WHAP – Chapter 29 – Revolutions And National States In The Atlantic World

Traditions & Encounters Notes Chapter 29 – Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World

Intro  Enlightenment ideas - freedom and equality  series of revolutions in 18th and early 19th centuries brought huge social and political changes in Europe and Americas o broke out first in America, then France, then spread through Europe and Latin America o by 1830’s – gov’ts changed all over Europe and Americas  two results of global significance: o first, helped spread ideas of freedom, equality and popular sovereignty . leaders said that authority came from the people . created republican forms of gov’t – select delegates to represent you. . it was just for a privileged group of white men . but the way they worded their requests led other groups to seek enfranchisement . by mid-20th cent. almost every state in the world recognized freedom and equality of all citizens . also claimed to rule on basis of popular sovereignty o second, encouraged consolidation of national states as principal form of political organization . defended states from enemies and sometimes attack foreign countries – so developed sense of identify with their compatriots . then began to work towards building states that would advance their interests . nationalist sentiment created problems for multicultural empires around the world . had several nationalities within their own borders . efforts to create states for these people became one of the more powerful movements in world history.

Popular Sovereignty and Political Upheaval  revolutionaries wanted to create gov’t that were responsible to the needs and interest of the people.  attacked monarchical and aristocratic regimes  wanted ______– idea that authority rests not in the kings but in the people  America declared independence from GB – new gov’t based on PS  then FR abolished monarchy and redid their social order o could not create stable alternative to the king o had turmoil for over 20 years o then Napoleon brought military rule

Enlightened and Revolutionary Ideas  in history, kings or emperors ruled almost all settled ag. societies  small societies did try democratic gov’t (all citizens participate in gov’t) or republican gov’t (elect delegates to represent) o some had aristocratic gov’t – elites controlled the gov’t o but rule by king was most common o to justify their rule, often identified themselves with gods or claimed divine sanction  some rulers were priests – others cooperated closely with religious leaders  17th and 18th – Enlightenment leaders began to question monarchies o did not often challenge kings rule – just wanted to make them more responsible to the people o believed gov’t was a contract b/w rulers and ruled  ______– Second Treatise of Civil Government – 1690 o said that gov’t comes when people work together, form civil society, and appoint rulers to protect and promote their common interests o they keep the rights to life, liberty and property o any ruler who violated that could be overthrown o also, because the people voluntarily formed societies and est. gov’ts, the ruler got their authority from the consent of those the governed  ______– disliked the persecution of religious minorities and censorship of royal officials  Philosophes wanted religious toleration and freedom of expression o often would take their books to other countries to have them published then smuggle them back into France o also called for equality o condemned legal and social privileges of the aristocrats – they believed had not committed more to society than anyone else. o wanted a society where all were equal before the law  most prominent advocate of this was FR-Swiss, Rousseau – identified with working people o resented the elite class o wrote The Social Contract – said that all members of a society were collectively the sovereign o ideal society, all people would make the policy and create the laws  all this showed the interest of educated and talented men who wanted to enhance their place in society o most thinkers were commoners, but of well means o they didn’t see a society where they would share rights with women, children, peasants, laborers, slaves, people of color, etc.  even so, this was a huge challenge to traditional gov’t and social order  revolutionary leaders adopted these Enlightenment idea to justify their efforts to change gov’t and society o ideals did not spread naturally or inevitably. o spread when revolutionaries claimed and fought for rights

The American Revolution  Britain oversees 13 colonies in North America  Colonists viewed themselves as British subjects  Trade = Prosperity / wealth - British military protects colonists (own interests)  Britain wages a costly conflict with France - contest for imperial supremacy . 1754-1763: French and Indian War in North America . 1756-1763: ______in Europe and India  Britain wins the war - dominates global trade  Following the war, Britain levied new taxes on the colonists to help pay for the war - Sugar Act (1764) - tax on molasses - Stamp Act (1765) - tax on paper documents - Townsend Act (1767) - on imported items - Tea Act (1773) - on tea - Quartering Act (1765) - provide housing for British troops  The American colonists resented the taxation imposed by imperial rule. Why ? - Claimed monarchs cannot govern without Parliament's consent - Since colonists had no representation in Parliament...the tax was unfair - Slogan "no taxation without representation"  Tensions increased - Boston Tea Party - colonists dumped cargo of tea in harbor in protest - Continental Congress meet to discuss options - Military clashes in Lexington ignite the war of American independence  July 4, 1776, Continental Congress adapts the Declaration of Independence - presented a long list of abuses by the British crown - asserts "all men are created equal"...and have rights including "Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." - proclaimed the colonies were "Free and independent States" - inspired by the Enlightenment - reflected John Locke's contractual theory of government; that when government becomes a tyrant, people have the right to abolish it  British Advantages: - Powerful navy and army - American colonists were divided - 20% were allegiant to Britain  Colonial Advantages: - Britain forced to fight a long distance war (long supply lines) - Military and economic support from France, Spain, & Netherlands - Strong military leadership from colonial general George Washington.  A war of attrition results  American & French forces surround British forces in 1781. Britain surrenders  ______(1783) officially ends the war

The French Revolution  FR was way more radical than the American revolution  US kept much of GB law and social and cultural heritage  FR – wanted to change society – the ancient regime “the old order” and replace it with new structure  money problems put FR on road to revolution  1780’s – ½ of gov’t money went to pay war debt – some form helping the US  ¼ went to pay army  Louis XVI couldn’t raise more money from the already overtaxed peasants – so wanted to increase taxes on the nobility (had been exempt from most taxes)  nobility protested – then they forced Louis to summon the ______o 1 st estate – 100,000 Catholic clergy o 2 nd estate – 400,000 nobles o 3 rd estate – 24 million serfs, peasants, urban people, artisans, bankers, etc. o founded in 1303 – had not met since 1614 o 3rd estate had as many delegates as the other two combined . not an advantage because voting took place by estate – one vote for each  May 1789 – Louis called into session at Versailles – hoping for new taxes o never controlled the assembly  members of the 3rd estate arrived demanding political and social reform  most 1 & 2 estates kept this from happening  June 17, 1789 – after weeks of debate, 3rd estate seceded and called themselves the National Assembly o met at an indoor tennis court – said they wouldn’t disband until they had written a new constitution  June 14, 1789 – crowd stormed the Bastille looking for weapons – wanted to keep king from overturning events of the 3rd estate o garrison mostly was killed by the mob  news spread – mobs began rioting all over France  now National Assembly had popular support o wrote Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen . influenced by the US Declaration . equality of all men – sovereignty resided in the people – liberty, property and security . 1789-1791 – altered FR society o goal of “liberty, equality and fraternity” o abolished old social order along with fees and labor services the peasants owed landlords o greatly changed the role of the church in society o took lands, abolished first estate, made clergy civilians, had to take loyalty to the state oath o made a constitution that made the king the chief executive, but kept him from legislative authority o became a constitutional monarchy in which men of property had the right to vote in elections to choose legislators  then the revolution took a radical turn o nobility tried to use influence in foreign countries to support the king and restore the ancient regime  the Assembly even declared war against Austria and Prussia in 1792 o then next year, war on SP, GB and NETH  fearing loss and counterrevolution, they created the Convention o legislative group elected by universal manhood suffrage o they abolished the monarchy – made FR a republic o instituted the levee en masse – universal conscription o drafted people and resources for use in war o rooted out enemies at home o used the guillotine o 1793 – Louis XVI and Marie – Convention found them guilty of treason . king had been reluctant to approve constitution , opposed anticlerical legislation – also had fled from Paris . Marie was unpopular – Austrian, extravagant, influence over Louis  revolution peaked in 1793-1794 – Maximilien Robespierre and radical ______party dominated the Convention o he dominated the Comm. of Public Safety – which was the executive authority of the Republic o Jacobins believed FR needed restructuring o campaign of terror o limit influence of Church – closed churches, forced priests to take wives o reorganized calendar so there were no days of religious observances  inauguration of new era – the First Republic – the Year I – began on Sept. 22, 1792 o people were addressed as “citizen” o wanted them to wear working class clothes o gave women right to inherit property and divorce o not allow them to vote or be in politics o used the guillotine – 93-94 – they executed 40,000 and imprisoned another 300,000 o many were even fellow radicals who fell out of favor o this made it very unstable o July 1794 – Convention arrested Robespierre and allies – convicted of tyranny and killed  group of conservatives seized power – created the ______o weren’t nearly as violent o couldn’t solve all the problems of France o couldn’t find a middle path that would make everyone happy o faced many challenges from people who wanted power o ended in Nov. 1799 when Napoleon came to power.

Napoleon  minor noble family born on Corsica – Med isle annexed by FR  studied at FR military schools  officer in army of Louis XVI  was general by 24  supporter of revolution – defender of the Directory  drove the Austrian army out of northern Italy – est. FR rule  invaded Egypt in 1798 to get access to Red Sea and Threaten GB control of sea route to India – GB won  back in FR in 1799 – joined the Directory  AUS, RU, GB – coalition to attack FR and end revolution  Nap overthrew Directory – new constitution – named himself first consul  in 1802 – became ______for life  1804 – crowned himself emperor  brought political stability  made peace with Church  1801 – agreement with pope called the Concordat – said FR would keep lands taken, but State would pay clerics’ salaries and recognize Roman Catholicism as preferred faith o also give freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews o this got Nap a lot of support form the people  1804 – he created the Civil Code – revised body of civil law to help stabilize FR society o political and legal equality of all adult men o est. merit based society where people qualified for education and jobs because of talent rather than standing. o protected private property  allowed aristocrats to return and take back some of their property  took back a lot of the radical measures passed by the Convention  restored patriarchal authority  did not like the idea of intellectual freedom or representative gov’t o limited free speech and censored newspapers o est. secret police – used spies – detained suspected political opponents o used propaganda to manipulate public opinion o ignored elective bodies – used loyal military officers o founded a dynasty that set family above and apart from the people  Napoleon was the greatest general of his time o wanted to rule vast lands o conquered the Iberian and Italian peninsula o occupied the Netherlands o defeated the Austrian and Prussian forces . sent brothers and other relatives to rule in those lands o forced AUS, PRU and RU to ally with him and respect his hegemony in Europe o empire began to fall when he decided to invade Russia in 1812 . thought tsar was conspiring with GB . led his Grand Army of 600,000 to Moscow . captured the city, tsar withdrew, would not surrender . Russians set city on fire – left Nap’s army without food and supplies . ordered a retreat, but winter had seat in and destroyed his army . about 30,000 made it back to FR o this made his enemies stronger o coalition of GB, AUS, PRU, and RU attacked FR . forced Napoleon to abdicate in April of 1814 . restored monarchy . Napoleon forced to Mediterranean island of Elba . March 1815 – he escaped – returned to France – recreated army.  100 days he ruled . then GB army defeated him at the ______in Belgium . European powers then banished him to St. Helena in the South Atlantic . died of natural causes in 1821

The Influence of Revolution  ideas of the American and French revolutions inspired people in Europe and America  slave in St. Dominique rose up – est. Haiti  Euro-American leaders brought independence to Mex, Central America and South American countries  encouraged social reformers to extend political and legal rights to women and slaves  19th cent. – EUR, NA & SA abolished slavery  freed slaves and families still oppressed

Haitian Revolution  only successful slave revolt – Hispaniola  center of sugar production – 100s of plantation  Island of Hispaniola made up of two countries: o Santo Domingo (east) – now called the Dominican Republic o Saint-Dominique (west) – now called Haiti  Very wealthy – sugar, coffee, cotton was almost 1/3 of FR trade  Slaves outnumbered whites about 10 to 1  Social ladder: planters, gens de couleur (farmers, artisans)  Then slaves – mortality very high  Had many maroons – own societies –attacked others for supplies  Kept importing new slaves  FR had supported American Revolution – sent gens de couleur as soldiers o They came home with revolutionary ideas of political and legal rights  When a voodoo priest was killed, it set of a riot of slaves killing whites o Then gens de couleur killing slaves  FR had to send army in 1792 to bring back order – GB and SP also tried to help  Slave forces began to be led by Toussaint Louverture (he had helped his masters escape) o By 1793 – he had organized a strong army – gained control of most of the country o 1801 – wrote a constitution that gave equality & citizenship to all people o didn’t declare independence – didn’t want to make Napoleon attack o 1802 – Napoleon did send troops o Toussaint tried to negotiate peace, but he was arrested and sent to FR – died in jail o By that time, yellow fever had killed most of the FR army – Toussaint successors managed to defeat the rest.  1803 – Haiti declared independence

Wars of Independence in Latin America  revolutionary ideas traveled to rest of LA  governed by peninsulares, but had many creoles – 3.5 million  then had 10 million lesser classes  creoles resented being controlled by Spain and Portugal o they really wanted to replace the peninsulares but keep their high place in society o they looked to US as a model  by 1825 – everyone except Cuba & Puerto Rico had independence  their countries were Creole dominated republics  Mexican Revolution o Peasant rebellion led by priest, ______. Led the mestizos and indigenous against colonial rule . Many thought he was warring against the elites . They captured and executed him. o Rebellion continued o Creole general Augustin de Iturbide declared independence from Spain in 1821 – declared himself emperor . He was incompetent – deposed by Creole elites in 1823 o They established a republic o Two years later, southern regions declared independence o They formed Central American Federation until 1838 – then split into Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica  South America – Creole elite – Simon Bolivar led the independence movement o He was a zealous republican who believed in popular sovereignty o Inspired by George Washington o His army began their struggle in 1811 o Early days – went into exile several times. o 1819 – assembled army that crushed the SP army in Colombia o later he went to Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru and helped their leaders with their movements.  Bolivar had wanted to make a great confederation of states like the US  Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador formed republic called Gran Colombia – tried to bring in Peru and Bolivia o By 1830 – there were political and regional differences that ended the Confederation  Brazilian Independence o when Napoleon invaded Portugal in 1807, the king and his court fled and established a government in exile in Rio de Janiero o 1821 – king returned to Portugal o left son, Pedro in Brazil as regent o 1822 – creoles called for independence and Pedro agreed o he declared independence and became Emperor Pedro I o they were a monarchy instead of republic o creole elites dominated  results in Latin America o most peninsulares returned to Europe o new states gave military authority to local bullies known as ______– allied with the Creole elite o allowed slavery to continue o confirmed wealth and authority of Roman Catholic church o repressed the lower classes.

Emergence of Ideologies  US and FR revolutions made political and social theorists develop the modern ideas of conservatism and liberalism  Ideology is a vision of human nature, human society, & larger world that proposes some particular form of political and social organization as ideal  Ideologists try to design a political and social order appropriate for their communities  Conservatism: o Conservatives saw society as an organism that changed slowly over generation o English political philosopher Edmund Burke believed society was a compact between people’s ancestors and the present generation and future generations . He condemned radical or revolutionary change – he thought it would lead to anarchy . He approved of American rev because he thought it was a natural change to the historical development of North American society . He believed the FR revolution was too radical  Liberalism: o Liberals liked change – thought conservatism was an effort to justify status quo and a way to keep from dealing with inequality and injustice o Liberals believed change should come in the best interest of society o They liked freedom and equality – believed it would lead to better morality and prosperity o Liked republican forms of gov’t o Wanted constitutions o Many liberals during the 19th century believed democracy was dangerous because it believed in mass participation

Testing the Limits of Revolutionary Ideals: Slavery  Revolutionary ideas of freedom and equality began to extend to other areas – like slavery  Freed slaves were some of the first to champion the cause of abolition  By the 1780’s, European Christian moralists also began to show their opposition  After the three major revolutions, the movement began to gather steam  William Wilberforce, elected to the English Parliament worked for the cause of abolition of the slave trade  After the Haitian Revolution, others began to join his call for abolition  GB ended the slave trade in 1807  GB then pressured other nations to abolish the slave trade  US in 1808, France in 1814, the Netherlands in 1817, and Spain in 1845  British navy tried to patrol the coast of Africa to keep slave trader ships away from Africa  Abolition of slavery itself was a little harder  Planters and wealthy merchants resisted the end of slavery because of the wealth they would lose  However, by ending the slave trade, that was the beginning of the end of slavery itself  Most Latin American nations ended slavery along with gaining their independence  The US ended slavery after the Civil War with the 13th amendment in 1865  Abolition brought legal freedom for Africans, but it did not bring equality o Didn’t have very many rights o Forced into segregation (separate public facilities for blacks and whites) o Kept in low paying jobs o Many were tenant farmers and sharecroppers

Testing the Limits of Revolutionary Ideals: Women’s Rights  Women worked with men to end slavery, then worked on seeking their own equality  Said that they had many of the same legal disabilities as slaves: not much access to education, no access to professional jobs that required higher education (doctor, lawyer), could not vote  Philosophes of the Enlightenment did not promote change for women, but social reformers used Enlightenment idea to argue for women’s rights  ______– self educated – 1792 published essay called A Vindication of the Rights of Woman o Said that women had the same rights that John Locke said men have o She said education would make them better wives and mothers o Would also help them contribute to society when prepared for professional occupations (jobs) and activity in politics  Women helped during the revolutions, but didn’t really gain many rights from them  Elizabeth Cady Stanton (America) 1840 – went to antislavery convention in London and was denied entrance because she was a woman o She returned home to the US and helped launch the women’s rights movement o She helped organize the Seneca Falls Convention – 1848 (first women’s rights convention) . They passed 12 resolutions demanding the same rights that were enjoyed by men: voting, public education, professional jobs, being in public affairs  These early ladies of the movement didn’t have much success, but they laid the foundations for changes that would come in the 20th century

Nations and Nationalism  Enlightenment ideas helped inspire revolutions and revolutions helped spread Enlightenment ideas  The French Revolution and Napoleon years also inspired nationalism  Experiences during wartimes helped people think of themselves as distinct national communities  Nation – type of community that became prominent in the 19th century  Prior to this, people had associated themselves with clans, families, cities, religions, etc. but now members of a nation  Members of a nation have these things in common: o Language o Customs o Traditions o Values o Historical experiences o Most of the times – religion  The nation must be the focus of political loyalty  Leaders believe one should organize independent national states and pursue national interests  Focused on appreciating the historical experiences they had to help bring pride to the nation and people  Johan Gottfried von Herder – praised the German ______(people) for their language o They were unique – valued literature o They were the best example of the Volkgeist (popular soul, spirit or essence of their community)  Eventually these nations would become more strict  Leaders began demanding loyalty and solidarity from their people  Giuseppe Mazzini formed Young Italy to promote Italian freedom from Austrian and Spanish rule and to start their own Italian state o He had to lead a lot of his life in exile o So, he tried to encourage it in other lands like Ireland, Sweden, and Hungary  Nationalism brought conflict between different groups (even minority groups within their own society)  This helps explain the Zionist movement (movement to establish a free Jewish state called Palestine) o Jews lived all over Europe – however, they were minorities everywhere o People mistrusted them o Many were victims of persecution and violence o Millions migrated to other European lands and US o When Alfred Dreyfus was convinced of spying for Germany, anti-Semitism (anti-Jew) hit its high point . At his trial was a Jewish journalist named Theodor Herzl – he became convinced that the Jews would never live in peace . He decided to launch a movement to establish a state in Palestine (land of the Hebrew David and Solomon) . Migrants trickled in there for ½ a century o They won the right to have a state in 1948 – called it Israel o Resentful Muslim Palestinians were displaced

The Emergence of National Communities  After the fall of Napoleon, conservative political leaders of Europe feared that nationalism would bring revolutions to more countries  At the ______, they tried to stop this from happening o GB, Austria, Prussia, and Russia tried to take things back to the way they were before any revolutions happened o The Congress was led by the Finance Minister of Austria, Prince Klemens von Metternich . They divided the old Napoleonic Empire . Put the old royal families back in control . Tried to create a balance of power . Created Poland  This balance of power survived until WWI in 1914  The leaders of Europe tried to censor publications to keep Enlightenment and revolutionary ideas from spreading o It didn’t work  In the 1820’s-1840’s there were many rebellions that spread throughout Europe  In 1821, the Greeks fought the Ottoman Turks and gained their independence in 1830

The Unification of Italy and Germany  Since the fall of Rome, Italy and Germany had been disunited  Small regional kingdoms ruled Italy for over 1000 years  German princes ruled Germany in over 300 semiautonomous provinces  The Holy Roman Empire claimed authority over both Germany and Italy, but didn’t have the power to enforce their domination  The Congress of Vienna put most of northern Italy under the rule of Austria o Most of southern Italy was already under Spanish rule  Formation of Italy as a nation-state: o The Young Italy movement engaged in a major uprising from 182-1848 o Camillo di Cavour, the Prime Minister of King Emmanuel II of Sardinia combined with other nationalist groups in Italy . He allied with France and they booted Austria out of northern Italy o In southern Italy, Guiseppe Garibaldi and his ______(army of 1,000) swept through Sicily and southern Italy gaining recruits for their forces and outmaneuvering Spanish forces . In 1860, he met with King Emmanuel and gave him southern Italy o During the next decade, more territories were admitted – Rome and Venice  Formation of Germany as a nation-state: o The Congress of Vienna had created the German Confederation (39 states controlled by Austria and Prussia o Many rebellions were put down leaving many people angry with the authorities o In 1862, King Wilhelm I of Prussia appointed Otto von Bismarck as the Prime Minister . Bismarck used the policy of Realpolitik (the politics of reality)  He used “blood and iron” to build a powerful German state  He reformed and expanded the Prussian army  He provoked 3 wars with Denmark, Austria and France which he all defeated quickly o This was a huge boost to German pride o 1871 – Wilhelm I proclaimed the Second Reich . All German speaking people outside of Austria and Switzerland united in a state – Germany  Positive effects of nationalism: o All new nations adopted flags, national anthems, national holidays, etc. o Created bureaucracies to take censuses, keep track of births, marriage and death statistics o Built schools with patriotic values – recruited young men into armies o By the mid 20th century, political leaders had adopted the nation-state as the primary form of political organization all over the world