invaders. From 1347 the Bahamani kings ruled over the region only to be challenged by the Vijayanagara Empire that gave bitter opposition for almost 200 years. The empire eventually collapsed and the Islamic influence over language, culture and religion gained strength.

About the year 1558, the Datta (दतस) sect was formed. Gurucharitra (गदरुथचररत्रि) is considered the most important book in this sect. It was written by Saraswati Gangadhar (सरसवसडी गहिंगस्ताधर) whose mother tongue was Kannada. He writes that he does not know Marathi (भस्ताषस्ता नयदे

महस्तारस्ताषष) but would write in Marathi for the followers of Datta who are largely Marathi speaking. Composed of 51 chapters and 7491 verses the book focuses on the worship of the Guru and its benefits. The book is a reflection of the social life in Maharashtra at the time.

In this same sect Dasopant (दस्तासबोपहिंस) (1551-1615) emerged as an important contributor to the creating of books. He wrote a lot and his most famous writing is Gitarnava (गडीसस्ताणर्पव), one of the longest critiques of the Gita written in Marathi. Dasopant wrote in the time of terrible conflict in the region and typically exhorted his readers to follow the path of dharma. The situation changed about the sixteenth century. The Bahamani kingdom was split five ways. Each of these kingdoms promoted local Marathi chieftains and landlords to serve their interests and gradually the region stabilized politically. The Marathi landlords grew in power within these kingdoms. This growth helped the Marathi language, culture and religion to prosper. This led to a second renaissance in the seventeenth century. This renaissance was led by Eknath (एकनस्ताथि) (1533-1599). Eknath brought about a confluence of the richest linguistic, cultural and religious traditions of the Varkari sect, the Datta sect and the Pandits of Paithan. During this time the Pandits would look down upon Marathi in comparison to Sanskrit. On the other hand, the Bahamani kings had begun to introduce Urdu in the official correspondence. The large majority of the people were without any direction. Eknath had to ensure he did not hurt the rulers or the Pandits and still be able to spread the message of social and religious change propagated by the poet saints before him. He chose Marathi because that was the language of the people. He wrote -

सदेपव सनकस्ताहदकस्ताहिंचदे जदेजस्तान।

सहथच मरस्ताठठी भस्ताषदेमस्ताजडी जस्ताण।

यदेथिदे ठदेऊ जस्तासस्ता दषणभ ।

दबोषडी आपण हबोईजदे ।।

जदेपव कस्ता गदळस्ताचदे कस्तारलदे कदेलदे।

परर सदे कडदपणस्ता नस्ताहल आलदे।

सदेपव हहिंसगडीस मरस्ताठठी झस्तालदे।

नस्ताहल पस्तालटलदे थचनमस्तात्रि ॥ Eknath composed several thousand poems. His performance of the Ramayana was an important contribution to a political awakening in Maharashtra of the time. The Christian missionaries made significant contributions to the Marathi language. The

Khristapurana (खख्रिससपदरस्ताण) written by Father Stephens (1549-1619) is perhaps the most prominent of these writings. This work is written in the ovee form that was used by the poet saints right from Dnyaneshwara to Eknath. Father Stephens began his work exactly like the poet saints and wrote -

वबो नमबो पवसवभस्ताररसस्ता । ददेवबस्तापस्ता सवर्पसमरथिस्ता।

परमदेशवरस्ता सतयवहिंसस्ता ।सवगर्पपथिर पवचदेयस्ताद रचणस्तारस्ता ॥ सभ ररपदससपदचस्ता दस्तासस्तारर ।कपस्तातनथध करुणस्ताकरु ।

सभ सवर्प सदखस्ताचस्ता सस्तागर । आहदअहिंसद नस्तासबोडदे ।

सवगर्पसतषटर सदवस्ताहिं हदेळस्तामस्तात्रिदे ।कदेलस्ताचनदद सभयर्पनखयत्रिदे ।

सदजदेतन यदेकदे सबददे पपवत्रिदे । कदेलल सवर्परचनस्ता ॥ Several Jesuit priests of the time followed Father Stephens' example and composed poems in Marathi. Of these works, of special value, is the biography of Saint Peter written in verse form by Father Cruba. At the time of Eknath and later in the time of Tukaram several Mohammedan saints wrote in Marathi. These works were composed chiefly during the period between the 15th and the 18th century in Maharashtra. Among the more important of these saints was Shah Muntoji Brahmani

(शस्ताह मदहिंसबोजडी ब्रस्ताहमणडी). He wrote under the pen name Mrityunjaya (मतयर दहिंजय). He wrote several books and the largest and more important among them was the Siddhasanketprabandha

(ससदसहिंकदेसपबहिंद) comprising two thousand ovee. The second chapter of this work is a conversation between Rama and Janaki where Rama says -

मन-नयनस्ता यदेकस्ताहिंस करस्तावस्ता । पदेमभस्ताव हदयडीधरस्तावस्ता॥

सतय पवशवस्तास मस्तानस्तावस्ता । तनशचयदेसडी॥

हदसदेल इहिंद-द भस्तासकरस्ताहिंचदे परल । सबोथच उभय दृषटल धरल।

तयस्तास सभ पवदेश करल । तनशचय मनदे ॥

मयबोरपत्रिस्तावरलल डबोळदे । समैसडी हदससडी जदेवसदळदे ।

सयस्ताहिंमधयदे जदे नडीळदे । सदे रपमस्ताझदे॥

सयस्ताहिंस खबोवबोतन दृतषट । सदे अहिंजनसदवस्तावदे नदेत्रिपदटल ।

मग उघडदेल पदेटल । ब्रहमसदेजस्ताचडी ॥

धयस्तानडी थचतस तसथिरस्तावदेल । सयस्ता अखहिंड सदेजपकस्ताशदेल। मन सदस्ताकस्तार हबोईल । पवसरलदेतन ददेहस्तासदे ॥

Several Mohammedan poets wrote in Marathi including Amber Hussein (अहिंबरद हसमैन), Sheikh

Sultan (शमैख सदलसस्तान), Sheikh Mohammed (शमैख मदहममद) and Shahamuni (शस्ताहमदनडी). These Mohammedan writers wrote not just religious poetry but composed other works too. Muntoji

(मदहिंसबोजडी) was a descendent of the Bahamani kings and wrote a critique of the Vedanta. Another man of the same name wrote the Sangitamakaranda (सहिंगडीसमकरहिंद) on music and Vijayabhairava

(पवजयभमैरव) on astrology.

After Eknath a new form of story telling was created by Mukteshwar (मदकसदेशवर). He was a grandson of Eknath. He produced poetry that spoke of beauty and material well being over the spiritual life propagated by Eknath. Mukteshwar wrote extensively and is believed to have composed about 17,000 poems. He has used all kinds of figures of speech and metaphors to colour his poems and representation. He deals with subjects ranging from the love making of a couple to a simple description of nature. One of his poems describes the visual sense of dawn thus -

शदेष वदेचसस्ता अठरस्ता घहटकस्ता ।पभवर्प हदशदेनदे क्षस्तासळलदे मदखस्ता ।

कहिंकद द म रदेखखलदे तयस्ता तसलकस्ता । अरणबोदय बबोसलजदे॥

भस्तागर्पवस्ताचस्तायर्प उदयस्ता यदेस ।सहिंवअपस्तारक्रमदतनयस्ता पहिंथि ।

पदढदे जस्तानहवडीजळस्ताचस्ता वस्तास।शडीसल, महिंद पस्तासलस्ता ॥

कद ककद ट रव कररसस्ता कस्ता कस्ता । भयदेपळसभटलस्ता उलदकस्ता ।

भबोग दयस्तावयस्ता चक्रवस्ताकस्ता । चक्रवस्ताककी चस्तासललयस्ता॥

गस्ताढस्तासलहिंगनदे पडलल गस्ताहिंठठी । सबोडडसस्ता दहिंपतयदेहबोसडीकषटल।

वसत्रिदे वदेहढसडी परल पबोटल ।अपभणर्प कस्तामदे जळजळ ॥ सवमैररणडी सस्ताहिंडबोतन सवसखयस्ताहिंसदे ।दसडीसहहसभ तवरदे दबहसदे ।

गहस्तार यदेऊनडी सवकमस्तार्पसदे । सहिंपस्ताहदसडी लन्नौकककस्ता॥

घदेवबोतन अहिंधकस्तारस्ताचडी बदहिंथिडी । चहिंदसवदेचछस्ता भबोगडी जगसडी।

पकस्ताश वदेढबोनडी सभयस्तार्पपसडी ।' महणदे मडी शद पतसव्रसस्ता'॥

It was during this time that Tukaram (सदकस्तारस्ताम) began writing his abhang (अभहिंग). Dnyaneshwar had laid the foundations of the Varakari sect and its Bhagavaddharma (भस्तागवदमर्प). Tukaram took it to its peak. Dnyaneshwar preached that everybody had the right to seek God and all beings were equal before God. Tukaram practiced this. He wrote -

वदेदस्ताहिंचस्ता अथिर्प आमहस्तासडीच ठस्तावस्ता । यदेरस्ताहिंनडी वस्ताहस्तावस्ताभस्तारमस्ताथिस्ता। Tukaram attacked social discrimination with a vengeance. He sang his abhang in temples and it is a credit to the power of folk music that within no time his abhang were being sung among the local folk of the time. The sociology and philosophy in the Upanisad, Vedanta, Gita, Bhagavat, Dnyaneshwari and all other texts of the time was brought before the commonest of people in their language by Tukaram.

At the same time, Ramdas (रस्तामदस्तास), another poet saint of Maharashtra was articulating a political philosophy based on the very same books and scriptures. He spoke of gaining valour, strength, confidence and self esteem and fighting for one's rights. He wrote -

उतकट भवय सदेथच घयस्तावदे । समळसमसळस अवघदेथच टस्ताकस्तावदे ।

तन:सपहपणदेर पवखयस्तास वहस्तावदे ।भमहिंडळडी ॥

Ramdas wrote the Dasbodh (दस्तासबबोध) in verse form. This work is a confluence of political, social and economic philosophy that proved to be rejuvenating for the people at the time. Some of his verses have become oft-quoted phrases in Maharashtra. For example -

'आधडी पपहिंच करस्तावस्ता नदेटकस्ता । मग घयस्तावदे परमस्ताथिर्पपववदेकस्ता॥'

'समजलदे आखण वसर्पलदे । सदेथच भस्तागय पदरुष जस्तालदे ॥'

'वदेष धरस्तावस्ता बस्तावळस्ता । अहिंसरल असस्तावयस्ता नस्तानस्ताकळस्ता॥' 'दसरद यस्तावरल पवसहिंबलस्ता । तयस्ताचस्ता कस्तायर्पभस्ताग नस्तासलस्ता॥'

Several women too wrote poetry in Marathi at this time. Chief among them were Muktabai

(मदकसस्ताबस्ताई), Dnyaneshwar's sister, Janabai (जनस्ताबस्ताई), a woman living with Namdev's family,

Bahinabai (बहहणस्ताबस्ताई), Tukaram's disciple and Venabai (वदेणस्ताबस्ताई), Ramdas's disciple. Of these Janabai and Bahinabai are particularly striking because they give an everyday feminine perspective to the work of the saint poets and the socio-political environment within which the saints produced their work. Janabai writes -

आमहल बळवहिंसस्ताचयस्ता दस्तासडी । कबोण गभर्पवस्तास सबोसडी॥

कर यमस्तासडी सस्ताडण ।आमदचस्ता धनडी नस्तारस्तायण ॥

जनडी महणदे हरल । पस्ताप उरबो नदेदल उरल॥ In another of her compositions Janabai says -

दसळसस्ता कस्ताहिंडडसस्ता सदज गस्ताईन अनहिंसस्ता ।

न पवसहिंबदे क्षणभरल सदझदे नस्ताम गस्ता मदरस्तारल ॥

तनतय हस्ताथच कस्तारभस्तार मदखडी हरर तनरहिंसर ।

मस्ताय बस्ताप बहिंधद भथगनडी सभ बस्ता सखस्ता चक्रपस्ताणडी ।

लक्ष लस्तागलदे चरणस्तासडी महणदे नस्तामयस्ताचडी दस्तासडी॥

Bahinabai makes her deity Vithoba (पवठबोबस्ता) a family man and describes his family made up of the saint poets of the time. She writes

पवठभ मस्ताझस्ताद लदेकरवस्ताळस्ता । सहिंगदेद लदेकरस्ताहिंचस्ता पस्ताळस्ता॥

सदकस्ता घदेसबो कडडयदेवरल । नस्तामस्ता करस्ताहिंगदळडी धरल ॥

एकनस्ताथि खस्ताहिंदयस्तावरल । कतबरस्तासदे हस्तासडीधरल॥

गबोरस्ताहिंभस्तारद क मस्ताहिंडडीवर । चबोखस्ता तजवस्ताबरबोबरल॥

पदढदे चस्तालदे जस्तानदेशवर ।मस्तागदेमदकसस्ताबस्ताई सदहिंदर ॥ बहहणडी महणदे बस्ता गबोपस्ताळस्ता । कररसडी भकसस्ताहिंचस्ता सबोहस्ताळस्ता॥

This period of religious poetry was followed by the Povada (पबोवस्ताडस्ता) and the Lavani (लस्तावणडी) form of composition. These two forms became very popular during the reign of Shivaji. The

Povada was sung by a Shahir (शस्ताहलर). The oldest Povada is believed to have been composed by

Adnyanadasa (अजस्तानदस्तास) describing in 1659 the killing of Afzal Khan by Shivaji. Another famous Povada written by Tulsidas (सदळशडीदस्तास) speaks of the exploits of Tanaji Malusare, one of Shivaji's trusted warriors who won for him the fort of Simhagad near Pune. Today, about 300 of these compositions written by various authors are available. These composers used exaggeration to describe the joy of winning a battle as well as the sorrow of losing one. Shahir Anand Phandi

(शस्ताहलर आनहिंद फहिंदल) wrote of the joyous moment when the battle of Kharda was one and then cried over the loss at Panipat. A famous Povada by Tulsidas says -

उददेभस्तान सदेथिनद तनघस्तालस्ता । आलस्ता पपरस्ताचयस्ता दरगयस्तालस्ता॥

फबोडलयस्ता कस्तापसस्ताचयस्ता उदल । ओसलदे सदेलस्ताचदेबदधलदे ॥

जयस्तानदे आग जडी लस्तावलल । जयस्तानदे उजदेड सबोकदेलस्ता॥

गललम ककसडी मबोजभन पस्ताहहलस्ता । पननस्तास मस्ताणभस हयस्ताचयस्ता आलदे हहशदेबस्तालस्ता ॥

उददेभस्तान मस्ताणभस पस्ताहभन । तयस्ताचयस्ता भदजस्ता जयस्ता थिरस्तारलयस्ता ॥

पननस्तास मस्ताणभस । मस्ताझडी आहिंबस्ताडडीचडी भस्ताजडी॥

मबोगल मस्तागदे परसलस्ता । गदेलस्ता आखस्ताडखस्तानयस्तामधडी ॥

पस्तायडी सदमस्तानडी सदरवस्तारस्ता घस्तासलयस्ता । अठरस्ता खहिंडडीचदे ककनखस्ताप तयस्तानदेअहिंगस्ताहिंसघस्तासलदे॥

बस्तारस्ता आसबडडीचस्ता जबोडस्ता । तयस्तानदे पस्तायस्ताहिंमधडीघस्तासलस्ता॥

जयस्तानदे वस्ताघनखदे चढपवलल । तजरदेटबोप डबोईस घस्तासलस्ता॥

अठरस्ता जस्तागडी तबबयस्ता । हरबोहस्तारलनदे उभयस्ताकदेलयस्ता॥ सळ पठयस्ताचस्ता सबोडडलस्ता । अठरस्ता तबबयस्ताहिंचडी खस्ताहिंडदेकदेलल॥

आसददस्ताचस्ता हटलस्ता लयस्तालस्ता । गस्ताभणडी गस्ताईजबोकस्ताटलल॥ The Lavani form came after the Povada. It was more dramatic. It is sung and enacted. The Lavani dealt with topics as wide as love, sex and marriage to social values and women's rights. A very famous Lavani goes like this -

सदहिंदरस्ता मनस्तामथध भरसल जरस्ता नस्ताहल ठरलल।

हवदेसलस सशरसल मबोतयस्ताचस्ता भस्ताहिंग॥

रदे गडयस्ता हन्नौस नस्ताहहपदरसल महणबोनडी पवरसल ।

पदनहस्ता नस्ताहह कफरसलद कणस्ताचडी सस्ताहिंग ॥ Another Lavani warns people of charlatans and says -

भलस्ता जनम हस्ता सदलस्ता लस्ताधलस्ता खदलस्तास हदयडी बदधस्ता

धररसश सरर हररचस्ता सदेवक सदधस्ता ॥

चरस्ताचरल गदर सरस्तावयस्तालस्ता नरस्ता सशरस्तावररहरल, जरस्ता सरर समज धरल अहिंसरल ।

हटस्तासटस्तानदे पटस्ता रहिंगवदतन जटस्ता धररसश कस्ता, सशरल मठस्ताचडी उठस्ताठदेव कस्ताहिं सरल।

वनस्ताहिंस अथिवस्ता जनस्ताहिंस हबो कस्ताहिं मनस्ताहिंसवहस्तावदेपरल, हरलचदे नस्ताव भवस्ताहिंबदथधसरल ।

कस्ताय गळयस्तास घस्तालदतन सदळशडीचडी लस्ताकडदे ।

हल कस्ताय भवस्तालस्ता रद करतसल मस्ताकडदे ।

बस्ताहदेर समरपवशडी आस हररसश वस्ताकडदे ।

अशस्ता भतकसचयस्ता रसस्तारहहस सभ कसस्ता महणपवशडी बदधस्ता, हरलरस सस्ताहिंडदतन घदेसडी बदधस्ता ॥ The Jains contributed several books to the Marathi language. The oldest among the Jain poets is believed to be Pushpadanta (पदषपदहिंस) who wrote about the tenth century. The exact time of the Jain influence on Marathi is not known. However, about the 14th century the Jains traveled into Maharashtra and during the reign of the Rashtrakutas the Jains also got the protection of the king. The oldest Jain Marathi book was written by Brahmagunadas (ब्रहमगदणदस्तास) who wrote the Shrenikacharitra (श्रदेखणकचररत्रि) in 1450. After him there are several Jain writers who wrote in the Marathi language. The period between 1875 and 1920 is believed to be the period of revolution for the Marathi language. The British had established their hold over the entire country during this time. The Marathi that is spoken today took its form during this period. It is interesting to note that throughout its history the Marathi language has had to contend and contest for space with another language to survive. At first it was Sanskrit then Urdu followed by English and Portuguese, especially in the coastal regions of the state. In Mumbai it had to contend with Gujarati and finally after India became Independent, Marathi had to contest for space with Hindi. Towards its south the language has had to contest with Kannada. One of the benefits of these numerous conflicts has been that the Marathi language has picked up words from several languages and given its own words to other languages. Typically, the resurgence of the Marathi language has always been from the grassroots by a movement led by the common people in Maharashtra.

EXERCISE

Answer the following questions with the help of your teachers:

GUJARATI

About the ninth century Shaurseni (शन्नौरसदेनडी) was spoken in the region today recognised as Gujarat and Bengal. Gujarati emerged from this language. Gujarati is also related to both Prakrit

(पकर स) and Sanskrit (सहिंसकर स). Gujarat has a very long coast and through the centuries before Independence the region was a well known port attracting Arab and African traders. In the Diu and Daman areas the Portuguese had colonies for several centuries. As a result of this active trade with people of different linguistic and cultural histories, the Gujarati language was enriched with words from several different languages. The Gujarati script is similar to the Devanagari. However, the horizontal line used in the Devanagari script at the head of all alphabets is discarded in the Gujarati script. Some alphabets are shaped differently too. Yet, if one is familiar with the one, it is easier to understand the other. In very early times, poets writing in Gujarati would call it Prakrit or Apabhransha. It is believed that Mahakavi Premanand (महस्ताकवडी पदेमस्तानहिंद) was the first to call the language 'Gujarati'. He wrote - 'Bandhu Nagadaman Gujarati Bhasha' (बस्ताहिंध द नस्तागदमस्ताण गदजरस्तासडी भस्ताषस्ता) where he made the reference for the first time. The evolution of Gujarati from the tenth century can be traced very clearly and there are examples of the stages of evolution available today. Its history is divided, in the last one thousand years, into three periods – Gaurjar Apabhransha (गन्नौजर्पर अपभहिंश) or ancient Gujarati existed between the 11th and the first half of the 14th century. The writing of this time revolved around the Puranas and the epics. The stories were religious and moral in nature. Among the stories of the time, Tarangalola (सरहिंगलबोलस्ता) written by Padaliptacharya (पदसलपसस्ताचस्तायर्प), a Jain teacher, is the finest example of literature of the time. Between the years 746 and 1298 the Rajputs ruled over Gujarat. At the time the Brahmins and the Jains produced literature in Sanskrit. However, about the tenth century, the Bhat (भस्ताट) and Charan (चस्तारण) poets introduced a new form of poetry that was popularly called the Raso (रस्तासबो). These were ballads sung in praise of the local rulers and were composed in a language that was a combination of Vraj (व्रज), Marwadi (मस्तारवस्ताडडी) and other local languages. The higher class Pandits ignored these poets and their poetry but as they became popular the Pandits began to compose similar works in Sanskrit and Prakrit. This poetry was sophisticated and clever but those who wrote it were more closely connected to the rulers than the people. However, in 1298 Allauddin Khilji conquered Gujarat and the poets, who lived in luxury under the Chalukyas till then, had to run for their life. For the first time they mingled with the masses and connected with their aspirations, beliefs and faith. This brought a renaissance within Gujarati literature. Raas (रस्तास), phagu (फस्तागद), barmasi (बस्तारमस्तासडी), prabandh (पबहिंध) etc emerged as fresh forms of literature in Gujarati in this period. As the Muslim invaders consolidated their rule over Gujarat the poetry turned to devotion. Narsi Mehta (नरसडी मदेहसस्ता) (1414 to 1480) is by far the most popular of Gujarati devotional poets of this period that became known as Gurjar Bhasha (गदजर्पर). Narsi was born in Saurashtra (सन्नौरस्ताषष) in a village called Talaja (सळस्ताजस्ता ). Shamaladasano vivah (शस्तामलदस्तासनबो पववस्ताह ), har (हस्तार ), hundi (हदहिंडडी ), mameru (मस्तामदेरु ), rasasahasrapadi (रस्ताससहसपदल ), shrungaramala (शहिंगस्तारमस्तालस्तार ) are among his popular works. After Narsi came Meera (मडीरस्ता ) who composed in Gujarati as well as Vraj and Rajasthani. Meera was followed by Akho Bhagat (अखबो भगस ). Akho Bhagat attacked Although all these poets definitely added substantial literature to Gujarati, the poet who gave Gujarati the status of a literary language was Premanand. He vowed that he would not wear the turban till he had produced the best literature in the Gujarati language. He wrote about 50 books of poetry and convinced the people that sophisticated literature to match that in Sanskrit could be produced in Gujarati. If today some of the characters of the Mahabharata or the Ramayana look and feel like they could have been Gujarati, it is because of the influence of Premanand. This is especially true of Vasudev and Devaki and Krishna and Yashoda. Samalbhat (सस्तामळभट) was a poet of the same period as Premanand. He had a very good knowledge of Sanskrit, Hindi and Pharsee. Samalbhat was much ahead of his time both in terms of composition and the subjects he chose for his writing. He wrote that the stomach caused all sin driving truth away. The last of the Gurjar poets was Dayaram. He is known for his love poetry and the Gurjar poets place him next to the English poet Byron. It was in Dayaram's time that the British settled in India and introduced new ideas, subjects and narrative styles. A new phase in Gujarati emerged with Narmadashankar (नमर्पदस्ताशहिंकर) who began to write about people rather than Gods and demons. In 1818, after a defeat in the battle of Khadki, Gujarat came under British rule. A stable administration and modern education brought about a renaissance in Gujarat and that affected the literature produced in the language. This period was led by Dalapatram (दलपसरस्ताम). In his epic poem, Vencharitra (वदेनचररत्रि), he spoke of widow remarriage. However, it was Narmadashankar who took the modern ideas of the time forward especially speaking of equality. The University of Mumbai was set up in 1857. Modern English education and with it ideas of modernism came to India. The wave of humanism that started in England in the 19th century came shortly to Indian shores and the youth studying in the University of Mumbai was attracted to it. It impacted writing in Gujarati. Among the more popular writers who displayed this very strong influence was Narsinharai Divetiya (नरससहिंहरस्ताय हदवदेहटयस्ता). His wide range of reading, clarity of thought and opinion are reflected in his literature. The nature poetry of William Wordsworth attracted Kalapi (कलस्तापडी) who fashioned his own writings along that of Wordsworth's. His collection of poems is popularly known as 'Kalapino Kekarava' (कलस्तापडीनबो कदेकस्तारव). Manishankar Bhatt (मखणशहिंकर भट) was also a popular poet of the same period. Among the prose writers of this modern era the name of Govardhan Tripathi (गबोवधर्पन तत्रिपस्ताठठी) is the more famous due to his four volume novel titled 'Saraswatichandra' (सरसवसडीचहिंद). It took him 14 years to write this story of Saraswatichandra's journey through love and marriage to becoming a devoted servant of his country. Mahatma Gandhi returned to Gujarat in 1914 and lived in Ahmedabad. There he started a weekly 'Navajivan' (नवजडीवन). His first writings on truth, freedom, satyagraha were to be found in this weekly. Literature is one that even the most common person can understand – this was Gandhi's opinion and he practiced what he preached. Gandhi wrote extensively and his followers followed suit. Among them was Kaka Kalelkar (कस्ताकस्ता कस्तालदेलकर). Kalelkar's mother tongue was Marathi but he wrote extensively in Gujarati. Like him Kishorilal Mashruwala (ककशबोरललस्ताल मश्रवस्तालस्ताद ), Mahadevabhai Desai (महस्ताददेवभस्ताई ददेसस्ताई) and Ramanarayan Pathak (रस्तामनस्तारस्तायण पस्ताठक) also wrote on issues like untouchability, rural life, education, politics, religion, arts and literature. 1930 saw the Salt Satyagraha and thereafter the freedom struggle gathered momentum. The Gujarati writers wrote extensively in this period. Ramanlal Desai (रमणलस्ताल ददेसस्ताई), Chunilal Shah (चनडीलस्तालद ), शहस्ता Gunavant Rai (गदणवहिंस रस्ताय), Pannalal (पननलस्ताल) and others wrote popular novels, Brokar (ब्रबोकर), Patlekar (पस्ताटलदेकर) and others wrote stories, Durgesh Chandavarkar (दगद श चनदस्तावरकर) and others wrote one act plays. This tradition of producing classic literary works in Gujarati has continued to this day.

URDU

There are number of similarities between Khadi Boli (खडडी बबोलल) and Urdu (उदर्प).भ Due to these similarities there is a dispute among academicians on whether Urdu emerged from Khadi Boli or was it the other way round. It is also difficult to exactly pinpoint the region where the language first emerged. Some say it emerged in the Punjab and it was used in the 'Prithvirajraso'

(पथवडीरस्ताजरस्तासबोर ) for the first time. Another version says that Mohammed Bin Tughlaq (मबोहहिंमद तबन सदगलक) invaded Sindh and through an exchange of the languages between the invaders and the residents of Sindh, Urdu emerged. A third version of the birth of Urdu speculates that the language was born in the southern parts of India. The Muslim rulers of Golconda (गबोलकमोंडस्ता),

Bijapur (बडीजस्तापदर) and other similar kingdoms in south India composed gazals (गझल), masnavi

(मसनवडी), marsiye (मससर्पयदे) and other forms of poetry. These are believed to be the earliest forms of Urdu language. In one of his famous compositions the poet Mir (मडीर) writes -

ए मडीर म ह हल इसकबो ककयस्ता रदेखसस्ता वरनस्ता,

एक चडीज लचर सडी व जबस्तानदे दककनडी थिडी। It means - O Mir! I created Urdu out of Urdu. Otherwise it was a wretched language of the Deccan. Wherever Urdu may have actually been born, it got its importance at the Mughal court of Delhi and it got its name during the reign of Shah Jehan. The word 'Urdu' is Turkish in origin and means 'army'. The first person to bring Urdu to the fore was Amir Khusrau (अमडीर खदसबो). Born in the 13th century, Khusrau lived his entire life in Delhi. He was an exponent of Pharsee (फस्तारसडी) and a well known poet. He brought words from Arabic (अरबडी), Pharsee, Sanskrit, Apabhransha

(अपभहिंश) and Hindi into Urdu. If we study the language we find that it was in the south of India that the language evolved in its literary form before it did in the north. In the 18th century the important Urdu poets in Delhi had been influenced heavily by the Urdu poetry of the south. Wali, (वलल) an Urdu poet in the court of

Mohammed Wali Shah (मबोहहिंमद वलल शस्ताह) brought about a confluence between the Urdu poets of the south and the north. It was in Shah Jehan's time that the first Urdu gazal was composed.

The composer was a Brahmin by the name Chandrabhan (चहिंदभस्तान). The gazal goes like this -

न जस्तानदे ककस शहर अहिंदर हमन कबो लस्ताकदे डस्तालस्ताहमै।

न हदलबर हमै, न सस्ताककी, न शडीशस्ता हमै, न पयस्तालस्ता हमै॥ पपयस्ता कदे नस्ताकव ककीसदसमरन, ककयस्ता भकचस्ताह, करक कमैसदे ।

न ससवडीह हमै, न सदसमरन हमै, न कहिंठठी हमै, न मस्तालस्ता हमै॥

Till Akbar (अकबर) attacked the Muslim rulers in the south, Urdu poetry flourished in these kingdoms. Mohammed Kuli Kutubshah (महहिंमदद कलल कद सदबशस्ताह) was himself a poet. Ibrahim

Adilshah (इब्रस्ताहहम अहदलशस्ताह) and Ali Adilshah (अलल अहदलशस्ताह) of Bijapur too were poets. Ibrahim Adilshah not only supported poetry but also encouraged classical music. He composed poetry in the classical ragas (रस्ताग) and called this collection 'Navaras' (नवरस). He praised Shiva

(सशव), Parvati (पस्तावर्पसडी), Saraswati (सरसवसडी) and other Puranic gods in his poetry. In praise of Saraswati he wrote -

नवरस सभर जदग जदग जभनडी अनद सवर्पगदणडी ।

यभ सतसरसवसडी मस्तासस्ता इब्रस्ताहहम पसस्तादभयदनडीभ ॥

A significant poet of the time was Wali Aurangabadi (वलल औरहिंगस्ताबस्तादल). From Aurangabad he traveled to Delhi and influenced the Urdu poets in the region with his style. Apart from the Urdu poets, there was a significant influence on Urdu literature exercised by the Sufi poets.

In Urdu poetry, love is expressed in two forms - Hakiki (हककीककी) and Majaji (मजस्ताजडी). In the first love is expressed for God and in the second it is for a specific individual. Although Urdu was influenced by Sanskrit, Arabic and Pharsee, the strongest influence is that of Pharsee.

In 1757 the British won the battle of Plassey. In 1761 Ahmedshah Abdali (अहमदशस्ताह आबदलल) attacked India and the Mughal Empire was shaken to its roots. During the reign of Shah Alam

(शस्ताह आलम) the Mughals were attacked from all sides. Yet, Urdu poetry continued to flourish. However, even as the attacks on Delhi continued, Urdu poets began to leave and sought refuge in

Lucknow in the kingdom of Nawab Asafudaullah (नवस्ताब आसफउदन्नौलस्ताह). Mir Mohammed Taki

Mir (मडीर मबोहहिंमद सककी मडीर) and Mirza Mohammed Rafi 'Sauda' (समझस्तार्प मबोहहिंमद रफकी 'सन्नौदस्ता') belonged to this period. Mir was a caring but proud man. Born in 1723 in Agra he saw intense harassment, violence and civil unrest in Delhi till about 1782. Tahir Shah (सस्ताहलर )शहस्ता attacked

Delhi, Mohammed Shah (मबोहहिंमद शस्ताह) died, Abdali harassed and exploited Delhi, the Marathas

(मरस्ताठस्ता), Sikhs (शडीख), Rohilas (रबोहहलस्ता) and the Jats (जस्ताट) attacked Delhi and the grandeur of Delhi was slowly lost before Mir's eyes. Mir had to seek refuge with several Nawabs and Amirs in the court of Delhi. In 1758 he began writing his autobiography. In 1782 he left Delhi and sought refuge with Nawab Asafudaullah of Lucknow. His gazals number over 1600. He narrates the events of the time thus -

शहस्ताहिंद कदेकहल जवस्ताहर थिडी खस्ताक पस्ता तजनककी।

उनहलहिंककी आकखमोंमह कफरसदे सलस्ताइयस्ताहिं ददेखडीहिं॥

हदललल मह आज भडीक भडी समलसडी नहलहिंह उनह ।

थिस्ता कलसक हदमस्तागह तजनह सस्ताजबोसखस कस्ता ॥ In one of his gazals he demonstrates his love thus -

कहसस्ता हमै हदल कदे आकखनदे मदझकबो ककयस्ता खरस्ताब ।

कहसडी हमै आकख यदे कदे मदझदे हदलनदे खबो हदयस्ता ॥

लगसस्ता नहलहिं पसस्ता कदे सहल कन्नौनसडी हमैबस्तास।

दबोनमों नदे समलकदे मडीरह हम सबो दडबबोहदयस्ता ॥

Mirza Mohammed Rafi 'Sauda' was a contemporary of Mir. He was born about 1695. He was a man who enjoyed the luxury of life and the wealth he inherited from his father, he blew away in a life of pleasure. He says -

सदहबसदे शदेर वबकफ जस्ताम वसदरस्ताहल दरदसस ।

इस ससवस्ता सन्नौदस्ताद कबोकछ कस्ताम नहलहिं तनयस्तासदेद ॥ At first Sauda would write only in Pharsee. It was only when a friend advised him to write in Urdu because the language was suitable to his style of composing poetry that Sauda began to write in Urdu. He wrote mostly on love and lovers. He did not have the sensitivity of Mir but he could use the Urdu language effectively. A third poet of the time was Khwaja Mir Dard (खवस्ताजस्ता मडीर ददर्प). He was a Sufi saint and his poetry was an appeal to God. One of his more famous compositions says -

सबोहमसदे चहिंद अपनदे तजममदे धरचलदे

आयदे कयस्ता करनदे कबो और कयस्ता करचलदे।

तजनदगडी हमै यस्ता कबोई सभफस्तान हमै

हम सबो इस जडीनदे कदे हस्ताथिमों मरचलदे।

Nazir Akbaraabadi (नझडीर अकबरस्ताबस्तादल) was a beloved of the masses. He wrote several poems for children and his poetry was sung by the poorest of the poor at the time.

In Lucknow, the gazal form of poetry prospered due to Musahafi (मदसहफकी). With him was the poet Insha (इहिंशस्ता) and Shaikh Kalandar Baksha Juraat (शमैख कलहिंदर बखश जदरअस).

In the 19th century, Galib (गस्तासलब), Zauq (जन्नौक) and Momin (मबोसमन) in Delhi and Atish (आतसश) and Nasar (नस्तासर) in Lucknow were the more prominent. Of these Galib was the more popular.

His full name was Mirza Asadullah Khan (समझस्तार्प असदललस्ताहद खस्ताक). At first he wrote under the pen name 'Asad' (असद). Later he dropped that and began using Galib. Galib was a philosopher, a lover of freedom and self respect. He had an excellent command over Pharsee and his style was unbeatable. However, after the British established their rule over India he lost his balance. He was even arrested for gambling and jailed. After the 1857 revolution, he gave up all hope and went into severe depression. Another contemporary poet who matched Galib in creativity and composition was Shaikh

Ibrahim Zauq (शदेख इब्रस्ताहहम जन्नौक). He was known more for his kasida (कसडीदस्ता) than the gazal.

He was in the court of Akbar Shah (अकबर शस्ताह). Akbar Shah loved to write poetry and for a long time it was left to Zauq to make corrections to the poetry that Akbar wrote. Zauq had a fantastic command over Urdu so much so that it began to be said at the time that one should have the imagination of Galib and the language of Zauq. Galib wrote about himself thus -

आगहल दस्तामदे शदनडीदन, तजस कदर चस्ताहदे तबछस्तायदे,

मदद्दआ उनकस्ता हमै अपनदे आलमदे सहरलर कस्ता।

Zauq, writing on the impermanence of life wrote-

अय शममस्ता सदेरल उमदे सबई हमै एक रस्तास।

रबोकर गदजस्तार यस्ता उसदे हहिंसकर गदजस्तार ददे ॥

गस्ताकफल हमै बहस्तारदे चमन उमदे जवस्तानडी।

कर समैर, कदे मबोसम यदे बस्तारस्ताद नहलहिं आसस्ता॥

Interestingly, prose writing in Urdu prospered in Kolkata, where, in the Fort Williams College was started an Urdu Academy. Here Mohammed Azad (मबोहहिंमद आझस्ताद) compiled the 'Ab-e-

Hayat' (आब-ए-हयस्तास), a history of Urdu poetry. Maulana Shivali (मन्नौलस्तानस्ता) सशवलल started

'Maarif' (मअररफ), a newspaper in Urdu from Azamgadh. In the 20th century, Munshi

Premchand (मदहिंशडी पदेमचहिंद) wrote in Urdu and before him Munshi Balmukund Gupta (मदहिंशडी

बस्तालमदकहिंदद ग दपस). Among the important writers in Urdu since are Rajendrasingh Bedi (रस्ताजहदससहिंग

बदेदल), Sadat Hasan Manto (सआदस हसन महिंटबो), Fiqr Tausavi (कफक्र सन्नौसवडी), Devendra Satyarthi

(ददेवहद सतयस्ताथिर), Upendranath Ashq (उपहदनस्ताथि 'अशक'), Saliha Abid Hussein (सस्तासलहस्ता आतबद

हदसदेन) and Ismat Chugtai (इसमस चगसस्ताईद ). Mirza Farhata Allabega (समझस्तार्प फरहस अललस्ताबदेग) made a name in writing humour in the Urdu language. In the 20th century, Iqbal is considered one of the more important nationalist poets. His first poem was titled 'Himalaya' published in 1901. These first few years of the century were full of nationalist fervour throughout India and Iqbal wrote several poems on nationalism and love for his motherland. In 1905 he went to England for higher education. He studied Islam and the history of Islamic rulers and that changed his perspective. On his return he began to write on bringing back Islam to its glory. His poetry began to propagate the philosophy of khudi (खददल) or a pride in Islam and its culture. He switched to writing in Pharsee because he now wanted to reach out to a global Islamic audience. Some of his famous works of this later period include

Bange-Dara or A Call for Caution (बस्ताहिंग-ए-दरस्ता), Bale Gabrel or The wings of Gabriel (बस्तालदे जब्रदेल) in Urdu and Asrare Khudi or The secret of Pride (असरस्तारदे खददल), Ramuje Bekhudi or The Signs of

Pride (रमदजदे बदेखददल), Payame Mashriq or the Message of the East (पयस्तामदे मश्रडीक) in Pharsee. In translating the word khudi the difficulty is that it is pride specifically in the context of identity and culture and not the pride that we usually associate with in the English language. The word translates better into the Hindi/Marathi word asmita (अतसमसस्ता). Iqbal painted a big picture of pride in humanity and called on the human mind to have infinite ambition -

सससस्तारमोंकदे आगदे जहस्ताकह औरभडी ।

अभडी इशक कदे इतमसहस्ताहिं हऔर भडी ।

सहल तजनदगडीसदे नहलहिं यदे कफजस्ताय ह ।

यहस्ताक समैकडमों कस्तारवस्ताहिंह औरभडी ।

ककनस्ताअस न कर आलमदे रहिंगबोबभपर ।

चमन और भडी आसशयस्ताहिं औरह भडी ।

इसडी रबोजबो शबह म उलझकर न रहनस्ता ।

कदे सदेरदे जमस्ताहिं वबो मकस्ताहिंह औरभडी ।

At about the same time, another nationalist Urdu poet wrote extensively on the nationalist leaders of the time. His name was Pandit Brijnarayan Chakabast (पहिंडडस तब्रजनस्तारस्तायण चकबसस). Aziz (अजडीज) was another poet whose disciple Josh Malihabadi (जबोश मसलहस्ताबस्तादल) became famous for his revolutionary messages on society. The 20th century saw change in all kinds of writing in Urdu. Maulana Mohammed Ali (मन्नौलस्तान मबोहहिंमद अलल) called upon the youth to wake up and work, Maulana Hasarat Mohani (मन्नौलस्तानस्ता हसरस मबोहस्तानडी) preached the true value of love,

Badayuni (बदस्तायदनडी) and Ajeez Lukhnavi (अजडीज लखनवडी) sang serious songs of hopelessness and the poet Hali (हस्तालल) produced an entirely new style of writing poetry.

Sir Sayyed Ahmed Khan (सर समैययद अहमदखस्ताक) established Urdu in Aligad. Maulana Abdul Haq

(मन्नौलस्तानस्ता अबदलद हक) set up the Anjuman-Tarakki-E-Urdu (अहिंजदमन-सरकककी-ए-उदर्प)भ in Aurangabad. He joined the Urdu language movement with the political movement of the Muslim League. The Nizam supported this cause with fervour and after a short while the institution moved to Delhi. After Partition, the institution was divided and Maulana Haq went to Pakistan. The institution was based in Aligad after Partition and had the word 'Hind' attached at the end.

Another institution that worked for the betterment of Urdu was the Jamia Milia Islamia (जस्तासमयस्ता

समसलयस्ता इसलस्तासमयस्ता) set up by Maulana Mohammedali (मन्नौलस्तानस्ता मबोहहिंमदअलल). Post Independence Urdu and Islam became associated with each other and post Partition it became identified as the language spoken only by the Muslims in India. Urdu was the language of the Mughal court too. Once Hindi was chosen as the national language, Urdu lost the place of pride it had till then. Interestingly, both languages emerged at about the same time in the same country.

BENGALI

This is among the richly endowed languages in India. There are several forms of Bengali spoken in the country. Howeve, its literary form is called Sadhubhasha (सस्ताधभस्ताषस्ताद ). The prose and poetry in Bengali as well as the news media use this Sadhubhasha. It is believed that Bengali was formed about the year 1000. It emerged out of Prakrit (पकर स). It prospered with the help of Magadhi (मस्तागधडी). The language has picked up from Prakrit, Sanskrit and several non Aryan languages including Pharsee, Portuguese and English. The Bengali script has emerged from the

Nagari (नस्तागरल) script that was being used to the east of India. In the tenth century Bengal was ruled by Narayanpal (नस्तारस्तायणपस्ताल). In his writing of the Nagari script we find some alphabets that are closer in form to the Bengali. By the eleventh century Vijayapal (पवजयपस्ताल) was ruling the region and in his writing available at Devapal (ददेवपस्ताल) we find several alphabets that are more like Bengali than the Nagari script. Bengali literature can be broadly divided into three periods.

The ancient period (पस्ताचडीन कस्ताल) (950 to 1200) - This period is characterized by the literature of the Buddhist Siddha Charyapada (बन्नौद ससदस्ताहिंचदे चयस्तार्पपद). Charyapada are mystic songs of eight or more lines. These songs belong to a secret sect that relates to the Buddhist Mahayan sect and the

Nathpantha (नस्ताथिपहिंथि). The literal meaning and the contextual meaning of these songs is often very different. Jaidev, a very prominent poet of this period was born towards the end of the 12th century. He has written the Geetagovind (गडीसगबोपवहिंद) in Sanskrit. This poem is written in a style that is reminiscent of the Bengali and not the Sanskrit of the time and it is argued that the Geetagovind was originally an ancient Bengali poem. If this argument is accepted then Jaidev becomes one of the oldest poets in Bengali. Bengali has a long history of folk music and poetry. Mayanamateera gan (मयनस्तामसडीर गस्तान), gorakshavijay (गबोरक्षपवजय), bharathareegopichand (भरथिरलगबोपडीचहिंद) are some of the more popular village songs that date to the ancient period of Bengali literature. Some of the religious stories in Bengali too belong to this ancient period because they speak of village deities Thooya (थियस्ताभ ), Madali (मदस्तालल) and Dhaata (धस्तासस्ता) and not Indra (इहिंद), Rama (रस्ताम),

Krishna (कर षण) who appeared much later.

The Middle period (मधय कस्ताल) (1200 to 1800) - In 1203 the Turks attacked Bengal. The attack was violent accompanied with murder, rape, plunder and large scale conversions of people to Islam. In this 150 year period of intense conflict and widespread violence there appears no literature. As the violence eased literature in Sanskrit began to emerge again. From this time, there is only one poet, Kruttivas Ojha (कर ततसवस्तास )ओझस्ता , about whom we have any information. He translated the Sanskrit Ramayan in to Bengali. After him, between 1473 and 1480, Maladhar

Basu (मस्तालधर) बसभ translated portions of the Bhagavat into Bengali. He was encouraged to do so by Sultan Hussein Shah (सदलसस्तानद हसमैन शस्ताह), the king of Panchagaud (पहिंचगन्नौड). The king had a general by the name Paragalkhan (परस्तागलखस्तान). He encouraged another poet, Kavindra

Parameshwar (कवडीहिंद परमदेशवर) to continue with the translation. Later Shrikarnanandi (श्रडीकणर्पनहिंदल) completed the translation of the entire Bhagavat with the encouragement of Chhutikhan

(छभ टलखस्तान), the son of Paragalkhan. It was during the same period that Vijaygupta (पवजयगदपस) and Vipradas (पवपदस्तास) wrote the famous story of Bihula (तबहदलस्ता) in verse form. The first night of Bihula's married life Mansadevi sends a snake that bites her husband. Bihula takes the corpse of her husband to the land of the Gods and faces severe hardships along the way. At the end of the story Mansadevi brings Bihula's husband back to life. There about 1200 poems attributed to three different poets all by the name of Chandidas

(चहिंडडीदस्तास) in this period. Most of these poems revolve around stories of Krishna and Radha. Several poets wrote along the same literary structure and subject during this period.

Towards the end of the 15th century Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (चमैसनय महस्तापभ)भ emerged. It was a time of a cultural crisis. The elite were lost in luxury, the masses in misery, the conversions to Islam were rampant. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu provided a much needed philosophical and spiritual solace. He drowned the people in the love for Krishna and brought them together in the worship of Krishna. Chaitanya himself began to be called a manifestation of Krishna and people began to compose poetry on Chaitanya Mahaprabhu himself.

In the same period was born Balaramdas (बलरस्ताम दस्तास). Like Soordas, he wrote of the motherly love of Yashoda (यशबोदस्ता). However, his poetic energy and creativity took its true form and colour when he began to write on Radha and her love for Krishna. Kirtan (ककीसर्पन) as a form of expression and communication became widespread in the time of

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. He created four different forms of this folk art - garanahaati (गरनहस्ताटल), renetee (रदेनदेसडी), mandarani (महिंदरणडी), manoharshahi (मनबोहरशस्ताहल). Of these forms manoharshahi became more popular due to the efforts of Ganganarayan Chakravarty (गहिंगस्तानस्तारस्तायण चक्रवसर) and

Mangal Thakur (महिंगल ठस्ताकद र).

Soon the Muslims of Bengal joined in the process of producing literature. Daulat Kazi (दन्नौलस

कस्ताझडी) wrote the famous poems Lorachandrani (लबोरचहिंदस्ताणडी) and the Sati Mayanawati (ससडी

मयनस्तावसडी). Sayyed Sultan (सययद सदलसस्तान) wrote the Rasool Vijay (रसभल पवजय).

Kaviyal (कपवयस्ताल) were rural poets. There poetry was known as Kavisangeet (कपवसहिंगडीस). They would be largely illiterate. However, a few of them would come together and through their questions and answers in verse form, entertain the people. This was a form of folk literature that developed in Bengal at the time. Dashrathi Rai (दस्ताशरथिडी रस्ताय) was a Kaviyal who invented a new form of poetry called Geetashaili (गडीसस्ताशमैलल). It was later popularized as Panchali (पस्ताहिंचस्तालल). Christian missionaries too began to translate the Bible into Bengali during this period. In 1778

Nathanial Braci Halhead (ननथिदेतनयल ब्रस्तासडी हस्तालहदेड) published a book on Bengali grammar.

The modern period (आधतनकद कस्ताल) (1800 to the 20th century) - The nineteenth century saw the influence of English language and literature on Bengali. The British produced text books in Bengali. The Baptists published the Ramayan and translated the Bible into Bengali. in 1818,

Samachardarpan (समस्ताचर दपर्पण), a Bengali weekly was started. Raja Rammohan Roy translated the Upanisad into Bengali and published Bengali language grammar into English. In these years Bengali demonstrated the influence of Sanskrit. However by 1850, Bengali became more reader friendly. Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar (ईशवरचहिंद पवदयस्तासस्तागर), Pyareechandra Mitra (पयस्तारलचनद

समत्रि) and others like them brought about this significant change in the language. Of the several authors who wrote in Bengali at the time the more famous name is that of Michael Madhusudan Datta (मस्तायकल मधसद भदन दतस). He translated several works of English literature into Bengali and wrote original poems and plays in Bengali. He wrote the poem Meghnadvadha (मदेघनस्तादवध) on one of the incidents from the Ramayana.

The poets Hemchandra Bandyopadhyaya (हदेमचहिंद बहिंदयबोपस्ताधयस्ताय), Navinchandra Sen (नवडीनचहिंद

सदेन) and Biharilal Chakravarty (तबहस्तारललस्ताल चक्रवसर) followed Datta in composing extensively in

Bengali. At about the same time Bakimchandra Chattopadhyay (बहिंककमचहिंद चटबोपस्ताधयस्ताय) emerged as a brilliant writer of prose. His novels became in Bengal. He is more known outside Bengal for his famous poem Bande Mataram (बहिंददे मस्तासरम) that he wrote in his novel Ananda Math (आनहिंद

मठ). These two words became a call for Independence at the time and inspired many Bengali youth to participate in the struggle for freedom. After Bakimchandra, Rabindranath Tagore

(रवडीहिंदनस्ताथि टस्तागबोर) emerged as a formidable author of the period. Tagore was a versatile writer. He wrote essays, poems, plays, novels and stories. Both, in terms of thought and style, he gave a completely new direction to Bengali literature.

Among the modern Bengali authors Sharadchandra Chatterjee (शरचचहिंद चटजर) is the more recognised and honoured writer. His Devdas (ददेवदस्तास), Charitraheen (चररत्रिहलन), Shrikant

(श्रडीकस्ताहिंस), Gruhadah (गहदस्ताहर ), Savyasachi (सवयस्तासस्ताचडी) and other novels continue to fascinate readers. These were translated into Hindi and Marathi. Sharadchandra's treatment of his female characters is one of the important attractions of his stories. After Tagore and Sharadchandra a new era of literary conflict emerged in Bengal. Among the authors of the time were Tarashankar (सस्तारशहिंकर), Prabodh Sanyal (पबबोध सहिंनयस्ताल), Buddhadev

Basu (बददददेव बसद), Gokul Nag (गबोकद ल नस्ताग), Yateendra Bagchi (यसडीनद बस्तागचडी), Radharanidevi

(रस्ताधस्तारस्तानडीददेवडी), Humayun Kabeer (हदमस्तायभन कबडीर) etc.

TAMIL Among the Dravidian languages, Tamil is the richest, most developed language. It is among the more ancient languages of the world and its history can be traced back many centuries before the English calendar began. Among the languages of India today, this is one language that has been able to express everything independent of Sanskrit. There is perhaps no other language in India that can express, in a few words, profound meaning.

Irul (इरल), kasuv (कसदव), korava (कबोरव), kaikadi (कमैकस्ताडडी) and bargandi (बरगहिंडडी) are its five chief dialects. The first two among these are spoken by some tibes in the Nilgiri forests and the rest are spoken by nomadic tribes and castes. The formal, recognised Tamil language has two forms - shena (शदेन) and kodun (कबोडदन). The first is used more in literature and the second in everyday use.

The Tamil script emerged from a southern form of ancient Brahmi. Kol Ezzuttu (कबोळ एळदतस)द and Vattezuttu (वटदेळदतस)द are its two forms. Kol means a stick and the script, used in the time of the Chola and Pallava kings, uses straight lines. This was probably because the medium of writing at the time was stone and it was easier to draw straight lines rather than circular forms. Vattezuttu, on the other hand, was written more on leaves and barks of trees and it was easier to draw circular figures than straight lines, the latter having a tendency to tear the leaf. The Chera and the Pandya kings promoted this form of the Tamil script. As time passed however, the influence of Sanskrit began to be felt on the Tamil script and some of its alphabets were introduced into the ancient Tamil. The evolution of Tamil literature can be divided into six different periods.

Sanghamkal (सहिंघम कस्ताल) - The Pandya kings had formed Sanghams where authors could present their poetry and other works. These gatherings attracted the best of literature and the best of critiques to present and discourse the works. The first known Sangham was called

Tallaichhangam (सलमैचचहिंगम). It had 546 members. A total of 4449 poets posted their works to the Sangham for examination. 86 kings supported the Sangham and seven of these kings were poets themselves. The grammar text that they held in respect at the time was called Agattiyam

(अगततसयम). In all there are records of three Sanghams. The third was conducted at Madura about 150 B.C. It had 46 members and Nakkirar (नकककीरर) presided over the Sangham that was supported b 49 kings. In all, 449 poets sent their works for examination.

Mahakavyakal (महस्ताकस्तावयकस्ताल) - In the first two centuries of the Christian era, Jainism and Buddhism entered Tamil Nadu. These two religions gained strength up to the sixth century. Monks from both religions had begun composing works in Tamil from the Sangha period but this gained in momentum during the early centuries of the Christian era. They wrote epic poems of which Shilappadhikaram (सशलपपथधकस्तारम), Manimekhalai (मखणमदेखलमै), Jeevakachintamani

(जडीवकथचहिंसस्तामणडी), Valayapati (वलयपसडी) and Kundalkeshi (कहिंडलकदेशडीद ) became more famous. Of these, the first was written by Ilangoadigal (इळहिंगबोअडडगळ) and is the story of Kovalan and his wife Kannagi. Manimekhalai is a latter half of the same work.

Bhakti Kal (भतकस कस्ताल) - In this period, several works on the worship of Shiva and Vishnu were written. By this time the Jain and Buddhist composers had had a virtually complete hold over the literary world of Tamil Nadu. However, the worshippes of Shiva and Vishnu emerged and they began to write with such vigour that the Jain and Buddhist composers' influence soon waned. The writers who wrote epic poems on Shiva and Vishnu brought back music and dance along with their literature and this appears to have attracted the masses. The devotees of Shiva in Tamil

Nadu are called Nayanmaar (नस्तायनमस्तार). There are 63 of these devotees of Shiva who composed extensively at the time. Of these Manikkavachakar (मखणककवस्ताचकर), Gyansambandhar

(जस्तानसहिंबहिंधर), Appar (अपपर) and Sundarar (सदहिंदरर) are the four more important. Of these Manikkavachakar wrote several folk songs, participated in debates with the Jain and Buddhist philosophers and converted them to devotees of Shiva. The collection of poems composed by the last three is popularly known as Tevaram (सदेवस्तारम). Although the devotion to Shiva increased in this period the philosophical rationale of Shaivism emerged only in the 12th century. The author of this important work was Meyakandadeva (मदेयकहिंडददेव) and the name of his work was

Shivagyanabodham (सशवजस्तानबबोधम). Alavars (आळवस्तार) were devotees of Vishnu. Alavar means one who has experienced God and they number twelve in all. Vishnu in Tamil is called Perumal (पदेरमळ). The Alavar saints wrote thousands of poems advocating complete devotion and surrender to Vishnu. Their devotion and surrender was so complete that people began to look up to them as Gods themselves. The collection of the works of the Alavar saints is called Nalayirdivya prabandham

(नस्तालस्तातयरहदवयपबहिंधनम). This was compiled by a tenth century Alavar saint Nathmuni (नस्ताथिमदतन).

The famous Vaishnava poet and philosopher Ramanujacharya (रस्तामस्तानदजस्ताचस्तायर्प) was a grandson of Nathamuni.

Kambana Kal (कहिंबनकस्ताल) - The poet Kamabana was born in the ninth century and he wrote the Ramayana in Tamil on the basis of the Valmiki Ramayana. Through the next few centuries the

Shiva and Vishnu devoties composed several works. A Jain monk, Vamanai (वस्तामनमै) wrote several books on poetry, ethics, grammar and composed the Merumandarpuranam

(मदेरमहिंदस्तारपदरस्ताणम).

Madhyakal (मधयकस्ताल) - After the 14th century there appears to have been a break in producing literature in Tamil. The local kings began to lose their power, the Muslim invaders and the Marathas began to establish their rule in the region. Social stability was eroded. In this kind of environment emerged the Siddha poets. They wrote in a mystic way. They spoke of renunciation. The Siddha poets attacked Brahminism and spread the anti Brahmin message across contemporary society. Through the next three centuries, several poets composed in Tamil. In the eighteenth century Father Beski studied the Tamil language and wrote in Tamil an epic poem on the life of Jesus Christ. Several Christian priests composed poems in Tamil in this century.

Modern Tamil literature (आधतनकद कस्ताल) -Ramalingaswamy (रस्तामसलहिंगसवस्तामडी) is perhaps the more famous Tamil writer of the 19th century. He preached a confluence of Vishnu and Shiva devotion. During the same century Meenakshisundaram Pillai (मडीनस्ताक्षदेसदहिंदरम पपललमै) and

Gopalkrishna Bharati (गबोपस्तालकर षण भस्तारसडी) too composed poetry in Tamil. Numerous small poems, some plays and short stories were written in this period. The epic poems went out of style. Several Sanskrit works were translated into Tamil during this period. Many of these poets were nationalists. Among these was Subrahamanya Bharati (सदब्रहमणय

भस्तारसडी) who advocated the cultural and historical oneness of India through his poetry.

EXERCISE 1. What were the social factors that influenced the evolution and spread of each of the above languages? 2. What were the political factors that influenced the evolution and spread of these languages? 3. What were the economic factors that influenced the evolution and spread of these languages? 4. Listen to the use of the language carefully in the mass media - television and radio especially. Do you hear people using words from other languages? How does one distinguish a Hindi word from the Urdu in pronunciation? How does a Marathi speaking person speak Hindi? Do Tamil, Telugu, Malayam and Kannada sound different? 5. Is there a difference in the way an English speaking person speaks Hindi or Marathi and a Hindi or Marathi educated person speaking in English? What is the difference? Mark the difference in the pronunciation of the vowels and the consonants. For instance an English speaking person may find it difficult to say 'Dabhol' (दस्ताभबोळ) and end up saying 'Dhabol' instead. Similarly a Marathi speaking person may find it difficult to learn 'pen' as distinct from 'pain'. Why does this happen? Learn to observe these differences, listen carefully. 6. Make a list of such differently pronounced words in each of the above languages. Take the help of students speaking other languages in your class. 5. Read Hindi newspapers and magazines and make a list of Marathi, Urdu, Pharsee, English and Portuguese words being used. Count their number. Words from which language are being used in which newspaper more frequently? Does this tell you anything about the social, economic and political character of the readers? 6. Listen to the use of the language around you. Are their differences in pronunciation? What would you attribute these differences to? Is there anything like a 'perfect' language? Should there be anything like it? What role can the mass media play in making or maintaining a 'perfect' language?