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Culture Notes AP Human Geography

Ch. 4—Popular vs. Folk Culture Folk & Popular Culture: Terms  HABIT—“a repetitive act that a particular individual performs”  CUSTOM—“a repetitive act of a group, performed to the extent that it becomes characteristic of the group” o Jeans start out as a habit for someone, popular enough it becomes material culture  MATERIAL CULTURE—“a collection of social customs”

B) How do we learn what to do in our culture?

► Values- ideas of what is desirable in life (good & bad/ugly & beautiful) ► Norms- rules of behavior that develop out of a group’s values

Folk vs. Popular Material culture falls into categories, mostly based on scale:  FOLK CULTURE—Small, fairly homogenous groups—Relocation Diffusion (amish) o Today, mostly isolated in rural areas  POPULAR CULTURE—Large, heterogeneous groups—hierarchical diffusion (sports) o Widespread, urban – maybe even “global culture”

Origins  Every social custom develops in a particular place – a hearth. o Folk customs usually have anonymous origins – they come from unknown places (sometimes more than one place), at unknown times. o Popular customs are usually the product of developed countries, and their origins are often well known.

Folk music vs. Popular Music—  Folk Music—Every culture develops its own unique music. o All known cultures have some form of music. o Folk music is usually composed anonymously. o Folk music is usually transmitted orally (not written down). o The content and subject matter of folk music usually comes from everyday events in people’s lives. . Alan Lomax’s Folk Song Regions  Northern Tradition  Southern Tradition  Western Style  African-American o “Billy Boy”—example of folk culture  Popular Music o Unlike folk music, popular music is (usually) written or performed by known individuals who “own” it. This is true even for songs that many of us think are “public”: Happy Birthday to You belongs to Time Warner and won’t be in the public domain until 2030! o Popular music is (usually) produced as a kind of commodity – it’s for sale. o Popular music tends to vary a lot more over time than from place to place (the music of the 1990s was very different from the music of the 1980s – but you could hear it just about anywhere in the world). o Modern popular music (as we think of it) began about 100 years ago: . Performed in English “music halls” and in American “vaudeville,” and composed by professionals in places like “Tin Pan Alley.” . Global-scale diffusion during the Second World Wars. . Continued and increasing diffusion by mass media (recorded and broadcast). o Hip Hop—1970s, initially had the nature of folk music, quickly became pop music with local flavor

Origins: Folk Customs  Folk Beliefs—How does the world work? How should we behave? o How does the world work? How should you behave? What should you do when someone is born? Or marries? Or dies? How should you live your life? o Every culture has had to come up with answers to questions like these –answers that (more or less) work for that culture. . Folk beliefs are usually transmitted orally. o Folk Beliefs: Relocation Diffusion . The Amish – originally a Swiss Mennonite group – have a distinctive culture and are now found in 17 US States.  The Amish (and their beliefs) have spread by relocation diffusion –which is just about the only way folk cultures and their beliefs can spread.

Sports—Hierarchical Diffusion  Folk Sports—People everywhere enjoy recreation – many places have developed unique forms of recreation and sports.—“Play is older than culture” (Johan Huizinga, Homo Ludens) o As far we know, games are a fundamental part of every culture – playing games is part of what it means to be human. o Every culture develops its own unique forms of recreation. o Folk Sports: Examples . Cornish Hurling— “At [the village of] St Columb the struggle is a physical battle between “Town and Country” with the shops in the town barricading their windows and doors for the start of the scrum at 4.30 p.m. The ball is thrown to the crowd from the market square the objective to carry it into either the town or country goals set some two miles apart or if this is not possible the ball may be carried over the Parish boundary. At 8.00 p.m. a winner returns to declare a win for Town or Country.” . Belarusian Hul'nia— “Players are divided into two teams or “armies”. Each “army” chooses a “big one” -- the strongest person. This person throws a wooden wheel or a heavy round stone towards another “army”. The other “army” is supposed to stop it as fast as possible and reverse its direction. The game is won when the line is crossed on one of the sides o Soccer (Football)—originated in England tin the 11th’ century, originally about moving a “cow bladder” to the center of a neighboring town and the townspeople who would do it would be declared the winner . Hierarchical diffusion by colonization/imperialism . Term “soccer” comes from the English “Association” from the governing Football AssociationAssocshortened to soccer . Rugby—was created in 1823 when a player at “Rugby School” in England picked up the ball and ran  Football—came from Harvard adopting the Rugby rules and then modifying them in the 19th century

 “Folk Food”—People adapt their food preferences based on the environment – BUT beliefs and values strongly influence diet. o Folk customs are always affected by what’s available – but also by culture. o What is acceptable for some cultures may be unacceptable – or even horrifying to others. o Pigs aren’t common in middle east due to climate (banned in Judaism and Islam), Cows are important for agriculture in India (Hindus forbidden to consume)—in the US insects, dogs, cats, etc. o Alcohol—Baptists and Mormons drink less due to religious restrictions—lower consumption of alcohol (although consistent especially when compared to other regions/cultures) . Vineyards—found in temperate climates, “sandy” soil, mostly found in the Christian world, alcohol consumption is discouraged amongst Hindus and Muslims  Popular Food o In popular culture modern transportation methods mean that a wide variety of different kinds of food are available year-round – people are not limited to locally available crops. o Food fads and food trends can change diets, so that what people prefer tends to vary more over time than over space. o However, there are variations in food preferences and consumption

 Folk Housing—Must be made from locally available building materials—distinctive forms – there is no “perfect” house design. o Folk housing has several fundamental characteristics: . It must deal adequately with the physical environment (or else!). . It must be designed in such a way that people without special equipment or training can build it. . It must be constructed from locally available materials. . Remember: there is no single “perfect” design. . Colder climates—windows facing toward direct sunlight, hotter climates fewer windows facing away—roof structured for snow/rain issues o Religious Custom—parts of china the East wall of the house is considered sacred . Laos—some sleep with their back to each other (the head is considered noble), Thailand houses are in a row because evil spirits travels in straight lines, Buddhists in Thailand also sleep with their heads to the east (a more auspicious direction)  Popular Housing o Housing in popular culture is usually designed and built by professionals– not by the people who live in the houses. o Popular housing is not limited to locally available building materials. o Popular housing styles vary more over time than regionally – for example, houses built in the 1950s tend to look alike, regardless of where they were built.

 Folk Art—In many cultures the distinction between “art” and “everyday object” is unclear – decoration is “just the way things are done.” o Usually, folk art pieces are “traditional”; there is no known designer, no “artist” – just craftspeople. o Often the “art” is just included as part of a traditional way of making something – not specifically made as “art.”

Popular Culture  Popular Art o As with popular music, popular art is usually created by known individuals as a commodity – produced by professionals, and made to be sold o Innovation (and even shock value) is highly prized.  Popular Beliefs o Beliefs about the world and how people should live and behave are widely shared in popular culture. o Widely shared concepts today: . Democracy; free markets; individualism; rule of law; private property; family; work; education; etc. o Popular beliefs are spread by media -- newspapers, magazines, radio and—most popular leisure activity in MDC’s—most important mechanism by which knowledge of popular culture, ie. sports, fashion, music, is diffused—with the advent of satellite dishes it’s very difficult to regulate in totalitarian states . TELEVISION!!!!  The Diffusion of TV—took a half century to diffuse o Category 1: Countries where most households (more than 50%) own at least one TV set (US, Japan). o Category 2: Countries where TVs are common, but not universal (25%-49%) (Mexico, Thailand). o Category 3: Countries where television exists, but is uncommon (5%-24%); few individuals own sets (Mongolia, Laos). o Category 4: Countries where television is rare or non-existent (less than5%); virtually no TV sets (Bhutan, Chad). . The Internet—took only a decade to diffuse  In 1995 less than 10% of American adults were online; today more than 2/3 have online access.  Worldwide, more than a billion people have internet access today – but access is still very limited in less developed areas.

 Threats to Folk Cultures o Why worry? Why should we care? o When people turn away from traditional culture and customs, they may also turn away from a society’s traditional values. o The ways of living and behaving that work in popular culture may not work so well in other cultures. o On the other hand – traditional ways of living are not necessarily ideal either!

 Threats to Folk Culture o Number 1: Loss of Traditional Values – Changes in the Role of Women . In many cultures it is traditional for women to be subservient to men (this was true here until quite recently!) . In some cases, awareness of popular culture has meant that women can seek advancement, education, and new roles. . On the other hand, contact with popular culture almost always results in increased rates of prostitution and exploitation. . Women who try to change their roles or status may be subject to harassment and violence – although that is hardly unique or unusual in many cultures. . Clothes—western business attire, sign of material success o Number 2: Foreign Media Imperialism . Media from just three countries – the US, the UK and Japan –dominate entertainment and news in much of the less developed world. What they show may be offensive to (or subversive of) traditional values. . Western news media dominate international news. News media within most less developed countries is largely government controlled. News networks tend to represent Western values and ideas – and may not present the points of view of less developed countries (or their governments). Western media are largely interested in disasters. . Note that newspapers and radio stations are usually locally owned and operated – not foreign owned or controlled. o Number 3: Adoption & Commodification . Popular culture is constantly looking for new, exciting things and ideas. . Often, it takes them from folk cultures – but things are usually altered as part of the process, and the original meaning is often lost. o Number 4: The Environment . Folk cultures are dependent on the local environment. Although they may modify it, if they survive, they must be in some sense “in balance.” . Popular culture is much more likely to create pollution – toxic chemicals, sewage, etc. . Popular culture is far less dependent on local conditions. Food can be imported; air conditioning can keep things pleasant. So popular culture is far more likely to modify the natural environment – sometimes in ways that may be disastrous for people trying to live a traditional life—inefficiency of meat consumption—takes 10 pounds of grain to produce one pound of beef —3 pound of grain to produce 1 pound of chicken—less efficient than eating grain directly . Accelerated Resource Use through Accelerated Consumption  Furs: minx, lynx, jaguar, kangaroo, whale, sea otters (18th Century Russians) fed early fashion trends.  Consumerism evident in most Western Media fashions, including hip hop and rock and roll.  Inefficient over-consumption of Meats (10:1), Poultry (3:1), even Fish (fed other fish and chicken) by meat-eating pop cultures  Mineral Extraction for Machines, Plastics and Fuel  New larger housing desires and associated energy and water use.  Golf courses use valuable water and destroy habitat worldwide. . Modifying the Environment: Examples  Increased Demand for Resources  Popular culture needs access to large quantities of raw materials –minerals, petroleum, lumber, agricultural land.  Increased demand for these resources can severely impact the environment – in ways that traditional cultures never would. o Golf—Each golf course covers at least 200 acres and requires enormous quantities of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation water. . About 200 new golf courses open every year in the US; thousands around the world. . Pollution: waste from fuel generation and discarded products, plastics, marketing and packaging materials o Number 5: Placelessness . Popular culture is characterized by nearly universal styles of art, architecture, advertising, behavior, etc. . When every place is indistinguishable from every other place – then how can any place be special or unique? Why put any particular value on a place when it’s just like everywhere else?  Effects on Landscape: creates homogenous, “placeless” (Relph, 1976), landscape o Complex network of roads and highways o Commercial Structures tend towards ‘boxes’ o Dwellings may be aesthetically suggestive of older folk traditions o Planned and Gated Communities more and more common Chapter 5: Language Language Origins  The Danish linguist Otto Jesperson (1860-1943) classified theories of language origin into five groups: o “Bow-Wow”—People imitate sounds from their environment o “Pooh-Pooh”—People make instinctive sounds related to emotions, body functions, pain o “Ding-Dong”—People make “oral gestures” o Yo-He-Ho”—People work together and produce rhythmic sound o “La-La”—People make sounds associated with love, play and singing

Language is…  Language is universal o No human group anywhere has ever been found that does not have a spoken language. . There are, of course, many languages that do not have a written form. . There are occasional physically normal individuals, “wolf children,” who have no language at all.  Language is fundamental o Language is crucial for social interaction, and to express complex emotions and ideas. o Language lets us deal with – and even try to control – the world around us: . Naming . Faith, magic and the supernatural o Language is fundamental to who we are – our identity.

The world’s top ten languages  Note the astonishing rise of English!  Why? Mostly because of English's status as an official language in former British colonies (especially in India – even though just a small percent of the population speaks English fluently). o Two-billion people live in a country with English as the official language even if they can’t speak it o Causes: Imperialism (British/US), Cultural Imperialism (TV, Movies, Music, etc.)

The pleasures and perils of English  Pleasures o Most widely spoken language, global dominance of media, internet. o No gender, number or case changes; easy formation of plurals. o Relatively simple verb forms (except for irregular verbs). o Huge, flexible vocabulary.  Perils o Idiomatic verb and preposition combinations (“put up,” “get down”) o Irregular plurals (ox and oxen; foot and feet, etc.) o Spelling— . the gh = f as in rough, the o = i as in wOmen, the ti = sh as in naTIon o Bizarre written forms: “Though the rough cough and hiccough (hiccup) plough me through, I ought to cross the lough (loch).” o No rules for pronunciation and stress: Polish vs. polish; dove vs. dove; to, too, two; there, their, they’re

Improving written English?  And if these look funny –remember, American spelling was “simplified” over a hundred years ago! o “tire” vs. “tyre” o “jail” vs. “gaol” o “curb” vs. “kerb” o “program” vs. “programme”

Origins of English  Development—Nothing is known about the languages of Great Britain prior to the Celtic invasion (c. 2,000 BCE) (the Celts provided some loan words, but English is mostly a Germanic and Romance-descended language). o Old English (“Anglo-Saxon”): Invasion by West Germanic peoples (Jutes, Angles, Saxons) from Northern Germany, beginning 449 CE. . Periodic invasions from Scandinavia starting c. 700 CE. . Originally all these Germanic tribes spoke a common language—long ago prior to a written record o Middle English: Invasion by Normans 1066 CE (mixture with Romance branch). . “The Great Vowel Shift” (1350-1550 CE) . French spoken by the elite, English court, Nobility, Clergy—lower classes continued to speak English but began to fragment because those in leadership spoke other languages . Statute of Pleading—changed official language back to English o Modern English: 1700-1800 CE English vocabulary enlarged, grammar simplified, codified.

Old, Middle & Early Modern English  Old English o Fæder ure þuþe eart on heofonum si þin nama gehalgod tobecume þin rice gewurþe þin willa on eorðan swa on heofonum urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us to dæg and forgyf us ure gyltas swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum and ne gelæd þu us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele soþlice.  Middle English o Oure fadir þat art in heuenes halwid be þi name; þi kyngdom come to be. Be þi wille don in herþe as it is dounin heuene. Yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred. And foryeue to us oure dettis þat is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure dettouris þat is to men þat han synned in us. And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl.  Early Modern English o Our father which art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.

Language, dialect, accent  Standard Language: Accepted norms of syntax, vocabulary and pronunciation. o BRP—accepted dialect from around London—used by politicians, broadcasters, and actors  Dialect: A recognizable speech variant.

Dialects of English  In England, there are still at least three main dialect groups: o NORTHERN o MIDLAND o SOUTHERN

My Fair Lady-- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jhninL_G3Fg

Drawing dialect boundaries: isoglosses  Isoglosses are a kind of isoline – in this case, they are word-usage boundaries—glossophobia means fear of public speaking (gloss means tongue in greek)  Ideally, researchers go out, ask people what words they use for common things, put dots on the map, draw lines around the dots, and define boundaries between different dialects. o That’s the ideal. It’s usually much messier. o Can you guess what these different colored dots represent? Give up? These are all local words for “dragonfly!”

 In the US o Isolation (physical and political) created differences in vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation. o Today, US dialects are most pronounced in the East, and there are at least three main groups (and perhaps five): . NORTHERN . MIDLAND . SOUTHERN (some break this down further, into Upland, Gulf and Coastal Southern dialects)  Do you speak American o Episode 1—2:00-21:00 (South), 28:00-36:00 (Slaves) o Episode 2—3:00-9:30 (Spanglish), 9:30-15:00 (African American/Ebonics), 15:00- 24:00 (California)

 “Ebonics” o Also known as “Black English Vernacular” & “African-American Vernacular English” o The Concept . Students and teachers need to understand each other. . Some African-American children’s English is so different from standard English they cannot be understood by their teachers. . Schools often treat such children as sloppy, wrong or stupid. . Schools should help children to learn standard English by building on the language they already have, and treat that language as distinct and worthy, not “wrong.”  The Controversy begins (from the Oakland California School District)  “African people possess and utilize a language described as “Ebonics”… studies have … demonstrated that African Language Systems are genetically-based and not a dialect of English …” (December 18, 1996) o The Controversy ends . “African-American students as a part of their culture and history as African people possess and utilize a language described in various scholarly approaches as “Ebonics” … these studies have …demonstrated that African Language Systems have origins in West [African] and Niger- Congo languages …” (January 15, 1997)

The movement of languages  Throughout history, most languages have spread by relocation diffusion.  A few languages – including Chinese, Latin, French and English – have also spread by expansion diffusion. o Barriers to diffusion can be both physical and cultural.

Official English? No, but …  The English Language Empowerment Act (1996) (1) The United States is comprised of individuals and groups from diverse ethnic, cultural and linguistic backgrounds. (3) Throughout the history of the United States, the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been a common language. (4) In order to preserve unity in diversity, and to prevent division along linguistic lines, the Federal Government should maintain a language common to all people. (9) English should be recognized in law as the language of official business of the Federal Government. Excerpts from HR 123, July 30, 1996

 English Language Unity Act of 2003 1. The United States is comprised of individuals from diverse ethnic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds, and continues to benefit from this rich diversity. 2. Throughout the history of the United States, the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been the English language. 3. Among the powers reserved to the States respectively is the power to establish the English language as the official language of the respective States, and otherwise to promote the English language within the respective States, subject to the prohibitions enumerated in the Constitution of the United States and in laws of the respective States.

Excerpts from HR 997, February 27, 2003 � ‘National Language Act of 2007’.

 English shall be the official language of the Government of the United States.  The Government of the United States shall preserve and enhance the role of English ... no person has a right, entitlement, or claim to services, or ... materials in any language other than English.  This ... does not apply to the use of a language other than English (1) for religious purposes; (2) for training in foreign languages for international communication; (3) to programs in schools designed to encourage students to learn foreign languages.  This ... does not prevent the Government ... from providing interpreters for persons over 62 years of age.  BILINGUAL ELECTION REQUIREMENTS ... [are] repealed. Excerpts from HR 769, January 31, 2007

Official English laws in the US  As of 2007, 27 (?) US States have some kind of “official English” law.  The impact and scope of the laws vary – from being little more than a simple statement (as in Illinois: “The official language of the State of Illinois is English”), to forbidding any activity of State or local government from doing anything which could be considered supporting the use of any language other than English.  Two States – Hawaii and New Mexico – have specified that a language other than English is also official (Hawaiian and Spanish, respectively).  A few States have taken the opposite position. Oregon, for example, says that “the use of diverse languages in business, government and private affairs … is welcomed, encouraged, and protected in Oregon.”

The Top 20 US Languages (after English)  Navajo is the Native American language with the largest number of speakers in the US today – 178,014. Languages come in families: A language family is a group of languages which are descended from a single common earlier language (just as brothers and sisters are descended from common parents).  How many languages are there? Not an easy question to answer. o Living and Dead Languages (Italian vs. Latin) o Revivals (Hebrew – from living to dead to living again) o New Discoveries (Amazon, Papua New Guinea, Africa, etc.) o “Languages” and “Dialects” (see below – hard to define!) o Maybe 4,000 Languages are spoken today? Or more? Or less?  How many language families are there? o Families are constructed on the basis of similarities in vocabulary, phonology and grammar. . Lots of disputes about what is and what isn’t significant – and lots of variation in the numbers. . Maybe as many as 100 families? Or…?

Language families have…  Branches: “a collection of languages related through a common ancestor several thousand years ago. Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language families.”  Example: Indo-European family has eight (surviving) branches: o Germanic (ex. German, Danish, English) o Romance (ex. Italian, French, Romanian) o Balto-Slavic (ex. Lithuanian, Russian, Polish) o Indo-Iranian (ex. Farsi, Kurdish) o Greek (ex. Greek!) o Albanian (ex. Albanian!) o Armenian (ex. Armenian!) o Celtic (ex. Irish, Breton, Welsh)

 Language Groups: “a collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabulary” o For example, both English and Danish are in the Germanic branch, but English is in the West Germanic Group, while Danish is in the North Germanic Group.

Origin of Indo-European: two hypotheses  The Kurgan Hypothesis (a war-like people expanding and conquering from the region north of the Black Sea)  The Anatolian Hearth theory (farmers and pastoralists expanding slowly from a place of origin in what is now Turkey).

Indo-European: mutual comprehension?  Consider all of the following: o English: “Our Father, who art in heaven …” o Dutch: “Onze Vader, die in de hemelen zijt …” o Spanish: “Padre nuestro, qe estás en los cielos …” o Polish: “Ojcze nasz, którys jest w niebiesiech …” o Greek: “Patera mas, poù eïsai stoùs ouranoùs …” o Albanian: “Ati ynë që je në quiell …” o Kurdish: “Yä bäwk-ï ëma, ka la äsmän-ä-y …” o Romany: “Dáde amaré, kaj isién k’o devlé …” o Sanskrit: “Bho asmäkham svargastha pitah …”  Notice the similarities (for example: “pitah,” “patera,” “padre”; or “father,” “vader,” “dáde”) and differences.

Major language families (families with more than 100,000,000 speakers)  Indo-European (ex. English, Russian, Farsi, Hindi) o About 3 billion speakers; originally Europe-Asia, now worldwide  Sino-Tibetan (ex. Chinese, Tibetan) o About 1.5 billion speakers; mostly in China and surrounding areas.  Afro-Asiatic (also called “Hamitic-Semitic”) (ex. Arabic, Hebrew) o Almost ½ billion speakers; mostly in North Africa & Southwest Asia.  Austronesian (also called “Malayo-Polynesian”) (ex. Hawaiian, Malagasy) o More than ¼ billion speakers; Pacific Ocean to Madagascar.  Dravidian (ex. Tamil, Malayalam) o About ¼ billion speakers; Southern India.  Niger-Congo (ex. Yoruba, Swahili) o About 200,000,000 speakers; Sub-Saharan Africa.  Altaic (ex. Turkish, Mongol) o About 200,000,000 speakers; Turkey to Mongolia.  Japanese (ex. Japanese!) o About 125,000,000 speakers; Japan (of course!)

Some interesting minor language families  Austro—Asiatic : Major language—Vietnamese—About 60,000,000 speakers.  Korean—Major language: Korean—About 50,000,000 speakers.  Nilo-Saharan—Major language: Masai—About 30,000,000 speakers.  Amerindian (not really a family, just a regional collection)—Major languages: Quechua, Navajo— About 25,000,000 speakers (mostly in South America)  Uralic (many authors combine Uralic with Altaic into one family)—Major languages: Finnish, Hungarian  Caucasian—Major language: Georgian—About 6,000,000 speakers.  Indo-Pacific (or Papuan – not a family, just a regional collection—There are about 800 languages spoken on the island of New Guinea!)—Major language: Motu?—About 3,000,000 speakers.  Khoisan (the “click” languages)—Major language: Khoikhoi—About 50,000 speakers.  Australian Aborigine (not a family, just a regional collection)—Major language: Arunta—About 50,000 speakers.  Isolates (languages which aren’t related to anything else, such as Basque)

The urge to understand  Mixing languages: Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins, creoles, “Franglais,” “Spanglish,” etc.).  Lingua franca: A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin, English, etc.).  Multilingualism: Knowing and using more than one language.  Artificial language: A constructed language which is supposed to be logical, practical and easy to learn (Esperanto, etc.).  Translation and interpretation: o Translation: Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another. o Interpretation: A less literal translation, emphasizing overall meaning. o Transliteration—baptism Mixing languages  Languages that come in contact always mix and borrow from each other. o Examples: . SPANGLISH  Dolores dice: Need advice? Escríbeme. (on the home page for the online magazine Latina)  Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija. (overheard in the Western US)  Haz clic aquí. (commonly seen on Spanish-language Web sites)  Llamenos para delivery. (seen on advertising signs in Peru)  Tips para marketing. (advertisement in Mexico)  JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH) o BRANDO NEW! (brochure rack in Shiga) . NOTICE: We have touched at point in under the boxes heads, for keeping qualities. It's very excuse. (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore) o Welcome to Mother Nature! In here, everyone are heroes. Let's play YOUR drama. (advertisement for a camping mattress). o Let's play bowling. Breaking down the pins and get hot communication.

Pidgins and creoles  Pidgin: A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to talk for trading or other reasons.  Creole—mixing of the colonizer’s language with the indigenous language (creole originally meant a slave who is born in in the master’s house in Latin)—full-fledged, formal language that has developed from a pidgin language

Simplified grammatical structure  Narrow range of functions, expressions  Usually short useful lifespan  “Nobody’s native language” o Creole: A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages; a pidgin which has become a native language.

Lingua franca  A “lingua franca” (either from “language of the Franks” or from “free language”) is any widely-used language used for commerce, diplomacy, science and technology—language of trade and commerce o Lingua francas are often second languages, and may be a mixture of several languages.  Historically, a number of languages have served as lingua franca: o Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean) o Arabic o Swahili (Eastern Africa) o French (international diplomacy) o English (worldwide today in science, commerce, politics, literature)

Multilingualism  Most of the world’s population is at least somewhat multilingual – that is, most people have at least some knowledge of more than one language.  Some nations are officially multilingual, such as: o Paraguay (Spanish, Guarani) o Switzerland (German, French, Italian, Romansch) o South Africa (Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Pedi, Sotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa, and Zulu) o India (Hindi, Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Malayalam, Kannada, Oriya, Punjabi, Assamese, Kashmiri, Sindhi, Sanskrit; also English and Hindustani) Preserving language diversity  Languages can die. Today, in the face of the global dominance of English and other “world languages,” some people are trying to preserve and even revive languages.  Maintaining survivors: Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic, Irish Gaelic, Welsh (Cymru), Breton.  Bringing back the dead: Hebrew, Manx. o Why bother? Because language is about more than just “communicating facts.” Language is about identity, history, continuity – language is a fundamental part of who you are.

Linguistic refuge areas  Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain. o Example: Cajun, a form of French which survives in the Louisiana bayou country.  Example: Abaza, Avar, Bats, Chechen, and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains between the Black and Caspian Seas.

Language and culture: change and stability Writing  Earliest use of symbol tokens c. 10,000 years ago.  The earliest example of writing ever found was discovered in 1999 at a site called Harappa on the Indus River in Pakistan. It has been dated to 5,500 years ago. It is believed the symbols may indicate what this piece of pottery originally contained, but the Harappan language died out about 4,000 years ago (See:  Some believe that symbols found on 8,600 year old turtle shells in China constitute even earlier examples of writing  The earliest sample of New World writing, dated to about 900 BCE, was discovered in 2006

Ways of writing  Pictograms (also called “Logograms”) o Earliest system of writing—Begin as simple pictures of things (but this quickly becomes unsatisfactory) o Example: Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs  “Ideograms” o Abstract or conventional meanings, often combining two or more pictograms—No longer have a clear pictorial link—represent ideas or concepts and not specific pronunciations . Almost always “impure” (or “logophonetic”) with clues to pronunciation  Syllabaries o Each symbol corresponds to a spoken syllable (usually consonant +vowel) o Examples: Japanese Katakana, Cherokee . Cherokee –This syllabary was developed about 1821 by Sequoya (c. 1770-1843), the great Cherokee leader.—Its 85 symbols were obviously influenced by European alphabets, but usage is entirely different!  Alphabets o A small number of arbitrary symbols represent all sounds—All alphabets appear to be descendants of the first Phoenician (Semitic) alphabet . Many consist of consonants only, vowels understood in context . As far as we can tell, all of the world’s alphabets (including Cyrillic, Hebrew, Arabic, and Roman) are derived from the Phoenician alphabet.

Direction  There is no particular reason for us to read or write in any one direction.  Some languages, such as English, are written left-to-right.  Hebrew right to left (Arabic?) Chapter 5: Language

Steps To A Definition  The service and worship of God or the supernatural; 2) commitment or devotion to religious faith or observance; 3) a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes, beliefs, and practices; 4) a cause, principle, or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith. Websters 9th Collegiate Dictionary  A set of beliefs and practices, a social system, through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe, through which we attempt to influence the awesome forces of nature, life, and death. Jordan & Rowntree  Religion is excellent stuff for keeping the common people quiet. Napoleon Bonaparte  That which is of ultimate concern. Paul Tillich

Why Study Religion?  Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and with their environment.  Religion has several geographic aspects: o Religion is fundamental to many cultures. o Some religions vary in their distributions: some are widespread; others are very limited in distribution. o Religions are important in the organization of space. o Most religions require active participation or loyalty; adopting one religion usually means giving up all others. o Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion.

Religion And Culture  Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture: o Housing and architecture o Occupations and economics o Laws, customs and politics o Relations between men and women o Birth and death o Land and landscape o Food and drink . Recall the maps of “Dry and Wet Counties” vs. Baptist & Methodist areas in Texas that we looked at in class. . See the maps of international wine and pork production below.

Taxonomy Of Religion  Taxonomy is a method for classifying things into an ordered system of relationships. For example, if you were going to come up with a transportation taxonomy, it might look something like this: o MOTOR VEHICLE > AUTOMOBILE > 4-DOOR SEDAN > HONDA > ACURA  Religious groups can be classified using a simple taxonomic system: o RELIGION (ex. “Christianity”) o BRANCH (ex. “Protestant”) o DENOMINATION (ex. “Southern Baptist”) o CONGREGATION (ex. “Johnson Ferry Baptist Church”)  “Congregation” is roughly equivalent to “parish,” “ward,” “coven,” etc.  “Denomination” is roughly equivalent to “sect” – but “sect” has other connotations – including “cult.”

Monotheism vs. Polytheism (and Animism)  In a monotheistic religion there is only one God.  In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods.  In animism there may or may not be “gods” as such; the whole world is “animated.”

Universalizing vs. Ethnic  Universalizing religions seek out new members – generally speaking, anybody in the whole universe can potentially become a member.  Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups. Generally speaking, they don’t particularly want new members (and sometimes they forbid it – no outsiders allowed).

Membership  Membership figures for religions are notoriously unreliable – but it’s usually assumed that out of the world’s population of 6 billion there are about: o 2 billion Christians. o 1¼ billion Muslims. o 1 billion Hindus. o 1/3 billion Buddhists. o ½ billion members of other religions. o Plus about 1 billion who have no religious beliefs.  Or, to put it another way, out of all the world’s people, roughly: o 1/3 are Christians. o 1/5 are Muslims. o 1/6 are Hindus. o 1/6 have no religion. o 1/12 are some other religion. o 1/20 are Buddhists.

Hearths  Religions, like other elements of culture, develop in hearths – centers from which they may diffuse. o We can identify three major religious hearths: . The Middle East Hearth (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) . The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism, Buddhism) . The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism)

The Middle East Hearth Judaism—an ethnic, monotheistic religion—There are perhaps 20 million Jews in the world today; the largest concentrations are in the United States and Israel—Two of the world’s largest religions, Christianity and Islam, can be said to have been developed from Judaism.  Judaism: Origins and Development—Based on internal evidence, the earliest records have been dated to c. 4,000 BCE in the region of the Fertile Crescent o Patriarchal period – Abraham, Isaac, Jacob o 3,300 years ago – Moses, exodus from Egypt o 3,000 years ago – united Jewish kingdom (Saul, David, Solomon) o Disunity – kingdoms of Israel and Judah . 721 BCE Israel defeated by Assyria; population exiled . 587 BCE Judah defeated by Babylon; population exiled . 522 BCE Judah’s population returns from exile . 444 BCE Torah (written law) “discovered” . 198 BCE Syrian occupation; Helenization; Maccabees revolt; independent kingdom . 63 BCE Rome arrives; kingdom becomes part of the Empire . 70 CE Revolt against Rome; defeat; temple destroyed . 130 CE Second revolt and defeat; Diaspora . For the next 1,800 years, Jews in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa experienced periods of tolerance and persecution. . 19th Century, founding of both Conservative and Reform Judaism . 1948 CE founding of Israel  Basic Beliefs of Judaism o God is the creator of all that exists; He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the universe. o The Jews are God's chosen people. o God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophets. o God monitors people’s activities; He rewards good deeds and punishes evil. o Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of God. o The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish life; The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Law. o The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel. There will be a general resurrection of the dead at that time. The Jerusalem Temple, destroyed in 70 CE, will be rebuilt.

Christianity—Christianity is a universal, monotheistic religion—There are roughly two billion Christians around the world; it is the dominant faith in the Americas, Europe, and Australia, and has significant numbers of adherents in Asia and Africa.  Christianity: Origins and Development o Roots in Judaism: the “historical Jesus”; Jerusalem-based until 70 CE. o Paul and the Roman Empire . Paul encourages non-Jews to become Christians. . Christianity spreads through the Empire – periodic persecution. o The Emperor Constantine (274-337 CE) . Converts; Edict of Milan 313 CE (Christianity became legal) . Calls First Nicean Council 325 CE – Nicene Creed (see below); moves capital of the Empire to Constantinople 330 CE.  Eastern & Western Christianity o 800 CE Rome crowns Charlemagne “Holy Roman Emperor.” o 1054 CE Rome and Constantinople excommunicate each other. o 1204 Crusaders sack Constantinople. o Protestantism: . 1517 CE Martin Luther posts 95 “theses” questioning Catholic practices. . Printing press, rise of nationalism assist “protest movement.” . 1545 CE Council of Trent begins “counter-reformation.” o Modern Period . Rise of science, the Enlightenment, Rationalism. . 20th Century Movements:  Evangelic movement (“Fundamentalism”)  Ecumenical movement.  The Three Main Branches of Christianity o Roman Catholic . About 50% of all Christians; over one billion people. . Dominant in Southwestern and parts of Eastern Europe, Latin America, parts of Africa and Southeast Asia. o Protestantism . ‘About 24% of all Christians. . Dominant Northern Europe, North America, Australia, parts of Africa. o Eastern Orthodox . About 11% of all Christians. . Dominant in Southeastern Europe, Russia, and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. o There are also several other Christian branches and groups (Coptic Church, Ethiopian Church, Armenian Church, etc.).  Basic Beliefs of Christianity—Keep in mind, there is enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian. o Some areas of general agreement: . Belief in God. . Belief in Jesus, virgin birth, Jesus’ sacrifice, possibility of universal salvation. . Importance of baptism. . Importance of the church (community of believers). . Belief in prayer.

Islam—Islam is a universal, monotheistic religion—There are roughly 1¼ billion Muslims; Islam is the dominant religion from North Africa to Central Asia; it is also very important in Southeast Asia, parts of South and East Asia, and in Africa, and is growing in the Americas.  Origins and Development o Mohammed (c. 570-632 CE) (peace be upon him)—Orphaned at age 6, adopted by his Uncle, began working on camel caravans when he was 9. Traveled throughout Middle East, worked his way up, eventually married caravan owner, Khadija (c. 605 CE). o At age 40 (c. 610 CE) received first revelation from the Archangel Gabriel, began to preach, make conversions. o 622 CE opposition forced Mohammed and his followers to move to Yathrib (Medina) – the hijrah (this is the event from which the Islamic calendar is dated) o By 630 CE Mohammed is the most powerful political and military leader in Arabia; conquers Mecca. o Mohammed dies 632 CE; rapid expansion of Islam: . 632 Arabian Peninsula . 650 Most of the Middle East . 710 North Africa, Spain . 750 Central Asia to Western China

 Some Basic Beliefs of Islam o here is a single, indivisible God who is just, omnipotent and merciful. o Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born; the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the world, and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam, Noah,Abraham, Moses and Jesus). o The Koran (Qur'an) is the word of God, dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed. It is the final, universal message for all people. All people are considered children of Adam, and all children are born pure. o There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell. No individual can atone for another's sins. o The 5 Pillars of Islam . The creed: “There is no God but God, and Mohammed is His Prophet.” . Daily prayer: Five times a day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca. . Charity: Muslims are obligated to give to charity. . Fasting: During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating, drinking and all other “sensual pleasures” during daylight hours. . Pilgrimage: If at all possible, every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime.  Branches of Islam o SUNNI (from a word meaning “orthodox”)—About 83% of all Muslims—Most widespread branch. o SHI’ITE (from a word meaning “sectarian” or “partisan of Ali”)—About 17% of all Muslims.—Mostly concentrated in and near Iran. . Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession; belief in 12 heavenly Imams; the final Imam, the Mahdi never died, and will someday return. o Other groups: . Sufis; Ahmadis; Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)

Other Religions from the Middle East Hearth  Zoroastrianism o Universal (at least originally – now ethnic?), “monotheistic.” o Originated in Persia, about 2,500 years ago. o About 200,000 members today, mostly in India and Iran.  Baha’i o Universal, monotheistic. o Originated 19th Century, teachings of Baha'u'llah. o About six million worldwide, nearly half in India.

The Northern India Hearth

Hinduism—Hinduism is an ethnic, polytheistic religion—There are about one billion Hindus, 97% located in India, with small populations in nearby countries and throughout the world—Hinduism was very widespread in Southeast Asia, but has retreated.

Origins and Development  Your book talks about invasion by Aryan peoples about 1,500 BCE and syncretism with native beliefs, but recent archaeological evidence shows religious continuity back to about 6,000 BCE.  Earliest religious texts: o 1,500 BCE the Vedas o 800 BCE the Upanishads o 300 BCE the Mahabharata

Beliefs  Focus mostly on actions, not beliefs; strong emphasis on ritual.  No central authority, only a few universal beliefs or rituals:  Honor Brahmins (priests); protect cows. o Avoid eating meat; marry within one’s caste. o Reincarnation.  Classical period (c. 2,000-400 BCE) focuses on the Vedas and various rituals and prayers to the gods (Indra, Agni, Varuna, etc.).  Post-Classical (c. 100 BCE-present) focuses on variety of approaches: o The Way of Devotion (Worship of the one of the three major gods – Brahma, Shiva, or Vishnu). o The Way of Knowledge (Philosophical schools, varying from polytheistic to atheistic to monotheistic).  Caste— Caste may have begun about 3,500 years ago; it may be much older. Some think it may have begun as a kind of “apartheid,” based on ethnicity (conquerors vs. conquered). o System of unchangeable duties based on dharma (duty). Every individual is born into a particular social group. o Every aspect of life – social, occupation, marriage, birth, death, etc. – may be determined by your caste. . Four main castes (with thousands of subcastes—jati)  Brahmin (priests, administrators)  Kshatriya (warriors, rulers)  Vaishya (traders, merchants)  Shudra (agricultural workers, laborers) . Outside of the castes: “outcastes” (also known as Dalits), the religiously unclean. o The caste system became illegal in 1949 – but it still has a great deal of force in rural areas. For that reason thousands in recent years have converted to other faiths (mostly Christianity or Buddhism). This has lead some Indian states to pass laws limiting the numbers of conversions that can take place each year.

Buddhism—Buddhism is a universal, polytheistic religion—There are at least 1/3 of a billion Buddhists; Buddhism is the dominant religion throughout much of East and Southeast Asia, and there are Buddhists around the world.  Origins and Development o Siddhartha Gautama (c. 563-480 BCE?) Born a vaishya, lived until 29 without awareness of the world. . Became aware of death and suffering, and abandoned everything to seek enlightenment. . After six years of meditation, prayer and mortification, sat quietly and became enlightened (“buddha” = “enlightened one). o Understood “the four noble truths”: . Life is full of suffering. . Desire causes suffering. . Ending desire ends suffering. . To end desire, follow “the noble eight-fold path” (right views, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration)  If one follows these instructions, one can achieve enlightenment— If one is enlightened one escapes reincarnation & achieves nirvana. o The Buddha spent the next 37 years teaching.  Developments—After Buddha’s death there were disagreements about his teachings; councils failed to unify beliefs. o Two main branches: . THERAVADA (“teachings of the elders”)—Mostly in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Southeast Asia.  Conservative, very close to Buddha’s teachings. o Individuals work out “salvation”; little interest in gods. o Strong focus on monasticism, meditation. . MAHAYANA (“the greater vessel”)—Dominant in China, Korea, Japan.  New teachings may also be valid.  The Buddha was a divine being.  There can be other Buddhas, human or divine.  People can become bodhisattvas, save others, postpone nirvana. o Numerous sects (Pure Land, Zen, Tibetan (Lamaism), etc.)  Other Religions from the North India Hearth o Jainism—Founded by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) . Similar to Buddhism (in some ways) . Emphasizes ahimsa, non-injury to living things o Sikhism . Founded by Nanak (1469-1539 CE) . Syncretism, blending elements of Islam and Hinduism

The East Asia Hearth Confucianism—Confucianism is not precisely a religion – it’s more of an ethical system.  Virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Confucian, since Confucius’s teachings are fundamental to the culture of the region—East Asian faiths are not exclusive; a person can be Buddhist, Confucian, Taoist, and Shinto simultaneously.

 Origins and Development o Kung Fu-Tse (“Confucius,” born Kung Ch’iu) 551-479 BCE—Confucius was a philosopher and a teacher; at the age of 50 he became a government official. He retired after five years, and spent the rest of his life teaching. . Basic concepts:  The importance of Li (“correct behavior”) . The five basic relationships  Father to son (kindness; filial piety)  Elder brother to younger brother (gentility; humility)  Husband to wife (righteousness; obedience)  Elder to junior (consideration; deference)  Ruler to subject (benevolence; loyalty) o In 136 BCE Confucians placed in charge of national education, administration, civil service. Remained in charge until 1905 CE.

Taoism—Taoism, like Confucianism, is more of an ethical system than a religion – although some Taoist sects have strongly religious characteristics, mythology, etc.  As with Confucianism, virtually everyone in East Asia and much of Southeast Asia can be considered Taoist, since those beliefs are part of the culture.

 Origins and Development o Lao-tzu (570-490 BCE) [possibly mythical]—Philosopher, court librarian in Henan, at the end of his life he despaired of people, went into exile; but before leaving he was persuaded to write down his philosophy – the Tao-te Ching (“the way and its power”). . For several hundred years, Taoists compete with Confucianists (and others) as philosophers and advisors. . With the coming of Buddhism to China (c. 100 CE), begins to merge and blend. . Development of numerous sects – from esoteric philosophy to magical; interests in alchemy and immortality. . Persecution after the Communist revolution in 1949, but repression eased by the 1990s.

 Beliefs of Taoism o Society and its rules aren’t important; people should follow “the way” (tao). o The tao cannot be controlled or understood. o To be in harmony with the tao, “do nothing” – do nothing unnatural, don’t strive, don’t be clever. o Life is a fundamental good. o Like Confucianism, recommends a kind of idealized feudalism – everyone has a place, everyone stays in their place.  Excerpts from the Tao-Te Ching (based on the Gia Fu Feng translation) o One: The tao that can be named is not the eternal tao. The name that can be named is not the eternal name o Two: the sage goes about doing nothing creating, yet not possessing working, yet not taking credit work is done, then forgotten therefore it lasts forever o Three: the wise rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones if people lack knowledge and desire, then intellectuals will not try to interfere if nothing is done, then all will be well o Twenty: give up learning, and put an end to your troubles

Shinto—Shinto (or kami no michi, “the way of the gods”) is the traditional ethnic, polytheistic religion of Japan.  It is difficult to say exactly how many Shintoists there are; virtually all Japanese participate in Shinto activities, but only about 3% consider Shinto their sole or primary faith. o As with other East Asian religions, Shinto is not exclusive – one can be a Buddhist, Confucianist, Taoist and Shinto simultaneously.  Origins and Development o Until c. 500 CE and the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, Shinto had no name; it was the beliefs of the Japanese. o By c. 800 CE Shinto had merged with Buddhism; Buddhist priests were placed in charge of Shinto shrines, and Shinto almost disappeared. o Beginning in the 18th Century, Shinto was revived as a part of rising nationalism; Shinto became the State religion under the Emperor Meiji. The Emperor was considered divine, and the Japanese superior to all other people. o After Japan’s defeat in the Second World War, State Shinto ended, the Emperor renounced divinity. o Today there are 13 major Shinto sects, and many smaller movements.

The World’s Religions: Other Faiths  Animistic faiths—Tribal and native religions found in parts of the Americas, Africa, Australia, Asia. o Declining numbers as universal religions (mostly Christianity and Islam) expand.  Voudon (voodoo)—Syncretism, blending African polytheistic faiths and Christianity. o Found throughout the Americas in former slave-holding regions (with different practices in different areas), and parts of West Africa.  Modern pagans—Revived or re-created faiths, based (mostly) on pre-Christian belief systems. o Found mostly in highly educated, urban, largely secular areas.

The Non-Religious  About one billion people worldwide are considered “non-religious.” o Atheists: Do not believe in any gods whatsoever. o Agnostics: God or gods may exist, but the evidence is uncertain. o Secular: Only means “not related to religion” or “indifferent to religion”; it is not a belief system (except in the sense that a “secularist” would believe that there are things outside of religion – something some religious people would deny).

Cosmogony—Cosmogony is the study of the origin and fate of the universe.  The importance of creation stories varies – it is often extremely important in universal religions. o Cosmogony is not just concerned with origins, but also with what happens next – what should we do with the universe? . Christianity and Islam often tend to see the world as something we can change.  Ethnic religions usually see the world as hard or impossible to change–it has to be accepted as it is.

The Calendar—Calendars in ethnic religions tend to be tied to local, usually agricultural cycles.  Calendars in universal religions tend to be tied to events in the life of the founder of the religion.  The basic problem of the calendar: the solar year and the lunar year don’t match. Cultures deal with this, either by: o Ignoring the lunar year (Christian – except for Easter). o Ignoring the solar year (Muslim). o Inserting extra days or months to make the two come back into alignment (Jewish).

The Organization Of Space—Religions are a part of culture, and culture must deal with the world – with issues of space and place, including:  Holy Places and Pilgrimage o Many religions – both ethnic and universal – have declared certain locations holy (divine, worthy of reverence) . In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the religion (or with some other important figure). . In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features – mountains, rivers, etc. . Pilgrimage – a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes – is important in many religions, both ethnic and universal.  The Hajj—The hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) is the largest annual pilgrimage on earth; more than two million Muslims now make the journey every year [Note: the Hindu “Kumbh Mela” pilgrimage to Varanasi (Benares) on the Ganges River is larger, at over 10 million people, but only happens once every 12 years.] o “Ihram” (purification) (pilgrims make themselves spiritually clean; they publicly announce their intention to go on the hajj; men wear a simple white outfit, women wear "modest" clothing and cover their heads). o “Tawaf” (pilgrims walk seven times counterclockwise around the Ka’bah at the center of the Holy Mosque in Mecca). o “Sa’y” (pilgrims run seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah). o Encampment at Mina (for meditation and prayer). o “Wuquf” (pilgrims travel about six miles east to the plain of ‘Arafat, where they spend time standing or sitting in prayer; some climb a small mountain called Jabal Ramah). o Encampment at Muzdalifah (most pilgrims select 49 small stones for throwing). o Stoning at Jamarat (pilgrims throw stones at three pillars thatsymbolize Satan). o "'Id al-Adha" ("Feast of the Sacrifice"; to commemorate Abraham's rejection of Satan, pilgrims sacrifice a sheep; men shave their heads, women cut off a lock of hair. Pilgrims may return to normal clothing). o Return to the Holy Mosque (pilgrims repeat the “tawaf” and the “sa’y,” and may also return to Jamarat to stone the pillars again). Pilgrims make a final “tawaf”; the pilgrimage is officially ended. Information from: “Welcoming God’s Guests,” by Samia El-Moslimany. Saudi Aramco World (53:3):8-29  Place Names o In many parts of the world, places are named for saints, holy people, miraculous events, or for other sacred places. o This shouldn’t come as a surprise to anybody living in “San Diego County,” which contains communities named “San Carlos,” “San Marcos” and “San Ysidro,” as well as natural features like the “San Luis Rey River,” “San Miguel Mountain,” “San Onofre Beach,” “San Pasqual Valley,” and the “San Vicente Reservoir!”  Places Of Worship o Sacred structures “anchor” religions; most major religions have distinctive places of worship. o The function of such structures varies: . Christian churches are often considered sacred – sanctified by God – and are usually places for the community to come together. . Mosques are places for the community to come together, but are not always considered sacred spaces. . Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred, but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together.  Places Of The Dead o Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern, and the proper disposal of the dead is always of great importance. o There are several different methods that are widely used: . BURIAL (favored by most Christians, Muslims, Jews and by the Chinese)—dates back to the Roman Empire and the catacombs—Chinese remember Ban Po buried their dead, in China cemeteries take up about 10% of the land, in the US people used to picnic in cemeteries . BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) . CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists)—strain on the wood supply, result of overpopulation?—purification process . EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists, Zoroastrians and some Buddhists) o Stupa—mound-like structure containing Buddhist relics, typically the ashes of deceased, used by Buddhists as a place of meditation  Religious Settlements o Most settlements are established for economic reasons – but not all are. o Types of religious settlements: . MONASTIC (individuals or groups of men or women who abandon the world for spiritual purposes). . UTOPIAN (ideal community built around a religious way of life)  Shakers— is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Religious Society of Friends. Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee, Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural contributions (especially their style of music and furniture), and their model of equality of the sexes, which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s.   Administration Of Space o Hierarchical religions, such as Roman Catholicism and Mormonism, have a well-defined geographic structure. Territory is organized into local, regional and larger units in a hierarchy. o Autonomous religions, such as Islam and some Christian denominations like the Baptists, as well as most ethnic religions, are basically self-governing – loosely organized, with little or no hierarchy.  Religion And Conflict o Religious conflicts may arise for many reasons: . Conflicts between traditional religious values and new, outside ideas  Hinduism, caste and ideas of equality. . Conflicts between governments and religious beliefs, values or communities.  Communist states and religious communities. . Conflicts between different interpretations of the same religion.  Northern Ireland. . Conflicts between different religions.  Christians vs. Muslims (the Crusades 1095-1270 CE)  Hindus vs. Muslims (Kashmir)  Jews vs. Muslims (Palestine). Ethnicity (Chapter 7)

Terms  Ethnicity: o Ethnic: from the Greek “ethnikos” or “national.” o “identity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearth.” o “a group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and cultural traditions.” o No Single Trait Necessarily Defines a Person's Ethnicity . Ethnicity can be based on any trait or combination of traits, including:  Language (Quebec, Belgium)  Religion (Northern Ireland)  National Origin (Italian-Americans, Polish-Americans, etc.)  Regional Origin (territorial isolation) (Appalachian “hillbillies”) . Different groups base their identities on different traits. Examples:  Jews ethnicity primarily means religion.  Amish- folk culture and religion  African American- skin color  German American- ancestral language  Cuban American-anti-Castro, anti-Marxist sentiment.  There is a we / they dichotomy that underlies ethnicity. o Ethnic Groups . Keepers of distinctive cultural traditions. . Focal point for various social interactions. . Provide group identity and friendships, marriage partners, recreational outlets, business success, political power base. . Provide cultural security and reinforcement that is essential for minority groups. . Can give rise to suspicion, friction, distrust, clannishness and even violence.

 Race o Defining Race . Definitions from your textbook:  “identity with a group of people who share a biological ancestor.”  “identity with a group of people descended from a common ancestor.” o These are not identical! The first is a modern biological definition; the second may be based on belief (as when you find references to “the French race,” “the Arab race,” etc.).

Race vs. Ethnicity  A person's race may or may not be the same as a person's ethnicity. o In the US the concepts of race and ethnicity are often confused –sometimes by law: . “Asian” is recognized by the US Census Bureau as a race (so that people from Pakistan, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, etc. will all be classified as being of the same “race”). . “African-American” is recognized as a race, but it is not necessarily the same as “black.” There are many “Blacks” who trace their cultural heritage – and their ethnic identity – to countries in the Caribbean or Latin America. . “Hispanic” (Latino) is considered an ethnicity, not a race. Hispanics may therefore be of any race.

US Ethnicities: Regional Concentrations  General pattern o African-Americans in Southeast, Hispanics in Southwest, Asians in West, Native Americans in Southwest & Plains o At the regional scale different ethnicities have distinct patterns of distribution: . African-Americans  African-Americans are about ¼ of the population in Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and South Carolina, and about 1/3 of the population in Mississippi.  African-Americans are less than 1% of the population in Maine, Hampshire, Vermont, Idaho, Montana, North and South Dakota, Utah and Wyoming. . “Hispanics” (Latinos)  “Hispanics” are about 1/5 (or more) of the population in California, New Mexico and Texas.  “Hispanics” are less than 1% of the population in Maine, Vermont, North and South Dakota, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas . “Asians”  “Asians” are about 5% (or more) of the population in Alaska, California, Washington, Nevada, Minnesota, New York, Vermont, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Maryland and Virginia.  “Asians” are less than 1% of the population in 29 States. . Native Americans (“Indians” and Alaska Natives)  Native Americans are 10% or more of the population in Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Montana and South Dakota.  Native Americans are less than 1% of the population in 27 States.  Three major migration flows have shaped the distribution of African-Americans in the US: o Forced migration from Africa (17th to 19th centuries) . During the era of the African slave trade, 10-30 million Africans were sold into slavery. . During the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, between one-half and one Africans were brought to the British Colonies and the US. . “The Triangle Trade” Southern rural to Northern urban migration (late 19th and 20th centuries). o After the Civil War slavery ended – but most former slaves had no education or training. . Sharecropping was the only occupation open to most (renting farm land, paying in crops). . Nevertheless, a few managed to migrate for economic (and social) advancement to Northern cities. . Prejudice and discrimination meant that African-Americans couldn't just settle anywhere they wanted in Northern cities.  Ghetto- ethnic group is forced to live or has little choice of where they can live. Options are limited or nonexistent. Involuntary community  Two practices, redlining and blockbusting, created urban ghettos. o Blockbusting: “real estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices, preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline. The agents then sold the houses at much higher prices to black families desperate to escape the overcrowded ghettos.” o Redlining: “drawing lines on a map to identify areas … [where banks, realtors, insurance agents, etc.] will refuse to loan money [or provide other services].” (see Chapter 13) o Inner-city to suburban migration (late 20th century). . Segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s; racial was legally ended. . White Flight—Courts ordered the integration of schools. Many whites refused; rather than integrate, they fled to the suburbs. . Cities became increasingly black (and increasingly poor). African-Americans who can afford to have also tended to migrate out of the cities, and into the suburbs.

Urban Concentrations of Ethnicities in the US  Some ethnicities are highly concentrated in urban areas in some parts of the US (for reasons we'll be getting to soon).  In some States the urban concentration can be extreme: o Detroit is 82% African-American; the rest of Michigan is 6% African American. o Chicago is 39% African-American; the rest of Illinois is 7% African-American. o New York City is 24% Latino; the rest of New York is 4% Latino.  Cities with the highest percentage of African-Americans: o Gary, IN 84.0% o Detroit, MI 81.6% o Birmingham, AL 73.5% o Jackson, MS 70.6% o New Orleans, LA 67.3% o Baltimore, MD 64.3% o Atlanta, GA 61.4%

Ethnic Neighborhoods— Ethnic neighborhood- voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice. – group cohesiveness – what are the benefits?  In many US cities there are neighborhoods that are mostly composed of people from one or two ethnic groups. o The composition of these neighborhoods has changed over time. o In the 19th and early 20th Centuries, cities in the American East and Midwest had large ethnic neighborhoods made up of European immigrants. o Today many of these have changed composition, to being predominant made up of people from Latin America, Asia, or African-Americans. o Ethnic neighborhoods can form voluntarily on the basis of affinity and chain migration o Ethnic neighborhoods can also be made by discriminatory practices

African-Americans: Legal Status in the US, 1776-1954  “Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States … according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.” US Constitution Article I  “[Persons of color have] no rights which any white man [is] bound to respect … Persons of color, in the judgment of Congress, were not included in the word citizens, and they are described as another and different class of persons…” Scott vs. Sanford, 1857  “… on the 1st day of January, A.D. 1863, all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free…” Emancipation Proclamation 1862  “Every civil officer shall, and every person may, arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman, free Negro or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his employer …” Mississippi “Black Code,” c. 1870  “… separate but equal … However apparent the injustice of such legislation may be, we have only to consider whether it is consistent with the constitution of the United States.” Plessy vs. Ferguson 1896  “We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.” Brown vs. Board of Education 1954

Race in South Africa  History of South Africa o Originally occupied by Khoikhoi (“Hottentot”) peoples. o Dutch arrived 1652, established Cape Town. o Competition between Afrikaners and Bantu peoples in the 18th and early 19th centuries. o British seized the Cape Colony twice in 1795 and 1806; purchased the Colony from the Dutch in 1814 for £6 million. o In 1822 English became the official language; in 1833 slavery was abolished. o In protest, in 1833 12,000 “Boers” made the “voortrek” inland, eventually establishing the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. o Diamonds and gold were discovered in the Transvaal in 1886; British miners were denied civil rights and taxed heavily; Britain began policies resulting in the Boer War (1899-1902). o In 1902 the Afrikaner states became colonies within the British Empire. o In 1948 Afrikaners won national elections and began the policy of “apartheid” (separation – or “apartness” – by race).  Race and Apartheid o Between 1948 and 1994 there were four official South African “races”: . White (13% of the population). . Black (76% of the population). . Asian (3% of the population – descendants of migrants from India and Pakistan). . Coloured (9% of the population – people of mixed race).  Under apartheid races were kept legally separate – where you lived worked, went to school, shopped, owned land, who you could marry, etc.– was determined by race.  South African Homelands o Because of its racial policies, many countries cut off political and economic relations with South Africa during the 1970s and 1980s. o In what is perhaps the cleverest (and most twisted) racial scheme of the 20th century, South Africa devised a plan: . Since other countries objected to South Africa's disenfranchising ¾ of its citizens – make them citizens of somewhere else! o Homelands . Ten “homelands” were established: Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Gazankulu, KaNgwane, KwaNdebele, KwaZulu, Lebowa, Qwaqwa, Transkei, and Venda. . One black group would be dominant in each region, and every black South African would become a citizen of one of the ten, based on tribal affiliation. . The homelands were supposed to be “independent,” but could not possibly support the black population of South Africa – so that they were in fact totally dependent on South Africa. . Four homelands – Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, and Venda – were declared independent between 1976 and 1981, but no other country recognized them.  Dismantling of Apartheid o In 1991, in response to continuing internal unrest and military defeat in Angola, the South African government began to dismantle apartheid. o The African National Congress Party, after being banned for 30 years, was made legalized, and its leader, Nelson Mandela, was released from prison after 27½ years. o In 1994 Mandela was elected South Africa's first black President.  Truth & Reconciliation o Established in 1995, the Truth & Reconciliation Commission investigated South African human rights abuses. o The TRC concluded that all sides – black and white – were guilty of crimes. o However, “The state, … was … the primary perpetrator of gross violations of human rights in South Africa…” o “Racism … constituted the motivating core of the South African political order… This created a climate in which gross atrocities … were seen as legitimate.” o In 2003 the TRC began paying reparations to 22,000 identified victims of victims of Apartheid. o There have been similar Commissions established in at least 10 other countries, including Argentina, Chile, El Salvador, Fiji, Sierra Leone and East Timor.

Ethnicity and Nationalism  National: from a Latin word, “nasci,” “to have been born” (recall that the Greek “ethnikos” originally meant “national”). o Nationality: . “identity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular country.” . “a group of people tied together to a particular place through legal status and cultural tradition.” . Nationalism: “loyalty and devotion to a nationality. Nationalism typically promotes a sense of national consciousness that exalts one nation above all others” . Nationality and ethnicity may be closely related or totally separate.  In the US, nationality and ethnicity are kept distinct; you can be of any ethnicity and still be an American.  In other countries the situation can be very different.

 Nations, Nation-States and Nationalism o For over a century, the idea of self-determination – the idea that groups of people have a right to choose their own governments without outside interference – has been among the most important political principles. o Nation-States – independent political states that are made up of a single nation (or ethnicity) – have been an ideal for many nationalists. . States encourage nationalism:  Symbols (flags, songs, public events)  Nationalism can be an important centripetal force – a force encouraging unification. (centripetal force)  Nationalism can certainly have negative impacts – for example, creating unity by using stereotypes and new enemies.

 Creating New Nationalities o In the 18th and 19th centuries, competing European Empires encouraged the development of national identity in each other's territories. o In the 20th century (and especially after World War II) many former European colonies became independent – there were now dozens of new nations, new nationalities. o Problems—Overlapping ethnicities and nationalities -- lines drawn on maps to separate European colonies rarely corresponded very well to where ethnicities were located.

Who are the Palestinians? � Five distinct groups of people may consider themselves “Palestinians”: • People living in the West Bank, Gaza and East Jerusalem. • Israeli citizens who are Muslim, rather than Jewish. • People who left Israel after the 1948-1949 war. • People who left the West Bank or Gaza after the 1967 war, • Citizens of other Middle Eastern countries who consider themselves to be Palestinians (usually the descendants of refugees from either the 1948 or 1967 wars).

Lebanon: Nationalities, Ethnicities, and Conflict � Lebanon, smaller than Connecticut and with a population of less than four million, has 17 officially recognized ethnicities. However, no census has been taken since 1932, so there are no accurate population figures for the different groups. � Current estimates: • 55% Muslim (66% Sunni, 34% Shi'ite). • 38% Christian (60% Maronite, 5% Greek Orthodox, also Greek Catholic, Armenian, Syrian Orthodox, etc.) • 7% Druze • There are also small groups of Jews and Kurds (less then 1% of the population). � In the 1943 Lebanon's Constitution required each group be represented in Parliament based on its population in the 1932 census: • Chamber of Deputies o 30 Maronites o 11 Greek Orthodox o 6 Greek Catholics o 4 Armenian Christians o 3 Other Christians o 20 Sunni o 19 Shi'ites o 6 Druze • By agreement, the Executive Branch was also represented on the basis of ethnicity: o President – Maronite Christian o Premier – Sunni Muslim o Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies – Shi'ite Muslim o Foreign Minister – Greek Orthodox Christian � Though these percentages were probably accurate in 1932, by the 1970s they were hopelessly incorrect. Palestinian refugees took control of Southern Lebanon, civil war broke out between Christians and Muslims in 1975, Israel occupied Lebanese territory beginning in 1978, and the government collapsed. � Today • Representation in the Chamber of Deputies is officially divided equally between Muslims and Christians. • Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000, but cross-border violence continues.

Forced Migration and Ethnic Cleansing � Forced migration has occurred throughout history – people of a certain ethnicity compelled to move by another ethnic group's armies. � In the 1990s a new term was coined, “ethnic cleansing,” to describe what some groups in Europe were doing to each other. • Ethnic cleansing: o “a process in which a more powerful ethnic group forcibly removes a less powerful one in order to create an ethnically homogenous region.” o “Ethnic cleansing is undertaken to rid an area of an entire ethnicity, so that the surviving ethnicity can be the sole inhabitants.” Balkanization � At the end of the 19th century political leaders were deeply worried about something called “Balkanization”: • “The process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among its ethnicities.” � Balkanization was considered a threat to world peace, because conflicts between ethnic groups could drag larger powers into war. Balkanization certainly helped to cause World War I.

To prevent Balkanization from causing problems in the future, a multiethnic state was created in the Balkans – Yugoslavia. Ethnic Cleansing Example: Yugoslavia � After World War I the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up. The Balkan peninsula was unified (mostly on the basis of linguistic groups) into a new multi-ethnic nation. � Ethnic diversity in Yugoslavia was enormous: • Seven distinct ethnic neighbors (Austria, Greece, Italy, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania). • Four official languages (Croatian, Serbian, Macedonian, Slovene). • Three major religions (Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Islam). • Two alphabets (Roman for Croatian and Slovene, Cyrillic for Macedonian and Serbian). • Six semi-autonomous Republics within Yugoslavia – Bosnia & Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia. • Five of the Republics were established on the basis of ethnicity; Bosnia & Herzegovina was a mixture of ethnicities. � Yugoslav ethnicities were suppressed during most of the 20th century, but with the collapse of the Communist government in the 1980s, politicians in several of the Republics began using ethnicity and nationalism to gain power. � All the Republics except Serbia and Montenegro broke away to become independent countries. � Because ethnic regions and political boundaries did not coincide – and because of the concept of self-determination – Serbs and Croats both used ethnic cleansing as a way of claiming territory. Genocide � Beyond removing an ethnic group, there is “genocide”: • Destroying a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. � In the 20th century there have been several spectacular examples of genocide and attempted genocide: • 1915-1923: between 600,000 and 1½ million Armenians were killed or forced to flee Turkey (the government of Turkey continues to deny that this was an act of genocide). • 1930s-1945: six million Jews, as well as hundreds of thousands of Slavs, Gypsies and others were killed by the Nazis.

• 1975-1979: three million Cambodians were killed by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia. • 1994: 500,000 Rwandan Tutsis were killed by Rwandan Hutus. • 2004-2007: An estimated 300,000 Sudanese killed in Darfur by state supported militias (see http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4349063.stm ). A 60 day cease-fire was agreed in January 2007 – and immediately violated. � Genocide has been a crime under International Law since 1948, whether committed during wartime or peacetime. � All signatories to the “Convention on Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide” are obligated to enforce the treaty, and punish individuals responsible for acts of genocide. Critics have pointed out that while there are procedures in place to punish genocide, there is no real international mechanism today for preventing it.

Race: Reality?  Research into genetic diseases has shown that “race” is not a very good predictor of who is and who isn’t going to get various genetic diseases (e.g. cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs, etc.). o Since the human genome has been sequenced, we now know that skin color, eye color, etc. aren’t very good at predicting what our genetic heritage really is. . For example, in America:  African-American’s West African genetic heritage varies from 20% to 100%.  30% of Americans who consider themselves “white” have less than 90% European ancestry.

Hate Crimes  Also known as “bias motivated crimes.”  The Federal Government does not classify crimes as “hate crimes.” State and local law enforcement agencies collect (and classify data). o Standards vary from State to State – and even from town to town – so national statistics are questionable. o Nevertheless, the FBI collects data on several thousand hate crimes every year. In the year 2004, there were more then 7,600 reported hate crimes in the US. The largest number (over 4,000) were motivated by race.

Race, Racism and Prejudice  Racism: “belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race.” o Racist: “a person who subscribes to the beliefs of racism.” o Prejudice: a preformed, unsupported judgment or opinion about a person or a group of people, based on stereotypes.

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