Course: Baseline Food Security Assessments

Food Security Information for Action

Baseline Food Security Assessments

Selecting a Baseline Assessment Method

Learners’ Notes

This course is funded by the European Union and developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Table of contents

Learning objectives...... 2

Introduction...... 2

Baseline Assessment Methods...... 3

Strengths and weaknesses of each method...... 14

Blending Methods...... 16

Defining an appropriate method...... 18

Summary...... 20

If you want to know more…...... 20

Learner Notes 1 Course: Baseline Food Security Assessments Lesson 2: Selecting a Baseline Assessment Method – Learner’s Notes

Learning objectives

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to: • compare the various food security baseline assessment methods; and • understand the criteria for defining an appropriate method, building on the options available.

Introduction

All baselines essentially have a common purpose of helping us to understand livelihoods, risk/hazards and vulnerability/resilience and provide a means to establish a benchmark from which to analyse similar issues under various food security contexts. This lesson will help you to appreciate the features of different baseline assessment methods as well as provide criteria and a mechanism to determine which methods may be most appropriate for your particular circumstances. Baseline assessments can be undertaken and information used in three main decision-making contexts:  To reduce the incidence or severity of shocks and/or increase the resilience of communities and households to these shocks, through planning ‘development’ or longer-term interventions.  As a benchmark for understanding through monitoring the impact of programme responses (either short or long term) on food security, and informing the adjustment/re- targeting of ongoing interventions.  As a benchmark for understanding how a specific shock or hazard has impacted on the food security of a specific population and so helping to plan short-term humanitarian assistance.

Baseline Assessment Methods

We will consider some examples of baseline assessment methods and approaches and the way they are applied in different food security situations for different purposes.

Major types of baseline methods that are currently used by different agencies include: 1. Poverty And Vulnerability Baseline Assessments (World Bank) 2. Livelihoods Assessments (e.g. CARE, OXFAM) 3. The Household Economy Approach (E.G. Save The Children Uk, FEWS-NET, Food Economy Group) 4. Comprehensive Vulnerability Food Security Assessments (World Food Programme - WFP) 5. Programme- And Project-Specific Baseline Assessments (e.g. C-SAFE Southern Africa)

Let’s see each baseline in more detail.

1. Poverty And Vulnerability Baseline Assessments (World Bank) Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment (PVA) methods are designed to guide macro policy choices that influence the overall levels of poverty and food insecurity. The main objective of the PVA is to make a thorough diagnosis of the prevailing situation and to understand the underlying causes of poverty and vulnerability of both rural and urban dwellers, as well as constraints and opportunities in order to draw up policy recommendations at a macro level for decision-making. In the case of Zambia, the PVA conducted in 2005 was designed to feed into the Fifth National Development Plan and update the previous World Bank Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment conducted in 1995.

Here are some features of Poverty and Vulnerability Baseline Assessments:

Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment

PVAs use a combination of secondary and primary sources of information. In the case of Zambia, the 2005 PVA relied heavily on the 2002 Living Conditions and Monitoring Survey (LCMS) as well as on other reports, including the Demographic and Health Survey Survey and the Population Census. method It also relied on primary data collection through urban and rural participatory studies on poverty and vulnerability. These surveys were conducted in 2004 in collaboration with NGOs and researchers from the University of Lusaka (Zambia).

Skills and time required for a PVA are quite substantial given that different types of expertise are needed at various steps in the process. Skills and The process is also very participatory, and an extensive consultation process is used time between the drafting of the concept paper until the final report is produced and required endorsed by a wide range of stakeholders. Intermediate drafts of the report are discussed at each stage of the process through a series of workshops in which various categories of stakeholders participate. The Zambia PVA took approximately 18 months to complete.

Frequency Frequency of updating is variable and depends on several factors including available of resources and stakeholders’ interest. In the case of Zambia, ten years have passed Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment- CONT Learner Notes 4 Course: Baseline Food Security Assessments Lesson 2: Selecting a Baseline Assessment Method – Learner’s Notes updating since the previous baseline was completed.

Example Here is an extract from the executive summary of the Zambian 2005 PVA. of “…The report documents poverty along a number of dimensions, including material baseline deprivation, human deprivation, vulnerability, destitution and social stigmatization. product There must be progress across all dimensions if Zambia is to meet the ambitious development goals reflected in the MDGs and being discussed in the work-up to the Fifth National Development Plan”… “…The Zambian population suffers from a high burden of disease due in large part to high rates of HIV/AIDS, but also to malaria and other infectious diseases. In 2001, HIV/AIDS prevalence was estimated at 18%for women and 13% for men, and Zambia was entering its third decade of double-digit HIV/AIDS prevalence. Children are particularly at risk: they are malnourished - 47% of children are chronically malnourished, rising from 40 percent in the early 1990s – and less shielded against disease. Three out of ten youngsters are still not fully immunized, and under-five mortality is very high at 176 per 1000 live births. Infant mortality is particularly high in households from high level of income poverty”...

The Zambian PVA was a main input in the preparation of the Fifth National Development Plan. How PVAs For example, it provided a rationale for strengthening and scaling up food and are used nutrition interventions through the restructuring of the National Food and Nutrition Commission in order to make it more effective to meet the new challenges and demands of nutrition issues.

2. Livelihoods Assessments (e.g. CARE, OXFAM) Livelihoods baseline assessments are centered on people and individuals. Their main objective is to understand the nature of livelihoods strategies and livelihoods outcomes of the different categories of households and the principle constraints and opportunities that could be addressed through policies and programmes. A wide range of issues that can influence food security and welfare are screened during the assessment process in order to understand how population groups make a living on a daily basis and what the underlying causes of poverty and food insecurity are. Several institutions rely upon livelihoods baseline assessments for specific purposes, including CARE (US) and OXFAM (UK)1. Here are some of their features: Livelihoods Assessments

Secondary data are used in order to get a holistic picture of the area and population under study and to clarify the context of primary data research by identifying information gaps. Survey Primary data are extensively collected through focus groups, and key informant and method household semi-structured interviews. The data collection process can also be dynamic and interactive and includes both quantitative and qualitative information. As they have to deal with various and complex issues, livelihoods baseline assessments usually require quite a substantial amount of time and skills. Time required to complete assessments ranges between 3 and 18 months, depending Skills and on the size of the country and resources available. time Various categories of skills are required at the conceptual, design, data analysis and required interpretation levels as well as at the data collection field level. At the conceptual and analysis levels, various skills are required in different fields including agronomy, Livelihoods Assessments-CONT

1 CARE (US) Households Livelihoods Security: CARE Households Livelihoods Security helps to understand chronic food insecurity and poverty alleviation at the community level. It is an in-depth analysis of communities and uses a participatory approach that allows beneficiaries to be fully involved in the process of searching for long-term sustainable alternatives. OXFAM’s (UK) baseline assessments: OXFAM’s baseline assessments are used as a context in emergency and disaster situations in order to save lives and livelihoods, while looking at long-term food security needs of affected populations. One of the main purposes of livelihoods baseline assessments is to draw specific policy recommendations that can lead to programme and project design.

economy, health and nutrition, sociology, anthropology and gender. In the case of CARE International, field workers who are also researchers are preferred to enumerators, as most of the field work is conducted through a participatory process. Hence, the same skills are often required and used for field work and for data analysis and interpretation. Surveys are conducted either through rapid rural appraisals, which require a small amount of time and resources; or through participatory surveys, which take much longer as they are interactive and designed to empower communities.

Frequency of updating is variable and depends on the needs and available resources. Frequency A major change in the environment will trigger an update of the livelihoods baseline of assessment. updating Otherwise, livelihoods baseline assessments are usually updated every 5 years.

Extracts of livelihood outcomes from a livelihoods baseline conducted by CARE Example International for the Kanai Nagar Community in the Mongla region in Bangladesh in of 2002 follows (CARE, July 2002): baseline “The poor eat “dal” 3-4 times per week, and they consume vegetables 6 days per product week. The poor may eat egg 1 time per week. They eat fish 3-4 times per week when fish are available and they eat meat very rarely. For the poor, they have food shortages from June to March (10 months). During the rainy season, food shortages are particularly high. Sometimes the middle class farmers experience food shortages for 7 months, but for poor households, shortages are more severe. The middle poor experience acute food shortages in the rainy season, and these households may experience food shortages periodically throughout the year. During the rainy season, the poorer households reduce consumption to one meal a day. Middle poor will take a loan from relatives to cope with the food shortage. In times of food crisis, women suffer the most. After the children and husband eat, there is little for the women to eat.”

How they Livelihoods baseline assessments are usually used for programme and project design are used and monitoring (CARE) or as a context in emergency assessments (OXFAM).

3. The Household Economy Approach (E.G. Save The Children UK, FEWS-NET, Food Economy Group).

The Household Economy Approach (HEA) baseline is a type of livelihoods-based analysis centred on the different ways a given population obtains food and non food income in order to make a living. An HEA baseline assessment is used as a reference to identify the impact of a shock on household access to food and non-food income in order to calculate a food gap. The HEA baseline assessment has been mostly used to model the effects of shocks on households’ access to food and income sources, deriving a calculation of food gaps. From this information, scenarios are built around the different ways of filling the gap, including food aid and other non-food-related interventions. This approach follows several steps:  characterization of a food economy zone,  analysis of the problem and its impact on households,  assessment of the outcome of households strategies.

Some of the features of the Household Economy Approach: Household Economy Approach

Secondary sources of information are used to create the context for the household economies, including official studies and NGO and academic reports. Survey However, collection of primary data is critical to this method and is conducted method through rapid rural appraisal techniques and mainly through semi-structured interviews with focus groups and households. The data collected are mainly quantitative and are used to construct the household economies and identify food gaps. Skills required for an HEA analysis are quite demanding. While conducting HEA baseline assessments, an international consultant is usually called upon and works with lead national consultants from NGOs and international institutions available in Skills and the country in association with national and local government officials. Intensive time training and ongoing support are usually required. required An HEA baseline assessment conducted in 2002 in Wolayita zone (Ethiopia) took seven weeks to be completed. This report was conducted by the Food Economy Group on behalf of two NGOs working in the region: Christian Aid and Action for Development.

Frequency of updating is again a question of the interest of the main stakeholders,

Household Economy Approach-CONT

Frequency and is usually related to an ongoing programme or project. of Every 4-5 years is the average, unless a dramatic change has occurred in the

Learner Notes 8 Course: Baseline Food Security Assessments Lesson 2: Selecting a Baseline Assessment Method – Learner’s Notes updating meantime.

The Wolayita (Ethiopia) baseline assessment was conducted in 2003 in order to help measure the impact of the project as well as provide recommendations on programme priorities. Extracts from the Wolayita zone baseline are provided below and refer to main findings: “In an area which is considered to be primarily agricultural, an estimated 30 percent Example of the population are not farmers at all but are farm labourers, or disabled/sick. An of additional 50 percent have such a precarious “foot” in farming that they must baseline purchase, or earn 60 percent ( or more) or their annual food needs. The very poor product spend almost all their income on food. Neither the poor nor the middle poor generate savings … and often they run a debt. For the middle poor group, the combined effect of sweet potato losses and wage and price changes in 2000 opened up food deficits of an estimated 40 percent (pre-relief). What is also clear is that by 2000… enset played a very small role in helping the poor cope with sweet potato losses. By contrast, for better-off farmers, enset harvests, combined with cash crop or livestock sales, were a central strategy which effectively filled their food gaps.” Note: Enset is an root crop, a traditional staple crop in parts of Ethiopia.

How they Although in this case study HEA is used for project impact assessment, one of the are used most frequent uses of HEA baseline assessments has been to identify the food gap to be filled by food aid or by other means in times of crises. International agencies dealing with emergency situations and providing food aid have been using this methodology extensively.

4. Comprehensive Vulnerability Food Security Assessments (World Food Programme - WFP). WFP’s Comprehensive Vulnerability Food Security Assessments (CVFSAs) are designed to provide an understanding of chronic food insecurity and vulnerability conditions and how food aid can be used as an appropriate response. The dynamics of chronic food insecurity and vulnerability then serve as a basis for other assessments aimed at characterizing and targeting vulnerable groups in a country and within specific locations. The categorization of the populations into different vulnerable groups allows the development of programming responses that are more suited to areas and villages with the greatest prevalence of food-insecure households. The CVFSA can also provide essential information on risks and their potential impacts on different population groups for disaster mitigation and contingency planning efforts. The first step in the CVFSA intends to identify the vulnerable and where they are located. Then primary data collection helps understand why, when and how many people are chronically food- insecure and to what degree, and how to address their food insecurity and vulnerability.

Some of the features of the Comprehensive Vulnerability Food Security Assessments:

CVFSA baselines include both secondary data analysis and primary data collection. Secondary data analysis helps to verify and refine WFP's understanding of the food Survey security problems identified. method It uses a variety of available data and indicators - including population and household censuses, poverty and nutrition surveys and spatial data sets - to map the spatial patterns of food insecurity and identify its underlying causes. In terms of primary information, two sets of data are collected: at community level through focus group discussions and at household level through formal surveys. Both quantitative and qualitative information are collected.

Skills and CVFSA baselines are usually conducted by international experts in collaboration with time local NGO partners who contribute to data collection and field work activities. required Time required to complete an assessment is around 18 months.

CVFSA-CONT

Frequency Frequency of updating is about 4-5 years, or less if a dramatic change has occurred of in the meantime. updating

WFP conducted a CVFSA in Niger in 2005 at the time of the humanitarian crisis in order to better understand the profiles of food-insecure households and prioritize areas where a high level of food insecurity prevailed. Example Some concluding elements of the report are presented in the following paragraph: of “Households with severe or moderate levels of food insecurity are mostly located in baseline two areas: in the devastated savannah zone and in the dry savannah zone. In these product two areas, food-insecure households represent 47 to 39% of total households. In agropastoral and humid savannah zones, an intermediate situation prevails with 37 to 30% food-insecure households. In the desert zone, a small percentage of households are food-insecure (6%), but a substantial percentage of households are potentially vulnerable (53%).”

How they The CVFSA in Niger has been used by WFP for better targeting and contingency are used planning.

5.Programme- And Project-Specific Baseline Assessments (e.g. C-SAFE Southern Africa). Baselines can be constructed around a specific programme or project. They are needed in such circumstances in order to understand the context in which the programme or project is taking place and to identify benchmarks against which expected achievements can be compared and impact assessed. The following case study illustrates the use of baseline assessments applied to specific programmes:

Exampl Example: Consortium for Southern-Africa Food Emergency (C-SAFE) e In Southern Africa, C-SAFE (including World Vision, Catholic Relief Services and CARE) baseline surveys were implemented in three countries (Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe) from 2002 to 2005. One of the objectives of the baseline was to establish a monitoring, targeting and evaluation system that could be used to understand the food security status of rural households and facilitate objective evaluation of various project activities implemented in those countries by the three partner NGOs. C-SAFE baselines are also livelihoods-based frameworks that look not only at short- term food aid needs, but also at risk and long-term vulnerability effects. Livelihoods assessments help analyse the underlying causes and patterns of households’ vulnerability and risk management for complex slow-onset issues such as HIV/AIDS and/or chronic illness, and the coping strategies that these households put in place to face risks. This is possible through a systematic desegregation of data at different levels - socioeconomic/wealth group, household and intra-household levels, gender and age group - in order to fully capture the impact of risk and vulnerability on population groups, households and individuals within households.

Here are the common characteristics of the methods illustrated by the C-SAFE case studies:

C-SAFE has adopted an approach based on a formal sample survey in order to ensure that indicators to be obtained would be representative of the study areas. Another Survey reason was to allow valid comparisons across regions and countries, as the project method was conducted simultaneously in three countries. Primary data were collected through the survey, and combined with secondary data analysis.

Skills C-SAFE and WFP Iraq baseline surveys have both been using international consultants and in order to design and supervise the baseline assessments. In-country training of time trainers for monitoring and evaluation officers and a training of trainers of survey Learner Notes 12 Course: Baseline Food Security Assessments Lesson 2: Selecting a Baseline Assessment Method – Learner’s Notes required supervisors were conducted before starting the assessments. In both cases, approximately 6 months were necessary for data collection to be completed.

The following extract from C-SAFE Zimbabwe refers to gender and household Example disaggregated data: of “Male-headed households spend slightly more on food than female-headed product households, but less on non-staple foods. They spend slightly more on agricultural (1) inputs and less on household goods. Households with chronically ill members spend significantly more on health care than the general population, but spend slightly less on education, household goods and agricultural inputs. Households hosting orphans spend significantly more on education and less on staple foods and household goods.”

An extract of the WFP Iraq food security baseline is included: …“The [Public Distribution System] PDS continues to represent by far the single most Example important source of food in Iraq. Widespread problems in food availability and food of access have successfully been avoided in the past and the PDS has played a major product role in this regard. Yet despite the PDS, many Iraqis continue to struggle under (2) conditions of extreme poverty, which leads to food insecurity. Poor households barely manage to meet their food requirements and without the PDS ration many would face a high probability of becoming food-insecure”... … “This study was undertaken in anticipation of a possible PDS policy shift from universal coverage towards a targeted approach. Yet, regardless of new policies and safety net reform, the evidence from the findings is clear: a significant segment of the population faces real difficulties in accessing adequate food and many others are vulnerable because of their high PDS dependency. Without the food ration, many lower income households would not be able to meet their food requirements. Given these conditions and the uncertainties and risks that future reform initiatives would imply, there is a clear need for national institutions to have a strong food security analysis and monitoring capacity. Food security conditions would need to be closely monitored at national, regional and community levels. Such a capacity should be well established prior to implementing broad reaching reforms or entitlement reductions.”

Strengths and weaknesses of each method

We will now compare purpose, strengths and limitations of each method.

1. Poverty and Vulnerability Baseline Assessments (World Bank)

Context/ Planning long-term responses to reduce vulnerability and poverty. Purpose

• Examines effects of macro-level policies and governance on welfare. Strengths • Strong analysis of risk and vulnerability. • Large and representative sample data which other analyses can utilize.

Limitations • Emphasis on national-level conclusions and lacks disaggregated analysis. • Complex and expensive, requiring international expertise.

2. Livelihoods Assessments (CARE, OXFAM)

Context/ Organizing and empowering communities for providing responses to poverty and Purpose chronic food insecurity. Providing a context for emergency assessments.

• Comprehensive livelihoods analysis including ethnicity, customs, religions, Strengths gender, institutions. • Empowers local populations for long-term development goals.

• Detailed local analysis cannot be easily scaled up to the national level. • Difficult to standardize within and across countries and regions for comparison purposes. Limitations • Use of high-level experts in the field, which is costly, time-consuming and difficult to replicate.

3. Household Economy Approach (SC UK, FEWS-NET, Food Economy Group)

Context/ Mainly providing a context for emergency assessment of food needs. Purpose

• Transparent method for analysing food access and developing quantitative

Strengths estimates of food gaps. • Analysis disaggregated by livelihood zones and wealth groups.

• Inadequate framework for linking community-level and macro-level analysis. • Does not analyse intra-household dynamics, e.g. how gender affects Limitations access. • Lack of correspondence between administrative units (used by response agencies) and food economy zones (used as the basis for recommendations).

4. Comprehensive Vulnerability Food Security Assessments (WFP)

Context/ • Examines causes of chronic vulnerability and food insecurity. Purpose • Provides a basis for targeting and contingency planning.

Strengths • Provides a rationale for internal policies and programmes of the implementing agency.

• Weak ownership of results by the wider humanitarian community. Limitations • Requires substantial financial resources for survey implementation and high technical skills for data analysis.

5. Programme- and Project-specific baseline assessments (C-SAFE South Africa)

Context/ Assesses impact and allows fine tuning for implementation of project and Purpose programme.

• Geared to the needs of decision makers in a specific project or programme

Strengths context. • Integrated with arrangements for regular monitoring.

Limitations • Limited relevance to the broader food security and development community.

Blending Methods

In practical terms, the baseline approaches often combine or blend similar analytical methods and information sources. Most of the approaches to conducting a baseline utilize an appropriate combination of secondary and primary data sources. Large national surveys like the World Bank surveys, Living Conditions and Monitoring Surveys, Population Census, and Demographic and Health Surveys among others could be the main sources of secondary information. This information would be complemented and triangulated with information collected either through formal surveys or through semi-structured interviews at focus group, key informant and household levels. This mix of information sources is implemented by several national and international institutions. Quantitative and qualitative data can also be blended to better complement each other. Quantitative data allow for systematically measuring the food security situation and provide a representative snapshot. Qualitative data, on the other hand, allow for capturing the processes and interactions between social, political, institutional and economic factors which determine vulnerability to food insecurity over time. This allows for an understanding of the underlying causes of food insecurity and vulnerability. In the following example, primary and secondary sources of information are used, and qualitative and quantitative data combined, to obtain a global picture of the situation.

Example

Example: combining different kinds of information An agroforestry project is to be started in the southern region of a Sahelian country. A baseline assessment was conducted in order to provide a context for project monitoring and evaluation. Several data sources were used, including data from a recent Agricultural and Livestock Census, a Population Census; formal surveys and focus group discussions were also conducted. Learner Notes 16 Course: Baseline Food Security Assessments Lesson 2: Selecting a Baseline Assessment Method – Learner’s Notes

Areas planted and livestock figures were provided as well as information on agricultural practices and the quality of existing financial and industrial infrastructure.

A second idea could be to identify within the different approaches those which have the most appropriate strengths and could be incorporated into your specific baseline assessment methodology according to your circumstances. For example, If HIV/AIDS and socio-cultural constraints are critical issues in your particular environment, the strengths of the C-SAFE methodology could be combined with those of CARE HLS in order to come up with an adequate baseline assessment method. Another example: where baseline assessments are conducted to start a new programme or design new policies, enough time is available to conduct an in-depth analysis using a livelihoods-based baseline or project-specific baseline. Time and resources available might also be the criteria that will guide the choice among methods.

Defining an appropriate method

The objectives of the assessment will influence the choice among the options available. Moreover, the choice may be based on the following criteria: • the information gap (what exists and what is missing), which should be analysed to identify which methodology will best help to provide the data necessary to fill the gap; • the institutional capacity to implement and sustain the selected method (including staff skills and logistical and financial resources); • the existing food security information system on which the methodology should rely; • constraints in accessing local populations (for example, due to security reasons).

Different institutional settings and objectives lead to adopting different options. Two of them are presented below: FEWS NET baselines and RVAC-Southern Africa.

Examples Example 1: FEWS NET baselines FEWS-NET has made the choice of implementing its baseline assessments. Some countries have not gone beyond the agro-ecological zoning (Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania); some have established the livelihood profiles (Niger, Chad, Malawi); only a few (including Somalia and Southern Sudan) have developed a full version of the Food Economy Approach. The varying degree of adoption is related to the information needs of the different stakeholders and to the level of motivation and interest of partner institutions and networking FEWS-NET was able to develop in each country. Example 2: RVAC-Southern Africa At the national level, not all Vulnerability Assessment Committees (NVACs) have fully adopted the methodology; partly because of the multiplicity of institutions involved in the process, each with its own interests and characteristics. Examples include: • short-term food aid needs vs. long-term development perspective looking at underlying causes of the food crisis; • using survey questionnaires instead of interviews for livelihoods assessment; • overstretching the food security-centered approach into a more human security-based approach; and • the lack of local capacity to implement and sustain the approach. Therefore, it is important to clearly identify the purpose of the assessment while at the same time considering the resources and capacity that are available to implement the methodological adaptations.

Finally, some important issues to keep in mind to ensure an appropriate methodology is selected include: • Buy-in of main institutions Leadership and legitimacy of a lead institution and buy-in from main partners are key factors. Establish mechanisms to adopt an appropriate methodology with all concerned stakeholders as a way of building coordination, consensus and partnership among regional and national institutions.

• Maintain a balance between compromise and dogma Compromise may be necessary but it does not mean that all stakeholders need to be accommodated. The core characteristics of the chosen methodology have to be protected and it

Learner Notes 18 Course: Baseline Food Security Assessments Lesson 2: Selecting a Baseline Assessment Method – Learner’s Notes should not be “over-diluted” or “over-stretched”. Therefore a balance has to be found between compromise and dogma, and strong leadership is needed for this to happen.

• Building local capacity for sustainability and ownership Again, existing local capacity and potential for increasing it can be a criterion for choosing among options. Furthermore, capacity building ensures ownership and sustainability.

Summary

Baseline assessment methods differ in scope and purpose but they all provide a means to establish a benchmark from which to analyse similar issues under various food security contexts. Five main examples of food security baseline approaches have been identified: • Poverty and Vulnerability Baseline Assessments (World Bank) • Livelihoods Assessments (e.g. DFID, CARE, OXFAM) • Household Economy Approach (e.g. Save the Children UK, FEWS-NET, Food Economy Group) • Comprehensive Vulnerability Food Security Assessments (WFP) • Programme- and project-specific baseline assessments (e.g. C-SAFE, CARE, WFP) In practical terms, baselines often use a combination or blend of methods. One way to blend methods is to use an appropriate combination of secondary and primary data sources. Quantitative and qualitative data can also be blended to complement each other. A second way may be to identify within the different methods those which have the most appropriate strengths and could be incorporated into your specific baseline assessment methodology according to your circumstances.

If you want to know more…

1. Online resources • The Food Economy Approach: A Framework for Understanding Rural Livelihoods. Boudreau www.odihpn.org/pdfbin/networkpapers026.pdf. • WFP Iraq food security baseline www.womenwarpeace.org/webfm_send/508 • Young H., S. Jaspars, R. Brown, J. Frize, H. Khogali, Food security assessments in emergency: a livelihoods approach. Humanitarian Network Paper 36, ODI, June 2001. http://www.odihpn.org/documents/networkpaper036.pdf 2. Additional readings • Shoham J., Food Security Information Systems supported by Save the Children U.K., a review. 2005. London.

Learner Notes 20