Perfer Et Obdura; Dolor Hic Tibi Proderit Olim Be Patient and Tough; Some Day This Pain

Perfer et obdura; dolor hic tibi proderit olim Be patient and tough; some day this pain will be useful to you.

Pioneer High School 2009-10 Edition

AP European History Major Assignments and Unit Readings 2

Introduction

First: I’d like to congratulate you at reaching this point, only the most dedicated students even attempt to take an AP class. Hopefully this class will be intellectually rewarding, interesting, and at times even fun.

Second: Don’t panic! This booklet is designed to cover the whole year. If you were given most of your assignments for any class, it might seem overwhelming. I’ve created this booklet so that you can get ahead, but more importantly so you can plan your time well. I know that you will have other classes and activities; this is my attempt to give you a way to manage your time effectively.

Third For those of you who apply for the ACE program for the spring semester, you will have one additional assignment- we will have a series of review sessions at lunch that you will be required to attend prior to the AP Exam during the 4th quarter.

Fourth: You can write in this book, it’s yours. You can underline important passages, make corrections as needed and make notes in the margins. For the readings, because they are primary sources, spelling was left as it was originally written, but that doesn’t mean everything is perfect.

Last: Don’t get over confident. This is not “everything” that you will be doing this year. You will also be reading, completing some small assignments, taking notes, reviewing your material, and just plain studying for quizzes and exams.

Table of Contents Assignments Assessments Page Course Unit Topics 5 General Assignments Cornell PERSIA Note taking System 8 DBQ Rubric 12 FRQ Rubric 14 Student Led Discussion s 15 Student Group Review 18 Semester Research Assignment 19 Online Class Components 24 Extra Credit Assignments Art Assignment 25 Book Review Movie Critique 27 You Are There Newscast 28 Unit Assignments and Readings Take It APPARTS Assignment 32 Art Analysis Assignment 38 Summer Assignment 40 Multiple Choice Quiz Unit I Introduction: Late Middle Ages: 46 Social and Political Breakdown Plague DBQ Practice Black Death Discussion Multiple Choice Exam Unit II Renaissance and Discovery, 52 Reformation Renaissance Practice FRQ Machiavelli’s Italy- Virtual Discussion Reforming Sermons 54 Functions of Festivals Discussion 68 Multiple Choice from Text, DBQ Exam Unit III Age of Religious Wars and 71 European State Consolidation Parliament vs. Stewart Kings Debate and 73 Paper Multiple Choice from Text, FRQ Exam Unit IV New Directions in Thought and 82 Culture and the Old Regime Scientific Philosophy Fair 83 Science vs. Religion Discussion Multiple Choice and DBQ Exam Unit V The Transatlantic Economy, 93 Trade Wars, and Colonial Rebellion and The Age of Enlightenment Enlightened Facebook Activity 95 POV- Salons Philosophes and Politics Discussion Columbian Exchange Virtual Discussion 108 FRQ (Two Questions) Exam 4

Unit VI- - The French Revolution and the 110 Age of Napoleon The Trial of Robespierre Debate and Paper 112 Liberty, Equality, Fraternity Virtual 113 Discussion Multiple Choice Exam Unit VII The Conservative Order, 121 Economic Advance and Social Unrest Industrial Revolution DBQ Essay British Textile Virtual Discussion 132 Multiple Choice and DBQ Exam Winter Assignment 136 Unit VIII - - The Age of Nation States 138 National Unification Puppet Show 140 Bismarck and German Unification Virtual 146 Discussion Multiple Choice Exam Unit IX European Society to WWI, The 149 Birth of Modern Thought Ideologies on Stage 151 Rationalism, Racism, Nationalism Discussion Multiple Choice from Text, FRQ (Two Question) Exam Unit X - Imperialism, WWI, Russian 162 Revolution WWI Limericks 164 WWI DBQ Settlement at Paris Discussion Multiple Choice Exam Unit XI- Political Experiments of the 171 1920s Europe and the Great Depression The Great Depression in Germany- The Nazi's Discussion You Are There Project 173 Multiple Choice from Text, (Two Question) FRQ Exam Unit XII – WWII 184 POV – Kristallnacht Racism and the Holocaust Discussion Multiple Choice Exam Unit XIII - Changing Europe Cold War 190 Post WWII FRQ The collapse of European communism Discussion The rise of radical political Islam Virtual Discussion Exam Multiple Choice Unit XIV - AP Review and Test Prep 202 The Golden Years AP EXAM Art Index 5

Course Unit Topics Summer Assignment The Black Death The 100 years War Unit 1 Introduction: Late Middle Ages: Social and Ecclesiastical Breakdown Political Breakdown The Great Schism and Impact Medieval Russia The French Invasions Major Figures of Italian Ren Politics- Medici/ Machiavelli The Northern Renaissance Unit 2 Renaissance and Discovery, Reformation Images of Renaissance Life & Thought Society and Religion Reformation and Counter-Reformation Societal Change/English Reformation Imperial Spain and Philip II Religious Wars 30 years war Unit 3 Age of Religious Wars and European State Parliament vs. Stuart Kings Consolidation The Age of Absolutism Absolute Monarchy in France The Romanov’s The Ottoman’s The Scientific Revolution Philosophy vs. Science Unit 4 New Directions in Thought and Culture and the New Scientific Institutions Old Regime Women in Science Witch-Hunting Science vs. Religion The Old Regime The Agricultural Revolution 18th Century Industrial Revolution Impact of Industrial Revolution on Women, Children, and Urbanization Overseas Empires The Spanish Colonial System Black Slavery, the Plantation The Colombian Exchange Unit 5 The Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars, and Mid-18th Century Wars Colonial Rebellion, The Age of Enlightenment The American Revolution The Enlightenment The Philosophes and Religion Enlightenment Society Women in the Enlightenment Philosophes and Politics Enlightenment on Art and Architecture Enlightened Absolutism- Frederick II Enlightened Absolute Monarchs Unit 6- The French Revolution and the Age of The French Revolution Napoleon Crisis of the French Monarchy Reconstruction of France 6 Reconstruction of France Women and the Church End of the Monarchy Reign of Terror The End of the Monarchy, Europe at War Reign of Terror The Thermidorian Reaction Rise of Napoleon The Consulate in France Napoleon's Empire European Response to Empire Congress of Vienna Romanticism Religion in the Romantic Period Romantic Literature and Art Religion and Nationalism in the Romantic Age- Nationalism and Liberalism Emergence and Ideals of Nationalism and Liberalism Unit 7- The Conservative Order, Economic Advance Conservatives and Social Unrest Wars of Independence in Latin America Conservative Failure Conservatives Internationally Toward an Industrial Society Family Structures and the Industrial Revolution Industrial Revolution Crime and Order Family Life and Child Labor Women in the Industrial Revolution Unit 8 - The Age of Nation States Revolutions of 1848 The Crimean War The Abolishment of Slavery Italian Unification The Habsburgs and Russian Emancipation German Unification The Third Republic The Second Industrial Revolution The Middle Classes in Ascendancy Late 19th Century Urban Life Varieties of Late 19th Century Women's Experiences Jewish Emancipation Labor, Socialism and Politics to WWI Unit 9- - European Society to WWI, The Birth of The New Reading Public, Modern Thought Science in Mid-century- Darwinism, Science and Ethics Christianity and the Church Under Siege Toward a 20th Century Frame of Mind - Science: The Revolution in Physics The Coming of Modern Art Nietzsche and Freud Anti-Semitism African Imperialism Emerging Alliance Systems World War I Unit 10 - Imperialism, WWI, Russian Revolution Russian Revolution Settlement at Paris Political and Economic Factors after the Paris Peace settlement 7 The Soviet Experiment Begins The Fascist Experiment in Italy Women in a Totalitarian Government Joyless Victors- Great Britain Trials of the Successor states in Eastern Europe The Weimar Republic Unit 11 Political Experiments of the 1920s Toward Great Depression Europe and the Great Depression Causes of the Great Depression The Great Depression in Great Britain, France, Germany Comparison of Soviet vs. Nazi Police States Nazi Economic Policy Women under the Nazi government The Great Depression in Italy The Great Depression in the Soviet Union Again the Road to War The Spanish Civil War, The Anschluss, Munich WWII Unit 12 - WWII The Nazi Assault on the Jews of Poland The Fall of Nazi Germany Racism and the Holocaust Explanations of the Holocaust The Domestic Fronts The Emergence of the Cold War The creation of Israel and the Korean War Soviet Domination of Eastern Europe The Khrushchev Era and Brezhnev Era French Decolonization The collapse of European communism The collapse of the Soviet Union The Yeltsin Decade Unit 13 - Changing Europe Cold War The 20th Century movement of people New Patterns in Work and Expectations of Women The rise of radical political Islam Toward a Welfare State Society Transformations in Knowledge and Culture The challenges of the EU The Christian Heritage The arrival of the computer Unit 14 - AP Review and Test Prep AP Europe Exam 8 The Cornell P.E.R.S.I.A. Note-taking System

For most note taking, the typical Cornell note system follows this format:

11. Record: During the lecture, use the note taking column to record the lecture using telegraphic sentences. 22. Questions: As soon after class as possible, formulate questions based on the notes in the right-hand column. Writing questions helps to clarify meanings, reveal relationships, establish continuity, and strengthen memory. Also, the writing of questions sets up a perfect stage for exam-studying later. 33. Recite: Cover the note taking column with a sheet of paper. Then, looking at the questions or cue-words in the question and cue column only, say aloud, in your own words, the answers to the questions, facts, or ideas indicated by the cue-words. 44. Reflect: Reflect on the material by asking yourself questions, for example: “What’s the significance of these facts? What principle are they based on? How can I apply them? How do they fit in with what I already know? What’s beyond them? 55. Review: Spend at least ten minutes every week reviewing all your previous notes. If you do, you’ll retain a great deal for current use, as well as, for the exam.

When students are asked to study a time period in history, they sometimes have difficulty organizing all the seemingly unconnected facts about different people, dates, events, and issues related to that time period. The PERSIA approach is one way to organize how the people lived in a society at a certain time in history, and thus helps students to understand their culture. The PERSIA graphic organizer is an acronym for the six themes that people have had throughout history. These concerns are expressed in six general areas and by six questions

Political: Who shall be in charge? Economic: How shall we make a living? Religious: What shall we believe? Social: How shall we relate to each other? Intellectual: How shall we learn? Artistic: How shall we express ourselves? The answers to these six questions – in different times and places – have created different kinds of political, economic, religious, social, intellectual, and artistic institutions. All these institutions form the cultural components of a people at a particular time and place. The following provides additional questions and more details on each aspect of a culture:

Political => Who shall be in change?  Who was in charge?  How did the leader(s) get their power? (for example, hereditary, military power, by elections)  Was government based on power or a social contract?  How was the government of the society structured?  What kinds of freedoms were given to the people?

Economic => How shall we make a living?  How did most people make a living? (agriculture, commerce, manufacturing, services, trades and professions, etc.)  What were the main agricultural products? The main industries? The main services?  Did this society depend on imports? What were the main imports?  Did other societies depend on their exports? What were the main exports?

Religious => What shall we believe?  What were the main religious groups in the society?  Where did we come from? (origins)  What happens when we die? (destination after death)  How shall we spend our lives? (purpose of life) 9  Was there religious freedom in the society?  Was religion part of the government?  What general beliefs did the society have?

Social => How shall we relate to each other?  How was society organized?  • Authoritarian society based on servitude and/or slavery.  • Deference society based on rank in society.  • Egalitarian society based on equal rights under the law.  Did the society have different social classes? If so, what were they?  What were the main ethnic groups?  What were the main languages spoken in the society?  Construct a social pyramid that indicates the different social classes.

Intellectual => How shall we learn?  Was learning based on what others told you (authority), what you found out for yourself (self-discovery), or a combination of both?  Did free public education exist?  Did all members of this society have access to education? If not, who did not and why not?  Did centers of higher education exist? If so, for whom? If not, why not?  What educational opportunities existed for women and minority groups?  What information sources were available for different groups in the population?

Artistic => How shall we express ourselves?  How did the society express itself artistically? (emotions, thoughts, ideas)  What was its music and dance like?  What were the major contributions of literature and writings?  What were the major contributions in architecture and painting?  What was the clothing like?  What major discoveries or ideas were contributed by the society?  What were the most popular sports and forms of entertainment?

For the question area of your notes, you should indicate as you review your notes, which themes did the particular topic, person, or event address? You could streamline your note-taking with symbols, numbers or letters indicating which part or parts relates to the PERSIA acronym. This will help with your overall review of your notes.

Cornell PERSIA Note Organization Your notes should have the following parts

PERSIA- the Initials, symbols or Enhanced Notes: Notes you have Core Notes: Notes provided by Guemmer letters for the PERSIA acronym added to the Core Notes 10

Your Notes should look something like this:

Cornell P.E.R.S.I.A Note Sheet Themes Enhanced Notes Core Notes

______

Summary 11

Political

Economic

Religious

Social

Intellectual

Artistic 12 Document Based Questions How to write…

Purpose: The document question is not to test your prior knowledge of subject matter, but rather to evaluate your ability to formulate and support and answer from documentary evidence. The DBQ is designed to simulate the work of the historian and differs only in the time for analysis.

Assessment: There is no one correct answer; instead, a variety of approaches are possible. The College Board expects you to show “cogency and appropriateness of interpretation and the ability to marshal historical data in support of that interpretation.” In other words: 1. Use your knowledge by comprehending the facts and then apply those facts as evidence to prove your thesis. 2. Analyze and evaluate the documents by determining relevance, credibility or biases of the sources, cause and effect relationships, and assumptions. 3. Synthesize the facts (the information from the documents) and your ideas to create and original, well- organized essay response to the assignment.

Hints for reading: 1. Read the assignment/question carefully. Analyze the statement to make sure you understand ALL the parts completely. Breakdown the categories to use in structuring your essay. 2. Read all documents in order of presentation. Return to the more important documents only after you have read all documents. 3. There are no decoy or intentionally misleading documents. 4. Look for ideas as you read the documents. Make notes or highlight in the margins as to the document support of the question/categories. 5. Evaluate the credibility of the source by checking the date, the author, and key words on the document. Think about motives, needs, and timing. Be sure to include this evaluation in your essay.

Hints for writing: 1. Respond to all aspects of the assignment/question. Cover all the bases. 2. Do not list or re-write documents when you organize your essay. In no case should documents be listed, cited, or explained in a laundry list fashion. 3. Do cite documents and show the reader that you are aware of the source and its relevance. Examples: Type A – “…Northern and Southern France are compared (doc 4)…or…the view of a French Bishop is given in (doc 6)…or the view of the intendant in (doc 13)…” Type B – “As the French Bishop states in the homily regarding Protestants in 1545…or…the clearness of Dutch involvement in trade declined as shown in the chart of trade balances…” The important requirement is awareness of and relevance to your thesis! 4. You may refer to historical facts and developments not mentioned in the documents, however this is not required. It simply shows your understanding of the situation. This differs from AP US DBQ’s 5. You may merge and integrate documents, this shows thinking on your part. (See #2 above) 6. This is not a term paper. Be concise. Get to the point. This is a timed exercise. 13 Purpose: Currently DBQs are scored using Core Scoring. The major difference is that well-written essays that may read well on a holistic basis may not receive full credit. Structure your response accordingly.

Scoring: This means that essays will be scored using two parts, Basic Core and Expanded Core. AP Point Basic 1. Has an acceptable and explicit thesis that directly answers the question. Thesis MAY NOT just restate the question.  Not a simple rewording of the question or historical background. 2. Uses a majority of the documents individually and specifically by referring to anything within the document box.  It is not ok to simply write “in doc. 10 . . . “  A majority is at least 1 more than half of the documents. 3. Demonstrates understanding of the basic meaning of a majority of the documents (may misinterpret no more than one document)  May misinterpret the content of no more than one (1) document; a major misrepresentation is one that leads to an inaccurate grouping or a false conclusion. 4. Supports the thesis with appropriate interpretations of a majority of the documents.

 Documents must be used to support an argument, not just a laundry list of the docs. 5. Analyzes bias or point-of-view in at least three (3) documents.

. Relates authorial point-of-view to author’s place politically and/or by nationality OR . Evaluates the reliability of the source OR . Recognizes the different kinds of documents serve different purposes OR . Analyzes tone or intent of documents OR

. Analyzes Point-of-view in one document and gives consistent attribution. 6. Analyzes documents by explicitly grouping them in at least three appropriate (3) groups.  A group consists of 2 or more doc’s  Groups must be related to the question—can’t be “random” groupings Expanded (1 – 3 points added to a total of 9 points)  Must earn all six (6) points in the basic core before earning points in the expanded core.  Additional points are earned for excellence in ONE, or All of the following:  A clear, analytical, comprehensive thesis  Persuasive use of documents as evidence  Additional groupings or other forms of analysis  Analysis of POV or bias in at least four (4) documents  Relevant outside historical content woven into analysis of documents  Use of all or almost all documents  Careful and insightful analysis of the documents Grading Each AP point = 5.5 Grading points 6 AP points = 33 Grading points = 66% 14 FRQ Rubric Points given will be indicated on the left, and the reasoning behind the points circled on the chart below. Points AP Rating Thesis Organization Balance Analysis Evidence Errors 5 9-8 Superior thesis Extremely well- Addresses all areas of Excellent use All major Extremely well- -Explicit and organized- Essay the prompt evenly. If of analysis to assertions in the written essay fully responsive organization is the question requires support thesis essay are to the question. clear, consistently multiple arguments. and main supported by at The errors that followed, and at least three ideas ideas. least three specific exist do not detract effective in support are all covered at ideas, events, or from the argument of the argument some length individuals being used as relevant evidence 4 7-6 Strong thesis - Well-organized Addresses all areas of Strong All major Well-written essay Explicit and essay – Essay the prompt; may analysis in assertions in the responsive to organization is lack some balance most areas; essay are May contain an the question, clear, effective in between major areas. needs more supported by more error that detracts contains support of the detail. than one specific from the argument general analysis argument, but not ideas, events, or such as the wrong consistently If the question Some individuals being chronology, followed, tends to requires multiple important used as relevant associating the generalize. arguments at least information evidence ideas of one figure three ideas suggested left out with another. by the prompt are covered at least briefly 3 5-4 Clear thesis- Organization is Essay shows some Contains Most of the major Good Essay Thesis is clear, consistently imbalance; there is a some assertions in the explicit, but not followed, but not Discussion of ideas, analysis; essay are Contains a few fully responsive effective but generalized much more supported by at errors that detract to the question, arguments. detail is least one specific from the argument, tends to needed. ideas, events, or stylistically individuals being wander before Important used as relevant reaching the information evidence core argument left out. to be addressed. 2 3-2 Underdevelope Organization is Essay shows serious Lacks Only one or two Adequate Essay, d Thesis- unclear and imbalance, If the analysis of specific ideas, but is somewhat Thesis that ineffective, tends question requires key issues events, or incomplete (too merely repeats/ to jump multiple arguments. individuals are short) paraphrases the chronologically. less than three Most major mentioned, but prompt specific ideas, events, events little to no use as Contains several or individuals being omitted relevant evidence errors that detract used are discussed, from the argument, and only briefly. 1 1 No discernable No discernable Only one or no No analysis No specific ideas, Essay is attempt at a organization; arguments are events, or incomplete thesis stylistically mentioned Little to no individuals are wanders and jumps relevant facts mentioned or used. Contains numerous chronologically. errors that detract from the argument 0 0 Thesis is off Little to no effort No arguments No analysis No evidence Completely topic. shown mentioned incorrect or not turned in.

____ Introduction contains vague or “wasted” sentences ____ Essay contains vague statements or generalizations not supported by facts. ____ Essay attempted to tell a story rather than relaying facts. ____ Essay attempted to validate your personal opinion, rather than answering the prompt. ____ Don’t use “I” or “my” statements ____ Don’t connect issues to “today” (unless asked) ____ Don’t use “flowery” or slang style writing ____ Poor spelling and grammar ____ Poor penmanship: essay difficult to read 15 Student Led Discussion s

Before each class

1) Read and study the Discussion assignment 2) Think about and write down four or five Discussion questions based upon the assigned reading. 3) Assume that you will lead the Discussion ; write a brief (less than 5-minute) opening statement about the assignment. Your statement should set the stage for, and end by raising, one or more of your Discussion questions. 4) You are going to get two poker chips from your teacher. The goal will be for each student to put their two cents in, literally, by tossing a coin or chip to the floor in the center of the room when they speak. Once a student has put his/her two cents in, they cannot contribute further until every student has participated (though you can ask questions).

During class

1. A student(s) will be randomly chosen the day of the Discussion to lead it. 2. If there is a supplementary reading, spend a few minutes reading it, and writing down some ideas from it. 3. Your friendly neighborhood teacher is going to shut up for at least half of the Discussion . This is a student led Discussion after all. The teacher will sit back, take notes on the Discussion , and will enter into the Discussion for the second half. 4. Listen to the statement by the designated Discussion leader and consider the Discussion question(s) or issue(s) he or she raises. 5. Discuss the issues raised, keeping to the subject of the readings, attempting -- preferably in this order -- to analyze, criticize, and connect: a) Analyze the readings to gain a deeper understanding of difficult concepts, examples, the author's position, and the author's arguments. b) Criticize the readings, articulating and defending personal opinions about the adequacy of the author's presentation and arguments. c) Connect the issues you have analyzed and criticized to material of previous assignments in order to discern broader themes, similar concepts, and comparable or contrasting opinions.

7. As you participate, use the text, at times calling attention to specific passages relevant to the issue at hand. When working with such a passage, allow time for others in the class to locate it and then read it aloud.

8. Ignore teacher during their period of enforced silence. Direct your attention to other students and regard teacher as a recording secretary on hand to take down information for use later in Discussion .

9. Continue the student-led Discussion with the same goals after the teacher has joined in, using the teacher as needed to provide examples, explanations, and/or alternative positions.

10. Take brief notes of points and examples that deepen your understanding; opinions that differ from your own; and arguments that you find helpful, convincing, or worth trying to refute. These notes may be useful when you want to contribute to Discussion , when you formulate study questions for future classes, or when you write papers. Do not, however, allow note-taking to cause you to lose the thread of the Discussion . 16

How to lead a Discussion

Most students have never led a Discussion . It is normal to be somewhat nervous about your first try. Most of us (including teachers) are afraid we'll be embarrassed by saying something wrong, being contradicted, or running out of things to say. Here are some suggestions to help you overcome your fears, prepare, get the Discussion started, and sustain it.

Preparing

To lead a Discussion , you must be familiar with the assigned material. A. Read and study the assignment, make notes about the more important or interesting points B. Think about and write down some of the main issues that the author raises and a few questions pertinent to the issues. C. If you can come up with a handful of questions, you're in good shape. Remember, everyone else in the class is formulating such questions: you can take advantage of their work to make your job easier.

But what if you are not asked to lead? Is this work wasted? Nope! You are now very well prepared to participate as someone else leads. With everyone prepared to lead, everyone is also prepared to discuss, and lively Discussion s will almost always ensue.

Getting Started

Class has started and your name has been chosen. How do you begin? A. Present your prepared statement. End by asking the first question or asking for Discussion of the first issue on your list. B. Start out on a positive note. Avoid beginning with an apology for being poorly prepared or for finding the reading difficult (Avoid this by being properly prepared). Treat the day's topic as having real value. This will help everybody become more interested and involved in the Discussion .

Keeping Discussion s Going

Sustaining Discussion

1) Get students to talk to each other. Ask for a response to the most recent comments. (Anyone have a response to Bob's opinion?) Or ask a specific student to respond. (Maria, do you agree with David?)

2) Get students to defend or explain their opinions.

3) Encourage an exploration of differing points of view. When you hear conflicting views, point them out and get the holders of those views to discuss their differences. Perhaps ask a third person to sum up the two positions.

4) Keep the class on the subject. If you are even halfway familiar with the material, you know when the Discussion is no longer connected to it. Just say so. Or simply consult your list of questions. Any sensible response to one of your questions is bound to be relevant.

5) Point to a particular passage in the text relevant to a comment made by one person, or to a Discussion among several. This might be a passage that challenges, or sums up and confirms, the views being expressed.

6) Don’t talk all the time. Any Discussion will lapse occasionally. It is not your job as leader to avoid all silence. Some quiet periods are productive. Students who are not so quick to speak will frequently get the chance they need when others are quiet. If the silence gets too heavy, take advantage of the other students' lists of questions. 17 7. Remember, as Discussion leader you do not have to be the brains of the whole outfit. You are not expected to know it all; the class is full of students who have read the same assignment that you read. Your job is to give them a chance to talk about it and thus give others the benefits of their thinking. On the other hand, if any one student begins to do all the talking, gently correct this problem by bringing other students into the Discussion . If students are talking to each other about the reading material, things are going well; relax, listen, and contribute when you can.

The Goals of Discussion

Discussion should lead to three results.

A. Analysis and clarification of the material. B. Better understanding of the material C. Enjoyment of the Discussion

After class

A. Students (in groups of acquaintances, if possible)

Spend a few minutes reflecting on the Discussion , perhaps jotting down notes (or amplifying notes made in class) of points that increased your understanding of the readings, and that may be useful in preparing for the next Discussion or writing the next paper. Especially, take note of arguments that interested or surprised you.

Discussion Topics

Unit I Black Death Unit II Machiavelli’s Italy Virtual Discussion Functions of Festivals Discussion Unit III Class Debate- No Discussion Unit IV Philosophy vs. Science Science vs. Religion Unit V Impact of Slavery on the Americas, Europe and Africa Unit VI Philiosophes and Politics Unit VII Liberty, Equality and Fraternity- Virtual Discussion Unit VIII Women in the Industrial Revolution Unit IX Group Activity – No Discussion Unit X Rationalism, Racism, Nationalism Unit XI Settlement at Paris – The Versailles Treaty Unit XII Women in a Totalitarian Government The Great Depression in Germany- The Nazi's, Unit XIII Racism and the Holocaust Unit XIV The collapse of European communism The rise of radical political Islam Virtual Discussion Unit XV Course Review- No Discussion 18 Study Group Review

In college level courses, it is very important to establish study groups to help share the work of reviewing material. In high schools, however, this idea is only done informally until now. For this course, your instructor will place you into specific study groups. Not only should you rely on each other to help fill in gaps in your own studying, your group is going to help the rest of the class as well.

My Study Group # Email Addresses

My name Member # 1 Member # 2 Member #3 Member #4 Member#5 Member #6

Group Review Assignment

Your group is going to create a 15 question review quiz that the rest of the class will take, and your group will go over Using the PERSIA Review format, you will each focus on one of the areas of review. Each group will create a power point that will give a complete review of your Unit, Each person should concentrate and present on a letter of the PERSIA review (if applicable), major figures, and major events. Extra members should provide an overview of the end of your groups presentation With the quiz and your group's power point it should be approximately 45 minutes in length, to allow for clarification questions at the end. Your group should also distribute a “cheat “ sheet of terms, figures and events that your unit covers, that are in addition to the terms that are in the Unit Worksheets as well as helpful hints to help the class remember important concepts.

Your project will be graded on the following Thoroughness Accuracy Creativity Group # 1- Group # 2 Group #3- Group # 4- 19

Semester Research Essay Assignment

Topics All topics must be cleared with me prior to starting research (Why waste your time otherwise?) The topics on the list are very broad in scope intentionally, it allows you to have some flexibility in your research. You should either research in a specific topic, compare and contrast two topics, or use the broad topic as a base for a more specific question you want to research. Special Note: While you can research a particular individual and their impact on society, I do not want any biographies.

Format

The completed term paper is to be in a research style folder (The type with two or three fasteners.) or online at Turnitin. The paper must be a minimum of six (6) pages and a maximum of eight (8) pages in length. The final copy is to be typed (space and a half or double spaced) or computer generated. The paper length refers only to the essay portion.

Title Page

Thesis The best history papers begin with a tightly focused thesis argument, which is proven in the body of the paper through thorough research. Narrowing down the topic or thesis is perhaps the most challenging part of writing a paper. Procrastinating students will have a difficult time doing this. The most successful paper writers will select a focus area to research, phrase their thesis as a question or historical problem, read enough about the topic to develop sub- questions, and then formulate a very specific yet workable thesis.

Researching the Topic Most students tend to avoid very narrow topics because the research may be difficult, because it requires you to find specific information. One reason lies in the fact that many students prefer or are used to writing papers at the last minute rather than reading as much about their topic as they can.

Good research papers can rarely be written from internet sources alone, so you should also use the library for secondary sources. Book reading and research must be an integral part of any endeavor to craft a successful paper.

Parenthetical References In addition to producing a list of works cited for your paper you must provide details about the information you derived from each of your sources and where in the source you located this information. The best way to do this is to insert a brief parenthetical acknowledgement whenever you use another person’s ideas or words.

EXAMPLE Medieval Europe was a place both of "raids, pillages, slavery, and extortion" and of "traveling merchants, monetary exchange, towns if not cities, and active markets in grain" (Townsend 10).

The parenthetical reference indicates that the quotation came from page ten of the work by Townsend. The complete bibliographical information for this work will appear in your List of Works Cited (see below).

Additional Sources and Work Cited Page If you refer to a specific location, chart or other form of data, you should try to include a map or chart as a reference to the reader. All maps, charts or graphs are to be on unlined paper.

A minimum of five (5) sources must be used. For books, magazines, and online sources should follow the MLA format for citations: 20

Example Townsend, Robert M. The Medieval Village Economy. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1993.

First Semester Topics

Renaissance Rise of Nation - States The Popes English Civil War Lorenzo de Medici Absolutism Artists Louis XIV Humanism Richelieu Secularism Stuart Dynasty Individualism Oliver Cromwell Italian City- States Glorious Revolution Niccolo Machiavelli The Restoration New Monarchs War of the Spanish Succession Habsburg- Valois War Age of Absolutism Reformation Romanov Dynasty Luther Hohenzollern Calvin Habsburgs Zwingli Revolution of J. Hus Edict of Nantes Huguenots Prussian Absolutism Anabaptist Great Northern War Peasant Revolt Baroque Art Edict of Nantes Peter the Great War of the 3 Henry's Maria Theresa (Austria) Diet of Worms Frederick the Great Charles V Pragmatic Sanction Counter-Reformation War of Austrian Succession Council of Trent Versailles Henry VIII St. Petersburg English Reformation Scientific Revolution Age of Exploration & Enlightenment & Religious Warfare Copernicus Explorers Brahe Spain & Conquistadores Kepler France & England Bacon Portugal Slave Trade Newton Incas Galileo Aztecs Voltaire Mayans Deism 30 yrs War Descartes Dutch Independence Locke Spanish Armada Encyclopedia Elizabeth I French Salons Mary Queen of Scots Catherine de Medici 21

Age of Revolution Reaction, Romanticism French Revolution & Revolution Committee of Public Safety Congress of Vienna Guillotine Concert of Europe Reign of Terror Metternich Great Fear Revolutionary Movements Louis XVI July Revolution (1830) France Robespierre Greek Independence Third Estate Louis Phillipe Napoleonic Era Art: Romanticism, Realism Napoleon Classical Liberalism Waterloo Great Famine (Ireland) Continental System Suez Canal Invasion of Russia Revolution of 1848 Battle of Trafalgar Fourth Coalition (Quad. Alliance) Napoleons Reforms (code) Peninsular War Battle of Austerlitz

Industrial Revolution Inventors Child Labor Steam Engine Capitalism Socialism Communism Karl Marx Urban Life Public Health Movement Textile Industry Reform Bill 1832 22

Second Semester Topics European Society Russian Revolution Turn of the Century Nicholas II Post-Impressionism Rasputin Feminism\Women's Movement Lenin Impression Stalin Dreyfus Affair Trotsky European Immigration Civil War 1918-1920 Third Republic (France) March Revolution Music and Literature November Revolution Technological Revolution Alexander Kerensky Revolution 1905 Imperialism Russo-Japanese War Algeciras conference Red Army Boxer Rebellion Congress of Berlin (1884-85) Totalitarian Societies Fashoda Italy-Fascism Opium Wars Black Shirts Rhodes Mussolini Sepoy Rebellion March on Rome Taiping Rebellion Germany White Man's Burden Hitler Africa Nazi Rule India Gestapo China Mein Kampf World War I Nuremburg Laws Black Hand Holocaust Franz Ferdinand Weimer Republic Kaiser Wilhelm II USSR-Great Purge League of Nations Collectivization and Mechanization Battles of W.W. Totalitarianism Western Front Great Depression Eastern Front Munich Conference 1938 Triple Alliance Triple Entente Technology Zimmerman Telegram Gavrilo Princip Treaty of Versailles Trench Warfare 23

World War ll End of Imperialism Battle of Coral Sea China Pearl Harbor Mao Zedong Midway Revolution 1911 Invasion of Russia Chaig Kai-Shek Blitzkrieg Civil War 1946-49 Nazi-Soviet Pact Balfour Declaration Battle of Britain Arab League D-Day Zionism Stalingrad 6 Day War El-Alemein Israeli Independence S.S. African Independence Movement Rommel Gandhi Churchill Indian National Congress Atomic Bomb Muslim League Wartime Conferences Palestine Dunkirk Nasser Tojo Vietnam-Dien Bien Phu Yalta Cold War Changing World: Technology Berlin Crisis\Airlift and Society Division of Germany Acid Rain De-Stalinization Genetic Engineering Berlin Wall Greenhouse Effect Korean War Military-Industrial Complex Hungarian Revolution (1956) Space Program Khrushchev Semi Conductors NATO Computer Technology Warsaw Pact Rain Forest Truman Doctrine Family Cuban Missile Crisis Women Common Market Chernobyl Invasion of Czechoslovakia Fall of Communism Eastern Europe USSR-Gorbachev 24

Online Class Components

In an attempt to give students the closest approximation to a college class experience, without actually being there. To be efficient with our time, to increase the variety of assignments and to increase group collaboration, several assignments will have an online component.

Special Note: All these assignments can be completed in one way or another without a computer or online access.

Online Assessment Categories Note taking We can only cover about half of the content material in class, especially if we want to other activities besides lectures (I know I do !), so you have to complete your notes at home. All the notes are available online, in a couple of different locations- my web page at phs.wjusd.org. or the online wiki page.

If you have a computer but do not have the internet, if you bring in a flash drive, I can give you a copy of all of the notes. Barring that, all the notes come from the textbook directly, so you can get them from there as well.

Discussion s We will have several Virtual Discussion s online, a specific topic(s) will be given with some questions to answer. You will go to the class wiki page, answer the questions, and then respond to at least two other individual answers.

If you do not have a computer, you will have a series of similar questions to answer for the same amount of points.

Collaboration Study groups can use the class wiki page to compare notes, to leave notes for each other for projects. Additionally, I can use the wiki page to send messages and reminders to the whole class.

Podcasting Some of the assignments have an alternative podcast component, which do require a computer generally to complete. Specific information is available on the class wiki page.

Assignments I try to put copies of all the major assignments and worksheets online in case you lose one, or you need another copy. I try not to make too many extra paper copies to save on ink. 25

AP Euro Extra credit Art Assignment

For this assignment you are to recreate a famous work of European art from any period in the past 600 years, but you are to recreate it in a different style or medium than it was originally. (Worth 50 points)

Book Review Suggested Optional Reading for AP European History

Your optional reading assignment is designed to enrich your knowledge of European history, enhance your interest and increase your commitment to our Advanced Placement European History course. This assignment is optional. It is worth up to 20 bonus points. You may complete one book per semester.

Book Review Guidelines The Summary: A book review often begins with a summary of the subject of the book. Sometimes the summary will be spread throughout the review and interwoven with the commentary, and sometimes it will stand on its own at the beginning.

 The summary consists of a Discussion of the major features, trends, themes, ideas, and characteristics.  Use your own words. Combine ideas from the book into new sentences of your own. Generally, it is best when summarizing to follow the organization of the original.  Your aim should be to give a true but condensed picture of the book, including the way it is organized.

The Critique A critique consists of your thoughts, responses, and reactions to what you have read. The following questions are examples of the kind you should consider as you read your book and prepare the critique:  What is your overall opinion of the book, and why?  How effectively and in what ways does the theme of the book or argument of the author reflect what you already know?  How does this book tie in with our history course?  How well has the author achieved his / her aims? Are these aims supported or justified?  Does the author seem fair and accurate? Is there any distortion, exaggeration, or diminishing of material? Is the overall interpretation biased, subjective, slanted, and objective? Does the author try to look at both sides of the issue?  Is the book interesting or boring, and why? Does the material presented raise your curiosity about the subject, and why?  Is there enough information in the book? Is the subject treated thoroughly or summarily?  Did you feel satisfied, disappointed, or puzzled by the book, and why?  How well is the book written? (Should you use quotes as examples, keep them very short—preferably no more than one sentence.)  Is there anything distinctive or noteworthy about the book? (Give examples where useful).

Choose a book to read about a subject, era, or person in Europe between 1450 and now. See the list (below) of books that students have found interesting. Spending a little time in selecting a book is well worth the effort.

ACE students, in addition to the required assignments for AP, you are to complete at least one book review each semester. If you wish to do an additional review, it will be considered an extra credit assignment. Most of these texts should be available in the PHS library, but also should be available in the CSUS library, or available for purchase on amazon.com 26

First Semester Readings A World Lit Only by Fire by William Manchester The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe by Brian Levack The Prince by Niccolo Machiavelli Girl with a Pearl Earring by Tracy Chevalier Michelangelo and the Pope's Ceiling by Ross King Mary, Queen of Scots by Antonia Fraser The Wives of Henry VIII by Antonia Fraser Galileo’s Daughter by Dava Sobel Longitude by Dava Sobel Rough Crossings by Simon Schama Lunar Men by Jennifer Uglow Catherine the Great by Isabel de Madariaga Peter the Great by Robert K. Massie Marie Antoinette: The Journey by Antonia Fraser From Publishers Weekly Germinal by Emile Zola

Second Semester Readings Five Sisters: Women Against the Tsar by Barbara Engel Einstein in Love : A Scientific Romance by Dennis Overbye All Quiet on the Western Front by Eric Remarque The Guns of August by Barbara Tuchman Dr. Zhivago by Pasternak Darkness at Noon by Arthur Koestler Weimar Culture: The Outsider as Insider by Peter Gay Hitler and Stalin by Allan Bullock Twelve Years: An American Boyhood in East Germany by Joel Agee Heart of Europe: The Past in Poland's Present by Norman Davies Twelve Days: The Story of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution by Victor Sebestyen 27 Movie Critique (10 points- 4 a semester, only through the AP Movie Night!)

Name ______Date ______Period_____

Title of Film:

Main Actors:

Setting:

The Plot: Condense the main story line into 5-8 sentences

Relationship to history: Were there any characters based on real people? Who were they and were they treated with historical accuracy? Were there any real events (battles, migrations, laws, etc.)? How does this movie tie in with our history course?

Evaluation: Give an evaluation of the film. Don't just say, "I liked it because it was a good movie," or "I hated it because it was so boring." Like a real film critic, point out the strengths and weaknesses of the movie. Which actors did a good job and which were inadequate? Were there places where the plot was vague, too slow, or too fast? What would have made the film better? Would you recommend it to another student?

28 Extra Credit Assignment News Broadcast

The purpose of this assignment is to create a 4-5 minute news broadcast story about the long and short term causes for a major event. Your story should be centered on what the event was, and it should include “interviews” that provide a variety of perspectives—political, religious, economic, etc.—that capture the many ways different groups of people defined what these long-term conflicts, in their views, were really about. In addition for each event, you will create a commercial for a product or service that would be

For APEH students, this assignment is DIFFERENT than the You Are There assignment for the spring semester, so do not use these guidelines for that.

For all News Broadcasts, you should start with the same introduction- “Welcome to You Are There, “Specific Date”. . . here are tonight’s headlines. . . . .

To earn points for the news story it will be scored on the following elements Part One- Details  What was the event  When did the event happen  Who was involved  Where did the event take place  How did the event occur  Why was the event significant

Part Two- Creativity  Was time and effort evident in the video?  Did you present the event in a factual and yet entertaining way?  Did you create or use props/back drops to enhance news story?

To earn points for the commercial Was the product or service accurate for the time period? Was the commercial connected in some way to the event? Did you create or use props/back drops to enhance your commercial?

You may create two event news broadcasts with commercials for 25 points per broadcast each semester You can either create a video or an audio news broadcast. You can participate in as many news broadcasts and commercials as you wish.

1st Semester Sample Commercial Ideas 2nd Semester Commercial Ideas Tetzel’s Indulgences New book by Charles Darwin Gutenberg’s Printing Press Visit the new Suez Canal A call for Spaniards to join the Armada Anti-Czar ad about freeing the serfs A New Play by Shakespeare Settler’s wanted in the New South African colony A Propaganda Ad from the Puritans Marconi’s new radio system Jethro Tull’s new Seed drill WWI propaganda ad Mozart Live in Concert Lindbergh’s flight across the Atlantic Free Land in the New World Colonies Propaganda Ad about the 7 years War Smallpox Vaccine from Jenner The Guillotine Suffragette Movement Chartist Movement Ride the New Locomotive The 1889 World’s Fair in Paris 29 First Semester 1414-1418 Council of Constance 1685 Revocation of the Edict of 1818: Prussian Zollverein created 1415 Portuguese took Ceuta, Morocco - Nantes 1818: International Congress held at Aix- started Age of Exploration 1686 Fontenelle, Conversations on la-Chapelle 1438 Pragmatic Sanction the Plurality of Worlds 1818: Mary Shelley publishes 1450 Movable printing press 1687 Newton, Principia Frankenstein 1452-1519 Da Vinci 1688-1689 Glorious Revolution 1819: Metternich initiates Carlsbad 1453 Ottomans capture Constantinople 1690 Locke, Second Treaties on Civil Decrees 1469-1527 Machiavelli Government 1819: Peterloo Massacre 1485 Henry VII (Tudors) becomes first 1694-1778 Voltaire 1820: Several members of Cato Street English Tudor king 1697 Bayle, Historical and Critical Conspiracy executed 1492 Expulsion of Jews from Spain Dictionary 1820: Louis XVIII's nephew (the Duke de 1509 Erasmus, Praise of Folly 1701 Foundation of St. Petersburg Berry) assassinated 1512 Lateran Council; start of 1701 Tull invents the seed drill - start 1824: Louis XVIII dies Reformation of Agricultural Revolution 1825: Decembrist Revolt 1513 Machiavelli, The Prince 1701-1713 War of Spanish 1829: First truly successful locomotive 1516 Concordat of Bologna; start of Succession tested Religious wars 1707 Act of Union with Scotland July 1830: Charles X passes "Four 1516 More, Utopia 1711-1776 David Hume Ordinances" in France 1517 Luther’s Ninety-Five theses 1712 Savery and Newcomen steam July 1830: July Revolution in France 1519-1522 Magellan circumnavigates pump 1831: Mazzini founds Young Italy the globe 1713 Peace of Utrecht 1832: Goethe completes Faust 1519-1556 Charles V Holy Roman 1715-1774 Reign of Louis XV of 1832: Parliament passes Reform Bill Emperor France 1833: Factory Act restricts child labor 1524-1525 Peasant’s Revolt in Germany 1720 Last appearance of the bubonic 1834: Poor Laws passed (Great Britain) plague 1838: Anti-Corn Laws League 1527 Imperial sack of Rome 1733 Kay's flying shuttle 1838: Chartist movement begins 1528 Castiglione, Book of the Courtier 1740-1786 Reign of Maria Theresa 1840: Frederick William IV comes to 1532-1534 Henry VIII breaks with of Austria power Rome 1740-48 War of Austrian Succession 1840s: Corn Laws repealed 1534 Act of Supremacy 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends 1842: Chartist movement 1541 Calvin establishes a theocracy in war of Austrian Succession 1847: Ten Hour Act Geneva 1751-1765 Publication of the January 1848: Marx and Engels publish 1550-1725 Baroque movement Encyclopedia by Diderot and Communist Manifesto 1555 Peace of Augsburg d’alembert February 1848: February Revolution in 1556-1598 Philip II of Spain 1756-1791 Mozart Paris, barricades in the streets 1561-1626 Francis Bacon 1756-63 Seven Years War (French 1848: Louis Napoleon Bonaparte 1563 End of Council of Trent; end of and Indian War) becomes President of France Reformation 1762-96 Reign of Catherine the Great March 15, 1848: Hungary granted 1564-1642 Galileo of Russia independence 1566-1609 Revolt in the Netherlands 1765 Hargreaves invents the spinning June 1848: Pan-Slavic Congress 1572 St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre jenny May 1848: Frankfurt Assembly 1584-1613 Time of Troubles in Russia 1765 Richard Arkwright invents the December 1848: Ferdinand of Austria 1588 Defeat of Spanish armada water frame abdicates 1588-1679 Thomas Hobbes 1770-1827 Beethoven 1848 Karl Marx publishes the Communist 1598 Edict of Nantes 1774-1792 Reign of Louis XVI of Manifesto. 1603 Death of Elizabeth I France February 24, 1848 Revolution in France 1605- The Gunpowder Plot 1776 Smith, Wealth of Nations March 1848 Uprisings in some German 1618-1648 Thirty Years’ war 1789 Start of the French Revolution states 1625-1649 Reign of Charles I of 1790-1850 Romantic movement March 1848-June 1849 Revolutions in England 1796 Jenner creates smallpox vaccine Italy. 1630 Puritans settle Boston April 1848 Revolutions in Vienna, 1642-1649 English Civil war 1798 Malthus, Essay on the Principle Budapest, and Prague. 1643-1715 Louis XIV of Population May 1848 Frankfurt Assembly meets 1648-1660 The Fronde in France 1799-1814 Napoleonic era December 1848 Louis Napoleon wins 1651 Navigation Acts 1814-15 Congress of Vienna presidential election 1658 Cromwell died 1815: Corn Law in Great Britain 1660 Restoration of English monarchy December 1816: Corn Law riots 1665 Plague hits London 1817: Buschenschaft holds congress 1666 Great Fire of London at Wurtburg 30 1673 Test Act in England

Second Semester

1853-1856 Crimean War. 1911 ·National Insurance Act passed 1947-Marshall Plan 1856-1939 Freud 1913 ·Third Balkan Crisis: Serbia and 1948-Berlin Blockade 1859 Charles Darwin publishes On the Bulgaria go to war. 1949- Federal Republic of Germany Origin of Species 1914 World War I established 1860 Sardinia annexes provinces in June 28, 1919: The treaty of Versailles 1949- NATO established central Italy after plebiscites; 1916 Easter Rising, Dublin 1952 Elizabeth II becomes queen March 3, 1861 Emancipation of November 1920: The First Meeting of 1953- Stalin dies Russian serfs. the League of Nations 1953- DNA discovered March 14, 1861 Kingdom of Italy November 1921: The Washington 1953- Josef Tito becomes president of proclaimed Conference is Held Yugoslavia 1862-1890 Bismarck in power October 30, 1922: Benito Mussolini is 1954- Algerian War of Independence 1863 Maximilian crowned emperor of Made Italian Premier begins Mexico November 9, 1923: The Beer Hall 1955-Warsaw Pact Signed 1864 Pope Pius IX, Syllabus of Errors Putsch 1955- Western European Union created 1864-1871 Unification of Germany January 21, 1924: Vladimir Lenin Dies 1956- Hungarian Revolution 1866 Seven Weeks' War May 11, 1924: The Cartel des Gauches 1956- Khrushchev denounces Stalin 1867 Karl Marx publishes Das Kapital. wins the French Election 1956 Suez Crisis 1867 Second Reform Bill August 27, 1924: Dawes Plan 1957- Sputnik is launched 1869 Suez canal opens December 1, 1925: The Locarno Pacts 1958- Common Market created 1869 Tolstoy, War and Peace 1926: Joseph Pilsudski Becomes 1958- De Gaulle becomes French 1870-1940 Third Republic in France Virtual Dictator in Poland President July-September 1870 Franco-Prussian April 14, 1931: The Spanish Monarchy 1961- Berlin Wall Built War ends is Overthrown 1962- Second Vatican Council September 20, 1870 Italy annexes 1932: General Gyula Gombos Comes 1964- Beatles appear on Ed Sullivan Rome. to Power in Hungary show January 18, 1871 German Empire February - July 1932: The final League 1968- Prague Spring proclaimed. of Nations Disarmament Conference 1972 "Bloody Sunday" in Northern 1878 Congress of Berlin 1933 - 1934: 1,140,000 Communist Ireland 1878 ·End of Kulturkampf campaign Party Members are Expelled by Stalin 1973- Military Junta in Greece 1879 ·Dual Alliance January 30, 1933: Hitler is Appointed 1978- Pope John Paul II elected 1882 ·Triple Alliance Chancellor of Germany 1979- Margaret Thatcher becomes British 1884 ·Berlin Conference March 23, 1933: The German PM 1885 ·Second Balkan Reichstag Passes the Enabling Act 1982 Falkland War 1889 ·Boulanger Affair in France. June 3, 1936: Leon Blum's Popular 1982- Brezhnev dies 1890 ·Kasier Wilhelm II dismisses Front Government 1984- Soviet Union boycotts Olympics Otto von Bismarck. July 17, 1936: Spanish Civil War 1985- Gorbachev and Reagan summit 1894 ·"Dreyfus Affair" in France Begins meeting 1896 ·Battle of Adowa in Ethiopia, April 25, 1937: Spanish Nationalists 1986- Chernobyl power plant explodes 1896 Kruger Telegram Bomb Guernica 1989- Berlin Wall Falls 1898 Fashoda crisis September 18, 1938: The Munich Pact 1989- Romanian President Ceauşescu 1899-1902 ·Boer War in South Africa. September 3, 1939: Britain and France executed 1899 Kipling, "The White Man’s Declare War on Germany 1990- Lech Walesa elected Polish Burden June 6 1944- D-Day president 1900 ·Boxer Rebellion in China. 1945- Yalta Conference 1991- Soviet Union collapses 1904 Entente Cordiale April 30 1945- Hitler dies 1991- Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia win 1907 ·Triple Entente May 8 1945- VE Day independence 1945- United Nations established 1993- Czechoslovakia split in two 1946- Churchill’s Iron Curtain Speech 1993- Havel elected Czech President 1993 Maastricht Treaty takes effect- EU is created 2002 – Euro is introduced 31 32

Unit Assignments and Readings

33 Take it APPARTS Assignment

For each unit you will have a specific homework assignment based on the textbook and primary documents. The assignment will fall into three categories  APPARTS Essays Each APPARTS paper is worth 35 points, 5 points for every letter of the acronym. Points will be subtracted from your overall grade for failure to format your paper according to the above requirements. To get an “A,” your paper must meet the following requirements:

o Communicate that you understand the meaning of the document o Describe the speaker & audience rather than simply stating them o Relate the document to what is going on in history at the time of its creation include your analysis of the document’s purpose - this means that it simply does not summarize or restate the main points of the document, but includes your insight o Meet all formatting requirements listed above

 Unit Worksheets o For each chapter you will have one or more worksheets to complete. You are required to complete the Textbook DQ’s, for each worksheet, the other two parts are bonus points o Each worksheet will have three basic parts: Terms = 5 points A list of individuals, groups, terms or events you are to identify. Identify- indicate the significance or meaning of each term. Chapter Questions = 5 points A series of questions based on the chapter reading. Responses must be in complete sentences. Spell out words such as: and, with, because. Capitalize proper nouns. Watch your spelling. I may not take off points for misspellings, however, if a proper name is misspelled and it is included in the document, I will consider that a sign of laziness. Remember this is an Advanced Placement course.

Textbook DQ’s = 5 points a A series of questions based on the primary and secondary documents in the document chapter. For questions that “seem” to just be a yes/no answer, you need to answer Why or Why not for each question While every document may not be discussed in class, every document assigned is required homework. If there are no questions for the document, you still should read it.

 Art Analysis Assignment o Throughout the course, you will have several units that place all an emphasis on specific artistic styles. For units that require an Art Analysis, you will turn them in with your TIAA assignment.

All Take it APPARTS assignments are due the day of the Unit Exam (Within reason, I will take late work with points reduced. However, I will not take any late work that is over one week late or that laps over into the next grading period)

“ Since you have to read the textbook to write notes anyway, it’s easiest to do the chapter readings as you get to them. Don’t wait until the weekends to catch up ! Plan your homework time and watch out for procrastination!”

”These assignment are worth a lot of points, and can really damage your grade if you don’t get them in on time!” 34 The APPARTS Method of Document Analysis Historians work with primary documents in trying to understand the past. However, the documents are hard to decipher unless one knows about the creator of the document, the background of the document, and why it was created. In an APPARTS analysis, historians look at a document this way:

Author—Who created the document? This is more than simply providing a name. Sometimes the author is someone everyone knows. Other times, it is someone no one knows. In any case, WHO is the person? What does this document say about the author? Describe the author as completely as possible. Base your description on the contents of the document. Do NOT view this part of the analysis as a biography of the author.

Place and time—Where and when was the source produced? This is more than simply a date. What event(s) and/or era(s) provide the backdrop and context for the document? What was going on in history that might help explain why this document was created when it was? What was the specific event/issue of the time that prompted the document’s creation?

Prior knowledge—What do you already know that would further your understand of the source?

Audience—For whom was the source created? Does this affect the reliability of the source? Who does the author plan on delivering this message to? What does the author think about his/her audience? Why is the audience paying attention to this document? Describe the audience as completely as possible. What do you think the audience’s reaction(s) was/were?

Reason—Why was the source produced at the time it was produced? What does the speaker hope to accomplish? This paragraph is a perfect place for a quote from the document to illustrate meaning (with an explanation of its relevance).

The main idea—What is the source trying to convey?

Significance—Why is this source important? What does it say about the era in which it was created? What, if anything, did it lead to? What was the response to the document? Did the speaker accomplish his/her purpose? Explain. Is there a connection to later historical events or the modern world? If so, explain.

Writing & Formatting your APPARTS Papers

When writing a APPARTS paper, use the questions on the reverse as a guide, not a checklist. Do not attempt to answer every question. Some questions apply to some documents but not others. Use your best judgment.

All APPARTS papers must be typed in an easily-readable font sized 12, be double-spaced, and have margins of 1 inch on all sides. Papers (unless otherwise noted) are limited to two pages.

Each paper should include a heading with your name & date, and include the title & author of the document as the paper’s title. Words in the heading and title do not count towards your 350-word limit.

Each APPARTS paper should be made up of 7 short paragraphs, one for each letter of the APPARTS acronym.

While substance is the most important part of your grade for these assignments, pay attention to rules of grammar and style. Most importantly, make sure to

 use only 3rd person (no I, me, we, you, your, us, our)  avoid use of contractions  use quotation marks when quoting the document (no more than 2 quotes)  use active voice whenever possible  write in the past tense (present tense acceptable in the final paragraph)  write only in complete sentences with correct capitalization & end punctuation  use the spell check feature of your word processor 35

Introduction- Summer Assignment (100 points with Unit I- the Late Middle Ages Geography portion of assignment) Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapter 9 Textbook: The Western Heritage Introduction APPARTS Essay: 1415-The Battle of Agincourt Textbook DQ’s Textbook DQ’s  The second Isaiah Defines Hebrew Monotheism  Boccaccio describes the Ravages of the Black Death  Husband and Wife in Homer’s Troy in Florence  Plato on the Role of Women in His Utopian Republic  Joan of Arc Refuses to Recant Her Beliefs  Juvenal On Life in Rome  Marsilius of Padua Denies Coercive Power to the  Mark Describes the Resurrection of Jesus Clergy  The Carolingian Manor  The Chronicler Calls the Roll at the Council of  The English Nobility Imposes Restraints on King John Constance  Student Life at the University of Paris Secondary – Textbook DQ’s  Dealing with Death Unit II The Renaissance and the Age of Reformation Unit III Age of Religious Wars and European State Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 10-11 Consolidation Art Analysis- Renaissance and Northern Renaissance Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 12-13 Art APPARTS Essay: APPARTS Essay 1513-The Prince 1598-The Edict of Nantes 1517- Luther's 95 Theses 1698-Bishop Burnet describes Peter the Great Textbook DQ’s Textbook DQ’s  Christine De Pisan Instructs Women on How to Handle  Theodore Beza Defends the Right to Resist Tyranny their Husbands  Henry IV Recognizes Huguenot Religious Freedom  Pico Della Mirandola States the Renaissance Image of  An Unknown Contemporary Describes Queen Man Elizabeth  Michaelangelo and Pope Julius II  King James I Defends Popular Reaction Against the  A Defense of American Natives Puritans Montaigne on “Cannibals” in Foreign Lands  John Milton Defends Freedom to Print Books  German Peasants Protest Rising Feudal Exactions  Louis XIV Revokes the Edict of Nantes  Zwingli Lists the Errors of the Roman Church  Louis XIV’s Sister-in-law Grieves for her Homeland  Ignatius of Loyola’s “Rules” For Thinking With the  The Great Elector Welcomes Protestant Refugees from Church France.  Peter the Great Tells His Son to Acquire Military Skills Secondary – Textbook DQ’s Secondary Textbook DQ’s  The Renaissance Garden  Going to the Theater  A Child is Born: Welcoming the Newborn in Late  Early Controversy Over Tobacco and Smoking Medieval Europe Unit IV - New Directions in Thought and Culture. Unit V - The Transatlantic Economy and the Age Society and Economy under the Old Regime, of Enlightenment Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 14and 15 Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 16 and Art Analysis- Baroque Art 17 Art Analysis- Rococo Art APPARTS Essay: APPARTS Essay: 1486-Excerpts from the Malleus Maleficarum 1780's- King George III letter- Loss of America 1763-Rousseau- The Social Contract Textbook DQ’s Textbook DQ’s  Copernicus Ascribes Movement to the Earth  Visitors describe the Portobello Fair 36  Descartes Explores the Promise of Science  Buccaneers Prowl the High Seas  Margaret Cavendish Questions the Fascination with  A Slave Trader Describes the Atlantic Passage Scientific Instruments  Major Cartwright Calls for Reform of Parliament  Galileo Discusses the Relationship of Science to the  Immanuel Kant Defines Enlightenment Bible  Denis Diderot Condemns European Empires  Why More Women than Men are Witches  Rousseau Argues for Separate Spheres for Men and  Rules for the Berlin Poor House Women (from Emile)  Turgot describes French Landholding  Mary Wollstonecraft Criticizes Rousseau’s View of  Priscilla Wakefield Demands More Occupations for Women Women  Maria Theresa and Joseph II of Austria Debate  Byelorussian Jews Petition Catherine the Great Toleration Secondary DQ’s Secondary DQ’s  Midwives  Sugar enters the Western Diet  Water, Washing and Bathing  The Colombian Exchange  Coffeehouses and Enlightenment Unit VI Unit VII -The Conservative Order The French Revolution/ Age of Napoleon Economic Advance and Social Unrest Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 18 and 19 Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 20 and 21 Art Analysis- Romantic Art APPARTS Essay: APPARTS Essay 1789-Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen 1819- The Peterloo Massacre Robespierre’s Justification of the Use of Terror 1842-Women Miners in the English Coal Pits Textbook DQ’s Textbook DQ’s  The Third Estate of a French City Petitions the King  Mazzini Defines Nationality  The National Assembly Decrees Civic Equality in  Benjamin Constant Discusses Modern Liberty France  Metternich discusses Sources of Political Unrest  The Revolutionary Government Forbids Workers’  Thomas Babington Macaulay Defends the Great Organizations Reform Bill  French Women Petition to Bear Arms  Women Industrial Workers Explain their Economic  Burke Denounces the Extreme Measures of the French Situation Revolution  A Young Middle-class Frenchwoman Writes to Her  The Paris Jacobin Club Alerts the Nations to Internal Father about Marriage Enemies of the Revolution  Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels Describe the Class  The Convention Establishes the Worship of the Struggle Supreme Being  The Pan-Slavic Congress Calls for the Liberation of  Napoleon Makes Peace with the Papacy Slavic Nationalities  Napoleon Advises His Brother to Rule Constitutionally  A German Writer Describes the War of Liberation  Madame de Stael Describes the New Romantic Literature of Germany  Hegel Explains the Role of Great Men in History Secondary DQ’s Secondary DQ’s The Metric System Gymnastics and German Nationalism Sailors and Canned Food The Potato and the Great Hunger in Ireland The Abolition of Slavery in the Transatlantic Economy 37

Unit IX- The Age of Nation States Unit X Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 22 European Society to WWI The Birth of Modern Thought Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 23 and 24 Art Analysis- Realism and Impressionism Art APPARTS Essay APPARTS Essay 1844-Joseph Mazzini - An Essay On the Duties of Man 1861-Alexander II The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia 1848- Documents on German Unification John Stuart Mill: from The Subjection of Women Textbook DQ’s Textbook DQ’s  Paris Department Stores Expand their Business  Heinrich von Treitschke Demands the  A French Physician Describes a Working-class Slum Annexation of Alsace and Lorraine in Lille before the Public  Lord Acton Condemns Nationalism  An English Feminist Defends the Cause of the Female  The People’s Will Issues a Revolutionary Franchise Manifesto  Eduard Bernstein Criticizes Orthodox Marxism  Parnell calls for Home Rule for Ireland  Lenin Argues for the Necessity of a Secret and Elite Party of Professional Revolutionaries  T.H. Huxley Criticizes Evolutionary Ethics  Leo XIII Considers the Social Question in European Politics  Alexis de Tocqueville Forecasts the Danger of Gobineau’s Racial Thought  H.S. Chamberlain Exalts the Role of Race  Herzel calls for a Jewish State  Virginia Woolf Urges Women to Write Secondary DQ’s Secondary DQ’s The Arrival of the Penny Postage The Birth of Science Fiction Unit XI Unit XII- Political Experiments of the 1920s and the Imperialism, WWI, Russian Revolution Great Depression of the 1930s Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 25 Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 26 and 27 Art Analysis- Propaganda Art APPARTS Essay APPARTS Essay 1900-Karl Pearson- On Social Darwinism 1923-Beer Hall Putsch 1918- Wilson's 14 points 1925- NAZI program Textbook DQ’s Textbook DQ’s  Social Darwinism and Imperialism  Trotsky Urges the Use of Terror  Bismarck Explains His Foreign Policy  Alexandra Kollontai Demands a New Family Life in  The Kaiser Comments on the Outbreak of the World the Soviet Union War  Mussolini Heaps Contempt on Political Liberalism  The Outbreak of the Russian Revolution  Hitler Denounces the Versailles Treaty  An Eyewitness Account of the Bolsheviks Seizure of  John Maynard Keynes Calls for Government Power Investment to Create Employment  An American Diplomat Witnesses Kristallnacht in Leipzig  Hitler Rejects the Emancipation of Women  Stalin Calls for the Liquidation of the Kulaks as a Class Secondary DQ’s Secondary DQ’s War Propaganda and the Movies: Charlie Chaplin The Coming of Radio- The BBC Imperialism: Ancient and Modern Cinema of the Political Left and Right 38

Unit XIII- WWII Unit XIV: The Cold War Era and the Emergence of Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 28 the New Europe Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapter 29 and 30 APPARTS Essay APPARTS Essay 1939-Molotov-Ribentropp Pact 1932-Letter from Feigin 1941-The Atlantic Charter 1962-Letter From Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy Textbook DQ’s: Textbook DQ’s:  Hitler Describes his Goals in Foreign Policy  The Truman Doctrine Declared  Churchill’s Responses to Munich (1938)  The Church and the Communist Party Clash over  Mass Murder at Belsen Education in Hungary  Khruschev Denounces the Crimes of Stalin  Gandhi Explains his Doctrine of Nonviolence  Gorbachev Proposes that the Soviet Communist Party Abandon its Monopoly of Power  Margaret Thatcher Asserts the Need for Individual Responsibility  Simon De Beauvoir Urges Economic Freedom for Women  Sartre Discusses His Existentialism  Pope John Paul II Discusses International Social Justice Secondary DQ’s Secondary DQ’s  Rosie the Riveter and American Women in the War  Rock Music and Political Protes Effort  Toys from Europe Conquer the United States  Energy and the Modern World 39

Art Analysis and Interpretation Assignment

Choose three of the artistic pieces from the period that we are studying, from the text, the supplemental images in the Art Index and from suggested sources answer the following questions.

 Formal analysis

1. Who were the artists, when and where did they create their pieces 2. Summarize their overall appearance, then describe the details of the object 3. describe the composition and then move on to a description of the materials used (acrylic, watercolor, plaster)

 Stylistic analysis

4. What artistic style(s) do the pieces represent? (Refer to the basic style definitions in the reader) 5. How do the works fit the stylistic category? 6. How do the works fail to fit the category? 7. If the two works have similar content, how do the two works with the same type of content look totally different from each other, because of the style (for example, both paintings are still life’s, but they show different approaches to three-dimensionality, etc.)

 Iconography/iconology

8. Have the images in the pieces occurred in other objects through history and how are these objects representation of it is unique? 9. What association would an art historian might make between that depiction and some other thing?. 10. Have these pieces inspired future and current imagery?

 Provenance/Patronage

11. How, when, where, and why the patron (the person who orders or buys the object, or generally supports the artist) asked for or acquired the object from the artist. 12. Do the pieces reflect the personality of the patron or of the artist?

 Compare and Contrast

13. How are the styles of the two pieces different? 14. How are the subjects shown differently in each? 15. Is there a sense of form and depth in them? 16. Are they decorative (nice to look at) or expressive (deep and meaningful)? 17. Are they abstract (distorting reality) or representational (life-like)? 18. Are there any similarities between them?

 Your Reaction

19. Which of the two artworks appealed to you the most and which ones didn't move you at all. 20. Which works did you react to, either in a negative or positive way. 40 Summer Assignment

Due the first day of class! 41 Summer Assignment

Part I • You MUST bring the following with you on the first day of class:

Three-Ring Binder: with a plastic slip for a cover page.

 An appropriate cover page on the first page, titled “AP European History," that identifies the notebook as yours.  A clear, readable map of all of Europe!  Completed, labeled grids for a fifteen-unit “Table of Contents."  The Unit I schedule placed opposite where the Unit I title page will go.

Part II Before the beginning of the semester you will need to purchase the following book: Best Test Prep AP European History Exam (REA) 9th Edition

Part III Europe Map Poster Assignment

Part IV Kagan xxxii-Lxxvii - The West Before 1300 Worksheet

Part V We need to have a running start to the semester, so. . . copy down the following notes into your Binder Roots of the West Notes : http://apeh-guemmer.wikispaces.com/file/view/Roots%20of%20the%20West.ppt

These notes need to be put into Cornell PERSIA style. I will be collecting these notes on the first day of class.

Part VI. To get your brain up and running for the first day, you are going to create a study guide for the quiz you are going to take the FIRST DAY OF CLASS!

The study guide should have the following: 1. All Terms that are highlighted in the text with their definitions. Highlighted in this case means BOLD BLACK INK or Italics 2. All Individuals that the book spends a significant amount of time discussing with a short identification of that person- what made that person significant. (Significant amount of time = About a paragraph) (Short Identification= A sentence at the most) 42

Summer Assignment Part III

• Please acquire the following as soon as possible: - One full sheet of white poster board - One set of colored pencils - One ultra-fine point felt-tip black pen - One fine-point felt-tip black pen - One fine-point felt-tip blue pen

Map Poster Assignment (I will not lie, or deny, this assignment I found online, but it is very good)

The Perfect Europe Map Poster - Follow these 9 steps to complete your map poster: 1. Use a pencil to lightly draw a latitude and longitude grid on your poster.* - Your grid should includes the following latitude and longitude ranges: latitude: 25W - 65E longitude: 75N - 30N *An alternative to the step 1 grid is to come in during the summer to trace, in pencil, an outline of the map using an overhead projector. The specific date will be determined as needed.

2. Use your fine-point felt-tip black pen to draw an outline of the entire continent and all islands - from the Ural Mountains in the east to Iceland in the west. Be sure to include outlines of those portions of Africa and Asia that should appear on your map. 3. Use the ultra fine-point felt-tip black pen to draw in the borders of all of Europe's nation-states and territories (see the attached list). - Be sure to label the four "countries" which make up the United Kingdom, but color the UK as one. 4. Use the fine-point felt-tip blue pen to NEATLY write the names of every European nation-state and territory. 5. Use the ultra fine-point felt-tip black pen to NEATLY write the names of all the European cities from the attached list. Use a * to identify the location of each city - be careful where you place them! 6. Use the colored-pencils (no markers or crayons!) to NEATLY color each European nation-state and territory. Use only green, orange, purple, red, or yellow (no blue). Be sure not to have two countries of the same color next to one another. - Be sure to color the United Kingdom as a single nation-state. - Be sure to color all islands the same color as their "mother country." 7. Use the ultra fine-point felt-tip black pen to NEATLY write the names of all bodies of water from the attached list. 8. Use the blue colored-pencil to NEATLY color in all bodies of water. 9. Use the brown colored-pencil to NEATLY color in the lands of Africa and Asia which appear on your map. - Sloppy, incomplete, or late map posters will earn a grade of zero! Partial credit will not be given, and no credit will be given when directions are not followed. - Acceptable maps posters must be NEAT, ACCURATE, and COMPLETE. 43 EUROPEAN NATION-STATES, TERRITORIES, and BODIES of WATER Nation-States Turkey Albania Ukraine Andorra United Kingdom Austria - England, Scotland, Belarus Wales, Northern Ireland Belgium Vatican City Bosnia-Herzegovina Bulgaria Territories Croatia Balearic Islands (Spain) Cyprus Bornholm (Denmark) Czech Republic Channel Islands (UK) Denmark Corsica (France) Estonia Crete (Greece) Finland Elba (Italy) France Faroe Islands (Denmark) Germany Gibraltar (UK) Greece Gotland (Sweden) Hungary Isle of Man (UK) Iceland Kaliningrad (Russia) Ireland Sardinia (Italy) Italy Shetland Islands (UK) Latvia Sicily (Italy) Liechtenstein Lithuania Bodies of Water Luxembourg Adriatic Sea Macedonia Aegean Sea Malta Atlantic Ocean Moldova Baltic Sea Monaco Bay of Biscay Montenegro Black Sea Netherlands Bosporus Norway Caspian Sea Poland Dardanelles Portugal English Channel Romania Ionian Sea Russia Irish Sea San Marino Mediterranean Sea Slovakia North Sea Slovenia Norwegian Sea Serbia Strait of Gibraltar Spain Tyrrhenian Sea Sweden Switzerland 44

EUROPEAN CITIES Amsterdam, Madrid, Athens, Maastricht, Antwerp, Manchester, Barcelona, Milan, Belfast, Minsk, Belgrade, Moscow, Berlin, Munich, Bratislava, Naples, Bremen, Nürnberg, Brussels, Odessa, Bucharest, Oslo, Budapest, Paris, Copenhagen, Prague, Dresden, Reykjavik, Dublin, Riga, Edinburgh, Rome, Florence, Saint Petersburg, Frankfurt, Salzburg, Gdansk, Sarajevo, Geneva, Sevilla, Glasgow, Skopje, The Hague, Sofia, Hamburg, Stockholm, Helsinki, Strasbourg, Istanbul, Tallinn, Kaliningrad, Tirana, Kiev, Venice, Koeln, Vilnius, Krakow, Volgograd Lisbon, Warsaw Liverpool, Vienna, Ljubljana, Zagreb, London, Zürich, 45 Summer Assignment Part IV- The West Before 1300 Worksheet

You need to read the Introduction to the Textbook. You are to answer the following questions using the introduction. Additionally, within the Introduction, there are several "Primary Source" documents with questions. You are to read all the documents and answer all the questions in complete sentences.

If you are confused about HOW to read these documents, I refer you to one of the overall assignments you will have to complete this year, Take it APPARTS Assignment.

Chapter Questions What was the significance of Hebrew monotheism for the future of Western civilization?

Define the concept of polis

Why did Sparta develop its unique for of government?

What solutions did Emperor Augustus provide for the problems that had plagued the Roman republic?

What role did the Church play in the world after the fall of the western Roman Empire?

Textbook DQ’s The second Isaiah Defines Hebrew Monotheism

How is the deity in this passage different from the deities of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian societies?

Are there any similarities?

Many peoples have claimed that a single god was the greatest and the ruler over all others. What is there in this selection that claims a different status for the Hebrew deity?

Husband and Wife in Homer’s Troy How does Homer depict the feelings of husband and wife toward one another?

What are the tasks of the aristocratic woman revealed in this passage?

What can be learned about the attitude toward death and duty?

Plato on the Role of Women in His Utopian Republic What are Plato’s reasons for treating men and women the same?

What objections could be raised to that practice?

Would that policy, even if appropriate in Plato’s utopia, also be suitable to conditions in the real work of classical Athens?

How about in the world of today? 46 Juvenal On Life in Rome According to Juvenal, what dangers awaited pedestrians in the Rome of his day?

Who had the responsibility for the conditions of Rome?

If the situation was as bad as he says, why was nothing done about it?

Why did people choose to live in Rome at all and especially in the conditions he describes?

Mark Describes the Resurrection of Jesus Why are the stories of miracles such as the one described here important for the growth of Christianity ?

What is special and important about this miracle?

Why is it important in the story that days passed between the death of Jesus and the opening of the tomb?

Why might early Christians believe this story?

Why was belief in the resurrection important for Christianity in the centuries immediately after the life of Jesus?

Is it still important today?

The Carolingian Manor What gave the lord the right to absolutely everything?

Was there anything overlooked?

How did the stewards and workers share in the manorial life?

Was the arrangement a good deal for them as well as for the lord?

The English Nobility Imposes Restraints on King John Does the Magna Carta protect basic rights or privileges?

Does this protection suggest that there was a sense of fairness in the past?

Does the granting of such protection in any way weaken the king?

Student Life at the University of Paris Why were the students from different lands so prejudiced against one another?

Does the rivalry of faculty members appear to be as intense as that among students?

What are the student criticisms of the faculty?

Do they sound credible? 47

Unit I- Introduction: Late Middle Ages: Social and Political Breakdown Chapter 9

After reading this chapter you should understand: o The Hundred Years’ War between England and France. o The effects of the bubonic plague on society. o The growing power of secular rulers over the Church. o Schism, heresy, and conciliar reform in the Church. o The Mongol invasions and the origins of the Russia. 48 Major Unit Assignments

The Plague POV DBQ Black Death Discussion TIAA Assignment – Chapter 9 Worksheet 49 Chapter 9 Worksheet - The Late Middle Ages

Terms to Identify Babylonian Captivity indulgences Black Death Jacquerie Cahiers dolances Lollards Donatism Peasants Revolt of 1381 Estates General pogroms Golden Horde simony Great Schism Tallie Hundred Years War Vladimir of Kiev Hussites Wycliffe, John Huss, John Chapter Questions How did the Black Death effect politically, economically and socially the lives of European peasants?

Who won the Hundred Years War and how?

How did European monarchies use the Great Schism to gain power over the Catholic Church?

Textbook DQ’s Boccaccio describes the Ravages of the Black Death in Florence What did people do to escape the plague?

Was any of it sound medical practice?

What does the study of calamities like the Black Death tell us about the people of the past?

Dealing With Death (Secondary) How does illness and death shape history and culture?

How effective were the physicians and the clergy in the face of everyday afflictions?

Why did people bother with them?

Joan of Arc Refuses to Recant Her Beliefs Do the judges appear to have made up their minds about Joan in advance?

How does this judicial process, which was based on intensive interrogation of the accused differ from a trial today?

Why was Joan deemed heretical and not insane when she acknowledged hearing voices?

Marsilius of Padua Denies Coercive Power to the Clergy Does Marsilius’s argument, if accepted, destroy worldly authority of the church?

Why was his teaching deemed heretical?

The Chronicler Calls the Roll at the Council of Constance How “representative” of the church was this council?

What does the presence of foreign embassies suggest about the power of councils in the late Middle Ages? 50 APPARTS Essay Reading- The Battle of Agincourt, 1415

The English victory at the Battle of Agincourt gave birth to a legend that was immortalized in William Shakespeare's King Henry V. The battle took place in a muddy farmer's field in northern France on October 25, 1415 and was one in a series of encounters between France and England that has become known as the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453).

The story begins two months before the battle. Henry and his army had landed in France on August 14 near the mouth of the Seine River. The objective was to regain English territory lost to France over a period of centuries. The first task was to besiege and conquer a nearby town. Henry was successful, but the time-consuming effort took over a month. It was now early October. Henry realized that his reduced force and the limited time left in the campaigning season, meant that he would not be able to press his attack on the French. Instead, he lead his army north in a "show of force" that would end at the English port of Calais and embarkation back to England.

As the English army marched north, it was dogged by a French force intent on bringing Henry to battle. The French were able to slip ahead of Henry and block his path to the sea at Agincourt. On the morning of October 25, the two armies faced one another on a recently plowed field muddied by an overnight rain and constricted by woodlands on either side. The majority of Henry's army was made up of archers; the remainder consisted of armored knights who fought on foot. His opponent's force consisted primarily of knights who fought on foot and on horseback, supported by archers. Although estimates of the relative strength of the two armies vary, there is no argument that the English were vastly outnumbered.

The two enemies faced one another, exchanging taunts designed to provoke an attack. Henry marched his force close enough to allow his archers to unleash a hail of arrows upon the French. The French knights charged forward only to be caught in a slippery quagmire of mud. To make matters worse, the French attackers were unable to effectively swing their broadswords because of the tight quarters of the battlefield and the continuing forward rush of their comrades behind them. Henry's archers fired lethal storms of arrows into this dense mass of humanity until the French began to retreat. The archers then dropped their bows, picked up what weapons they could find and joined the English knights in slaying their foe. The setting sun left a battlefield heaped with the bodies of thousands of French knights and the cream of France's ruling class. The English had dealt their enemy a disastrous blow.

"...their horses stumbled among the stakes, and they were speedily slain by the archers."

Jehan de Wavrin was the son of a Flemish knight. His father and older brother fought with the French at the battle. Both were killed. The young de Wavrin observed the battle from the French lines and we join his account as the two armies prepare for combat:

"When the battalions of the French were thus formed, it was grand to see them; and as far as one could judge by the eye, they were in number fully six times as many as the English. And when this was done the French sat down by companies around their banners, waiting the approach of the English, and making their peace with one another; and then were laid aside many old aversions conceived long ago; some kissed and embraced each other, which it was affecting to witness; so that all quarrels and discords which they had had in time past were changed to great and perfect love. And there were some who breakfasted on what they had. And these Frenchmen remained thus till nine or ten o'clock in the morning, feeling quite assured that, considering their great force, the English could not escape them; however, there were at least some of the wisest who greatly feared a fight with them in open battle.

...The French had arranged their battalions between two small thickets, one lying close to Agincourt, and the other to Tramecourt. The place was narrow, and very advantageous for the English, and, on the contrary, very ruinous for the French, for the said French had been all night on horseback, and it rained, and the pages, grooms, and others, in leading about the horses, had broken up the ground, which was so soft that the horses could with difficulty step out of the soil. And also the said French were so loaded with armour that they could not support themselves or move forward. In the first place they were armed with long coats of steel, reaching to the knees or lower, and very heavy, over the leg harness, and besides plate armour also most of them had hooded helmets; wherefore this weight of armour, with the softness of the wet ground, as has been said, kept them as if immovable, so that they could raise their dubs only with 51 great difficulty, and with all these mischiefs there was this, that most of them were troubled with hunger and want of sleep.

...Now let us return to the English. After the parley between the two armies was finished and the delegates had returned, each to their own people, the King of England, who had appointed a knight called Sir Thomas Erpingham to place his archers in front in two wings, trusted entirely to him, and Sir Thomas, to do his part, exhorted every one to do well in the name of the King, begging them to fight vigorously against the French in order to secure and save their own lives. And thus the knight, who rode with two others only in front of the battalion, seeing that the hour was come, for all things were well arranged, threw up a baton which he held in his hand, saying 'Nestrocq' ['Now strike'] which was the signal for attack; then dismounted and joined the King, who was also on foot in the midst of his men, with his banner before him.

Then the English, seeing this signal, began suddenly to march, uttering a very loud cry, which greatly surprised the French. And when the English saw that the French did not approach them, they marched dashingly towards them in very fine order, and again raised a loud cry as they stopped to take breath.

Then the English archers, who, as I have said, were in the wings, saw that they were near enough, and began to send their arrows on the French with great vigour.

Then the French seeing the English come towards them in this manner, placed themselves together in order, everyone under his banner, their helmets on their heads. The Constable, the Marshal, the admirals, and the other princes earnestly exhorted their men to fight the English well and bravely; and when it came to the approach the trumpets and clarions resounded everywhere; but the French began to hold down their heads, especially those who had no bucklers, for the impetuosity of the English arrows, which fell so heavily that no one durst uncover or look up.

Thus they went forward a little, then made a little retreat, but before they could come to close quarters, many of the French were disabled and wounded by the arrows; and when they came quite up to the English, they were, as has been said, so closely pressed one against another that none of them could lift their arms to strike their enemies, except some that were in front...

[The French knights] struck into these English archers, who had their stakes fixed in front of them... their. horses stumbled among the stakes, and they were speedily slain by the archers, which was a great pity. And most of the rest, through fear, gave way and fell back into their vanguard, to whom they were a great hindrance; and they opened their ranks in several places, and made them fall back and lose their footing in some land newly sown; for their horses had been so wounded by the arrows that the men could no longer manage them.

[The French] men-at-arms without number began to fall; and their horses feeling the arrows coming upon them took to flight before the enemy, and following their example many of the French turned and fled. Soon afterwards the English archers, seeing the vanguard thus shaken, issued from behind their stockade, threw away their bows and quivers, then took their swords, hatchets, mallets, axes, falcon-beaks and other weapons, and, pushing into the places where they saw these breaches, struck down and killed these Frenchmen without mercy, and never ceased to kill till the said vanguard which had fought little or not at all was completely overwhelmed, and these went on striking right and left till they came upon the second battalion, which was behind the advance guard, and there the King personally threw himself into the fight with his men-at-arms.

As the English continued to gain the upper hand, King Henry received news that the French were attacking at the rear of his army and that French reinforcements were approaching. King Henry ordered that all French prisoners be put to the sword - an order his knights were reluctant to follow as, if kept alive, these prisoners could bring a healthy ransom:

"When the King of England perceived them coming thus he caused it to be published that every one that had a prisoner should immediately kill him, which those who had any were unwilling to do, for they expected to get great ransoms for them. But when the King was informed of this he appointed a gentleman with two hundred archers whom he commanded to go through the host and kill all the prisoners, whoever they might be. This esquire, without delay or objection, fulfilled the command of his sovereign lord, which was a most pitiable thing, for in cold blood all the nobility 52 of France was beheaded and inhumanly cut to pieces, and all through this accursed company, a sorry set compared with the noble captive chivalry, who when they saw that the English were ready to receive them, all immediately turned and fled, each to save his own life. Many of the cavalry escaped; but of those on foot there were many among the dead."

References: Wavrin, Jehan de, Chronicles, 1399-1422, trans. Sir W. Hardy and E. Hardy (1887); Keegan, John, The Illustrated Face of Battle: a study of Agincourt, Waterloo and the Somme (1989).

How To Cite This Article: "The Battle of Agincourt, 1415" EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2006). 53 Unit II: The Renaissance and the Age of Reformation Chapters 10-11

"In Italy for thirty years under the Borgias they had warfare, terror, murder and bloodshed but they produced Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and the Renaissance. In Switzerland, they had brotherly love; they had five hundred years of democracy and peace and what did that produce? The cuckoo clock.”- Orson Wells

After reading chapter 10 you should understand: Renaissance politics, culture, and art in Italy. The northern Renaissance that followed that in Italy. Italian politics, wars, and foreign intervention in Italy by France and Spain. Powerful new monarchies of Spain, France, and England. Spanish and Portuguese "discoveries" and conquest.

After reading chapter 11 you should understand: The social and religious origins of the Reformation. Martin Luther’s role in the German Reformation. The course of the Reformation in Switzerland, France, and England. The Catholic Counter-Reformation’s achievements. The social impact of the Reformation in western and central Europe. 54 Potential FRQ Questions Chapter 10 To what extent and in what ways may the Renaissance be regarded as a turning point in the Western intellectual and cultural tradition? Describe and analyze the ways that the development of printing altered both the culture and politics of Europe during the period 1450-1600. Explain the ways that Renaissance humanism transformed ideas about the individual's role in society. To what extent is the term "Renaissance" a valid concept for a distinct period in early modern European History? To what extent and in what ways did women participate in the Renaissance? Describe and analyze the ways that the development of printing both the culture and religion of Europe during the period 1450-1600.

Chapter 11 "Luther was both a revolutionary and a conservative." Evaluate this statement with respect to Luther's responses to the political and social questions of his day. What were the responses of the Catholic authorities of the 16th century to the challenges posed by the Lutheran Reformation? Compare and contrast the attitudes of Martin Luther and John Calvin toward political authority and social order. "The Protestant Reformation was primarily an economic event." By describing and determining the relative importance of the economic, political, and religious causes of the Protestant Reformation, defend or refute this statement. Describe and analyze the ways in which 16th century Roman Catholics defended their faith against the Protestant Reformation. Compare and contrast the Lutheran Reformation and the Catholic Reformation of the 16th century regarding the reform of both religious doctrines and religious practices. "The Reformation was a rejection of the secular spirit of the Italian Renaissance." Defend or refute this statement using specific examples from 16th-century Europe. Discuss the political and social consequences of the Protestant Reformation in the first half of the 16th century. To what extent did political authorities influence the course of the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century? “

Major Unit Assignments Renaissance FRQ Machiavelli’s Italy- Virtual Discussion New_Monarchies chart Reformation Chart Reforming Sermons PERSIA Review Chart Functions of Festivals Discussion TIAA with Art Analysis- Renaissance Art Chapter 10-11 Worksheet 55

Reforming Sermons

30 points for project; 3 points each for evaluations. The podcast rubric will be used for evaluating the “Sermons” I will evaluate your project, but you will also be evaluated by three other students as well.

 In groups of three or four.  Create a script of three pages double-spaced in advance of class. Script will be distributed to class members for evaluation.  Use the Reformation Chart as a reference for specific topic information o Must incorporate specific ideas of the Reformation figure and primary source information. . Ex. Martin Luther on indulgences, the peasants, etc.  Sources should be cited in script. , not merely at the end in closing credits. . You may use the Reader and Textbook as sources . The Primary Source Archive also has material you can use.  Sermon may be performed live or submitted as video (Remember Youtube is blocked at school, so don’t rely on that to turn it in.).  Ideas are to be expressed as a "sermon." Not just a speech and definitely not a newscast.  Should incorporate music of time period if possible, or appropriate music. .  Should imitate style of televangelists. 1. Martin Luther 2. Philip Melanchthon 3. John Calvin 4. Henry VIII 5. Ulrich Zwingli 6. John Knox 7. Ignatius of Loyola

One note: The point of this activity is to learn about the ideas and influence of these individuals. It is not the intent to change your own personal beliefs. 56 Chapter 10 Worksheet- The Renaissance

Terms to Identify Act of Supremacy Gutenberg, Johann Agricola, Rudolf Hermandad Alberti, Leon Battista humanism Aligheiri, Dante League of Venice Bruni, Leonardo Machiavelli, Niccolo Castiglione, Baldassare mannerism Charles VIII Medici, Cosimo de chiaroscuro More, Thomas Chrysoloras, Michael Petrarch, Francesco Ciompi Revolt Platonism Cisneros, Jimenez de pupolo grosso/ minuto condottieri Renaissance Erasmus, Desiderius repartimiento Florentine Academy Savonarola, Girolamo gabelle Spanish Inquisition Ghibelline Torquemada, Tomas de Golden Bull Treaty of Lodi grandi Vespucci, Amerigo Guelf War of the Roses Chapter Questions Why did the Renaissance begin in Italy?

How would you define "Renaissance Humanism"? In what ways was the Renaissance a break with the Middle Ages and in what ways did it owe its existence to medieval civilization?

Discuss the impact of the Renaissance on education and on manners. How was the idea of "courtier" and "gentleman" developed during this age?

In what ways was Renaissance art different from Medieval art? What new techniques and concepts allowed Renaissance artists to make such an impact?

Why did slavery exist during the Renaissance when emphasis was being placed on the worth of humans and their unique qualities? How could Humanism and slavery exist at the same time?

How was the Renaissance different outside of Italy?

Textbook DQ’s

The Renaissance Garden (Secondary) What kinds of gardens existed in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance?

How did religion give meaning to gardens?

Christine de Pisan Instructs Women On How to Handle Their Husbands How does Christine de Pisan’s image of husband and wife compare with other medieval views?

Would the church question her advice? 57 As a noblewoman commenting on the married life of artisans, does her high social standing influence her advice?

Would she give similar advice to women of her own social class?

Pico Della Mirandola States the Renaissance Image of Man How great, really, is the choice outlined here?

Are the basic options limited?

Do they differ from what the church though life’s possibilities were?

Is the concept of freedom in this passage a modern one?

Michelangelo and Pope Julius II Did Michelangelo hold his own with the pope?

What does this interchange suggest about the relationship of patrons and artists in the Renaissance?

Were great artists like Michelangelo so revered that they could do virtually as they pleased?

A Defense of American Natives Is Las Casas romanticizing the American natives?

Does he truly respect their native culture and beliefs?

Montaigne on “Cannibals” in Foreign Lands Is Montaigne romanticizing the New World natives?

Is he being too hard on Europeans?

Had the Aztecs or Incas had the ability to discover and occupy Europe, would they have enslaved and exploited Europeans?

“I was at this restaurant. The sign said "Breakfast Anytime." So I ordered French Toast in the Renaissance.” – Steven Wright 58 Chapter 11 Worksheet- The Reformation

Terms to Identify Anabaptists Habsburg-Valois Wars Augsburg Confession Leo X canton Melanchthon, Philip Capuchins Ninety five Theses Catherine of Aragon Peace of Augsburg Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de Shakespeare, William Council of Trent Simons, Menno Diet of Worms Six Articles of 1539 Eck, John Spiritualists Frederick III the Wise Swiss Civil Wars Fugger Tyndale, William

Chapter Questions What were Luther’s major complaints against the Catholic Church?

What was the fundamental issue faced by Luther in the Peasants Revolt?

Why did the Reformation begin in Germany? What political factors contributed to the success of the Reformation there as opposed to France or Italy?

How was Calvin’s Protestant movement different than Luther’s?

What were the responses of the Catholic authorities of the 16th century to the challenges posed by the Lutheran Reformation?

How was the Act of Supremacy both a political and religious statement against the Catholic church?

How did political authorities influence the course of the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century?

Textbook DQ’s German Peasants Protest Rising Feudal Exactions Are the peasants demands reasonable, given the circumstances of the 16th century?

Are the peasants more interested in material than in spiritual freedom?

Which demands are the most revolutionary?

Zwingli Lists the Errors of the Roman Church How do Zwingli’s basic religious views compare with those of Martin Luther?

Ignatius of Loyola’s “Rules for Thinking with the Church” Would Protestants find any of Ignatius’s “rules” acceptable?

Might any of them be controversial among Catholic laity as well as among Protestant laity?

A Child is Born: Welcoming the Newborn in Late Medieval Europe (Secondary) Why do you think infant mortality was so high in late medieval Europe?

Would doctors today approve of these suggestions for the care of newborns? 59 APPARTS Essay Reading Excerpts from Machiavelli’s The Prince, 1513

Niccolò Machiavelli was born in Florence on May 3, 1469. Machiavelli intended The Prince to serve as a guide to creating and holding on to a principality, in ways that often benefited the people, though perhaps indirectly. Machiavelli remembered how well off the French were because they were one principality united under one ruler, and he wanted the same for Italy for he was patriotic and prized his freedom. Machiavelli also intended the book to bring him back into favor with the Medici family, so he might regain his government posts and begin to enact some of his ideas. The Prince is dedicated to Lorenzo de' Medici, who was called "il Maginifico".

Chapter XV: Concerning Things for which Men, and especially Princes, are Praised or Blamed It remains now to see what ought to be the rules of conduct for a prince towards subject and friends. And as I know that many have written on this point, I expect I shall be considered presumptuous in mentioning it again, especially as in discussing it I shall depart from the methods of other people. But, it being my intention to write a thing which shall be useful to him who apprehends it, it appears to me more appropriate to follow up the real truth of the matter than the imagination of it; for many have pictured republics and principalities which in fact have never been known or seen, because how one lives is so far distant from how one ought to live, that he who neglects what is done for what ought to be done, sooner effects his ruin than his preservation; for a man who wishes to act entirely up to his professions of virtue soon meets with what destroys him among so much that is evil.

Hence it is necessary for a prince wishing to hold his own to know how to do wrong, and to make use of it or not according to necessity. Therefore, putting on one side imaginary things concerning a prince, and discussing those which are real, I say that all men when they are spoken of, and chiefly princes for being more highly placed, are remarkable for some of those qualities which bring them either blame or praise; and thus it is that one is reputed liberal, another miserly … one is reputed generous, one rapacious; one cruel, one compassionate; one faithless, another faithful; one effeminate and cowardly, another bold and brave; one affable, another haughty; one lascivious, another chaste; one sincere, another cunning; one hard, another easy; one grave, another frivolous; one religious, another unbelieving, and the like. And I know that every one will confess that it would be most praiseworthy in a prince to exhibit all the above qualities that are considered good; but because they can neither be entirely possessed nor observed, for human conditions do not permit it, it is necessary for him to be sufficiently prudent that he may know how to avoid the reproach of those vices which would lose him his state; and also to keep himself, if it be possible, from those which would not lose him it; but this not being possible, he may with less hesitation abandon himself to them. And again, he need not make himself uneasy at incurring a reproach for those vices without which the state can only be saved with difficulty, for if everything is considered carefully, it will be found that something which looks like virtue, if followed, would be his ruin; whilst something else, which looks like vice, yet followed brings him security and prosperity.

Chapter XVI: Concerning Liberality and Meanness Commencing then with the first of the above-named characteristics, I say that it would be well to be reputed liberal. Nevertheless, liberality exercised in a way that does not bring you the reputation for it, injures you; for if one exercises it honestly and as it should be exercised, it may not become known, and you will not avoid the reproach of its opposite. Therefore, any one wishing to maintain among men the name of liberal is obliged to avoid no attribute of magnificence; so that a prince thus inclined will consume in such acts all his property, and will be compelled in the end, if he wish to maintain the name of liberal, to unduly weigh down his people, and tax them, and do everything he can to get money. This will soon make him odious to his subjects, and becoming poor he will be little valued by any one; thus, with his liberality, having offended many and rewarded few, he is affected by the very first trouble and imperiled by whatever may be the first danger; recognizing this himself, and wishing to draw back from it, he runs at once into the reproach of being miserly.

Therefore, a prince, not being able to exercise this virtue of liberality in such a way that it is recognized, except to his cost, if he is wise he ought not to fear the reputation of being mean, for in time he will come to be more considered than if liberal, seeing that with his economy his revenues are enough, that he can defend himself against all attacks, and is able to engage in enterprises without burdening his people; thus it comes to pass that he exercises liberality towards all from whom he does not take, who are numberless, and meanness towards those to whom he does not give, who are few. 60 We have not seen great things done in our time except by those who have been considered mean; the rest have failed. … And if any one should reply: Many have been princes, and have done great things with armies, who have been considered very liberal, I reply: Either a prince spends that which is his own or his subjects’ or else that of others. In the first case he ought to be sparing, in the second he ought not to neglect any opportunity for liberality. And to the prince who goes forth with his army, supporting it by pillage, sack, and extortion, handling that which belongs to others, this liberality is necessary, otherwise he would not be followed by soldiers. And of that which is neither yours nor your subjects’ you can be a ready giver, as were Cyrus, Caesar, and Alexander; because it does not take away your reputation if you squander that of others, but adds to it; it is only squandering your own that injures you.

And there is nothing wastes so rapidly as liberality, for even whilst you exercise it you lose the power to do so, and so become either poor or despised, or else, in avoiding poverty, rapacious and hated. And a prince should guard himself, above all things, against being despised and hated; and liberality leads you to both. Therefore it is wiser to have a reputation for meanness which brings reproach without hatred, than to be compelled through seeking a reputation for liberality to incur a name for rapacity which begets reproach with hatred.

Chapter XVII: Concerning Cruelty and Clemency, and whether it is Better to be Loved than Feared Coming now to the other qualities mentioned above, I say that every prince ought to desire to be considered clement and not cruel. Nevertheless he ought to take care not to misuse this clemency. Cesare Borgia was considered cruel; notwithstanding, his cruelty reconciled the Romagna, unified it, and restored it to peace and loyalty. … Therefore a prince, so long as he keeps his subjects united and loyal, ought not to mind the reproach of cruelty; because with a few examples he will be more merciful than those who, through too much mercy, allow disorders to arise, from which follow murders or robberies; for these are wont to injure the whole people, whilst those executions which originate with a prince offend the individual only. …

Nevertheless he ought to be slow to believe and to act, nor should he himself show fear, but proceed in a temperate manner with prudence and humanity, so that too much confidence may not make him incautious and too much distrust render him intolerable. Upon this a question arises: whether it be better to be loved than feared or feared than loved? It may be answered that one should wish to be both, but, because it is difficult to unite them in one person, it is much safer to be feared than loved, when, of the two, either must be dispensed with. Because this is to be asserted in general of men, that they are ungrateful, fickle, false, cowardly, covetous, and as long as you succeed they are yours entirely; they will offer you their blood, property, life, and children, as is said above, when the need is far distant; but when it approaches they turn against you. And that prince who, relying entirely on their promises, has neglected other precautions, is ruined; because friendships that are obtained by payments, and not by greatness or nobility of mind, may indeed be earned, but they are not secured, and in time of need cannot be relied upon; and men have less scruple in offending one who is beloved than one who is feared, for love is preserved by the link of obligation which, owing to the baseness of men, is broken at every opportunity for their advantage; but fear preserves you by a dread of punishment which never fails.

Nevertheless a prince ought to inspire fear in such a way that, if he does not win love, he avoids hatred; because he can endure very well being feared whilst he is not hated, which will always be as long as he abstains from the property of his citizens and subjects and from their women. But when it is necessary for him to proceed against the life of someone, he must do it on proper justification and for manifest cause, but above all things he must keep his hands off the property of others, because men more quickly forget the death of their father than the loss of their patrimony. Besides, pretexts for taking away the property are never wanting; for he who has once begun to live by robbery will always find pretexts for seizing what belongs to others; but reasons for taking life, on the contrary, are more difficult to find and sooner lapse. But when a prince is with his army, and has under control a multitude of soldiers, then it is quite necessary for him to disregard the reputation of cruelty, for without it he would never hold his army united or disposed to its duties.

Among the wonderful deeds of Hannibal this one is enumerated: that having led an enormous army, composed of many various races of men, to fight in foreign lands, no dissensions arose either among them or against the prince, whether in his bad or in his good fortune. This arose from nothing else than his inhuman cruelty, which, with his boundless valour, made him revered and terrible in the sight of his soldiers, but without that cruelty, his other virtues were not sufficient to produce this effect. And short-sighted writers admire his deeds from one point of view and from another condemn the principal cause of them. That it is true his other virtues would not have been sufficient for him may be proved by the case of Scipio, that most excellent man, not only of his own times but within the memory of man, against whom, 61 nevertheless, his army rebelled in Spain; this arose from nothing but his too great forbearance, which gave his soldiers more license than is consistent with military discipline. For this he was upbraided in the Senate by Fabius Maximus, and called the corrupter of the Roman soldiery. The Locrians were laid waste by a legate of Scipio, yet they were not avenged by him, nor was the insolence of the legate punished, owing entirely to his easy nature. Insomuch that someone in the Senate, wishing to excuse him, said there were many men who knew much better how not to err than to correct the errors of others. This disposition, if he had been continued in the command, would have destroyed in time the fame and glory of Scipio; but, he being under the control of the Senate, this injurious characteristic not only concealed itself, but contributed to his glory. Returning to the question of being feared or loved, I come to the conclusion that, men loving according to their own will and fearing according to that of the prince, a wise prince should establish himself on that which is in his own control and not in that of others; he must endeavor only to avoid hatred, as is noted.

Chapter XVIII: Concerning the Way in which Princes should Keep Faith Every one admits how praiseworthy it is in a prince to keep faith, and to live with integrity and not with craft. Nevertheless our experience has been that those princes who have done great things have held good faith of little account, and have known how to circumvent the intellect of men by craft, and in the end have overcome those who have relied on their word. You must know there are two ways of contesting, the one by the law, the other by force; the first method is proper to men, the second to beasts; but because the first is frequently not sufficient, it is necessary to have recourse to the second. Therefore it is necessary for a prince to understand how to avail himself of the beast and the man. This has been figuratively taught to princes by ancient writers, who describe how Achilles and many other princes of old were given to the Centaur Chiron to nurse, who brought them up in his discipline; which means solely that, as they had for a teacher one who was half beast and half man, so it is necessary for a prince to know how to make use of both natures, and that one without the other is not durable. A prince, therefore, being compelled knowingly to adopt the beast, ought to choose the fox and the lion; because the lion cannot defend himself against snares and the fox cannot defend himself against wolves. Therefore, it is necessary to be a fox to discover the snares and a lion to terrify the wolves. Those who rely simply on the lion do not understand what they are about. Therefore a wise lord cannot, nor ought he to, keep faith when such observance may be turned against him, and when the reasons that caused him to pledge it exist no longer. If men were entirely good this precept would not hold, but because they are bad, and will not keep faith with you, you too are not bound to observe it with them. Nor will there ever be wanting to a prince legitimate reasons to excuse this non-observance. Of this endless modern examples could be given, showing how many treaties and engagements have been made void and of no effect through the faithlessness of princes; and he who has known best how to employ the fox has succeeded best.

But it is necessary to know well how to disguise this characteristic, and to be a great pretender and dissembler; and men are so simple, and so subject to present necessities, that he who seeks to deceive will always find someone who will allow himself to be deceived. One recent example I cannot pass over in silence. Alexander the Sixth did nothing else but deceive men, nor ever thought of doing otherwise, and he always found victims; for there never was a man who had greater power in asserting, or who with greater oaths would affirm a thing, yet would observe it less; nevertheless his deceits always succeeded according to his wishes, because he well understood this side of mankind.

Therefore it is unnecessary for a prince to have all the good qualities I have enumerated, but it is very necessary to appear to have them. And I shall dare to say this also, that to have them and always to observe them is injurious, and that to appear to have them is useful; to appear merciful, faithful, humane, religious, upright, and to be so, but with a mind so framed that should you require not to be so, you may be able and know how to change to the opposite.

And you have to understand this, that a prince, especially a new one, cannot observe all those things for which men are esteemed, being often forced, in order to maintain the state, to act contrary to fidelity, friendship, humanity, and religion. Therefore it is necessary for him to have a mind ready to turn itself accordingly as the winds and variations of fortune force it, yet, as I have said above, not to diverge from the good if he can avoid doing so, but, if compelled, then to know how to set about it.

For this reason a prince ought to take care that he never lets anything slip from his lips that is not replete with the above-named five qualities, that he may appear to him who sees and hears him altogether merciful, faithful, humane, upright, and religious. There is nothing more necessary to appear to have than this last quality, inasmuch as men judge generally more by the eye than by the hand, because it belongs to everybody to see you, to few to come in touch with 62 you. Every one sees what you appear to be, few really know what you are, and those few dare not oppose themselves to the opinion of the many, who have the majesty of the state to defend them; and in the actions of all men, and especially of princes, which it is not prudent to challenge, one judges by the result.

For that reason, let a prince have the credit of conquering and holding his state, the means will always be considered honest, and he will be praised by everybody; because the vulgar are always taken by what a thing seems to be and by what comes of it; and in the world there are only the vulgar, for the few find a place there only when the many have no ground to rest on.

Chapter XIX: That One should Avoid being Despised and Hated Now, concerning the characteristics of which mention is made above, I have spoken of the more important ones, the others I wish to discuss briefly under this generality, that the prince must consider, as has been in part said before, how to avoid those things which will make him hated or contemptible; and as often as he shall have succeeded he will have fulfilled his part, and he need not fear any danger in other reproaches. It makes him hated above all things, as I have said, to be rapacious, and to be a violator of the property and women of his subjects, from both of which he must abstain. And when neither their property nor their honor is touched, the majority of men live content, and he has only to contend with the ambition of a few, whom he can curb with ease in many ways. It makes him contemptible to be considered fickle, frivolous, effeminate, mean-spirited, irresolute, from all of which a prince should guard himself as from a rock; and he should endeavor to show in his actions greatness, courage, gravity, and fortitude; and in his private dealings with his subjects let him show that his judgments are irrevocable, and maintain himself in such reputation that no one can hope either to deceive him or to get round him.

That prince is highly esteemed who conveys this impression of himself, and he who is highly esteemed is not easily conspired against; for, provided it is well known that he is an excellent man and revered by his people, he can only be attacked with difficulty. For this reason a prince ought to have two fears, one from within, on account of his subjects, the other from without, on account of external powers. From the latter he is defended by being well armed and having good allies, and if he is well armed he will have good friends, and affairs will always remain quiet within when they are quiet without, unless they should have been already disturbed by conspiracy; and even should affairs outside be disturbed, if he has carried out his preparations and has lived as I have said, as long as he does not despair, he will resist every attack, as I said Nabis the Spartan did.

But concerning his subjects, when affairs outside are disturbed he has only to fear that they will conspire secretly, from which a prince can easily secure himself by avoiding being hated and despised, and by keeping the people satisfied with him, which it is most necessary for him to accomplish, as I said above at length. And one of the most efficacious remedies that a prince can have against conspiracies is not to be hated and despised by the people, for he who conspires against a prince always expects to please them by his removal; but when the conspirator can only look forward to offending them, he will not have the courage to take such a course, for the difficulties that confront a conspirator are infinite. And as experience shows, many have been the conspiracies, but few have been successful; because he who conspires cannot act alone, nor can he take a companion except from those whom he believes to be malcontents, and as soon as you have opened your mind to a malcontent you have given him the material with which to content himself, for by denouncing you he can look for every advantage; so that, seeing the gain from this course to be assured, and seeing the other to be doubtful and full of dangers, he must be a very rare friend, or a thoroughly obstinate enemy of the prince, to keep faith with you.

And, to reduce the matter into a small compass, I say that, on the side of the conspirator, there is nothing but fear, jealousy, prospect of punishment to terrify him; but on the side of the prince there is the majesty of the principality, the laws, the protection of friends and the state to defend him; so that, adding to all these things the popular goodwill, it is impossible that any one should be so rash as to conspire. For whereas in general the conspirator has to fear before the execution of his plot, in this case he has also to fear the sequel to the crime; because on account of it he has the people for an enemy, and thus cannot hope for any escape.

[FROM CHAPTER 7:] When the duke [Cesare Borgia] occupied the Romagna he found it under the rule of weak masters, who rather plundered their subjects than ruled them, and gave them more cause for disunion than for union, so that the country was full of robbery, quarrels, and every kind of violence; and so, wishing to bring back peace and obedience to authority, he 63 considered it necessary to give it a good governor. Thereupon he promoted Messer Ramiro d'Orco, a swift and cruel man, to whom he gave the fullest power. This man in a short time restored peace and unity with the greatest success. Afterwards the duke considered that it was not advisable to confer such excessive authority, for he had no doubt but that he would become odious, so he set up a court of judgment in the country, under a most excellent president, wherein all cities had their advocates. And because he knew that the past severity had caused some hatred against himself, so, to clear himself in the minds of the people, and gain them entirely to himself, he desired to show that, if any cruelty had been practised, it had not originated with him, but in the natural sternness of the minister. Under this pretence he took Ramiro, and one morning caused him to be executed and left on the piazza at Cesena with the block and a bloody knife at his side. The barbarity of this spectacle caused the people to be at once satisfied and dismayed.

Chapter XXV: What Fortune can Effect in Human Affairs and How to Withstand Her It is not unknown to me how many men have had, and still have, the opinion that the affairs of the world are in such wise governed by fortune and by God that men with their wisdom cannot direct them and that no one can even help them; and because of this they would have us believe that it is not necessary to labour much in affairs, but to let chance govern them. This opinion has been more credited in our times because of the great changes in affairs which have been seen, and may still be seen, every day, beyond all human conjecture. Sometimes pondering over this, I am in some degree inclined to their opinion. Nevertheless, not to extinguish our free will, I hold it to be true that Fortune is the arbiter of one-half of our actions, but that she still leaves us to direct the other half, or perhaps a little less. I compare her to one of those raging rivers, which when in flood overflows the plains, sweeping away trees and buildings, bearing away the soil from place to place; everything flies before it, all yield to its violence, without being able in any way to withstand it; and yet, though its nature be such, it does not follow therefore that men, when the weather becomes fair, shall not make provision, both with defences and barriers, in such a manner that, rising again, the waters may pass away by canal, and their force be neither so unrestrained nor so dangerous. So it happens with fortune, who shows her power where valour has not prepared to resist her, and thither she turns her forces where she knows that barriers and defences have not been raised to constrain her.

And if you will consider Italy, which is the seat of these changes, and which has given to them their impulse, you will see it to be an open country without barriers and without any defence. For if it had been defended by proper valour, as are Germany, Spain, and France, either this invasion would not have made the great changes it has made or it would not have come at all. And this I consider enough to say concerning resistance to fortune in general. But confining myself more to the particular, I say that a prince may be seen happy to-day and ruined to-morrow without having shown any change of disposition or character. This, I believe, arises firstly from causes that have already been discussed at length, namely, that the prince who relies entirely on fortune is lost when it changes. I believe also that he will be successful who directs his actions according to the spirit of the times, and that he whose actions do not accord with the times will not be successful. Because men are seen, in affairs that lead to the end which every man has before him, namely, glory and riches, to get there by various methods; one with caution, another with haste; one by force, another by skill; one by patience, another by its opposite; and each one succeeds in reaching the goal by a different method. One can also see of two cautious men the one attain his end, the other fail; and similarly, two men by different observances are equally successful, the one being cautious, the other impetuous; all this arises from nothing else than whether or not they conform in their methods to the spirit of the times. This follows from what I have said, that two men working differently bring about the same effect, and of two working similarly, one attains his object and the other does not.

Changes in estate also issue from this, for if, to one who governs himself with caution and patience, times and affairs converge in such a way that his administration is successful, his fortune is made; but if times and affairs change, he is ruined if he does not change his course of action. But a man is not often found sufficiently circumspect to know how to accommodate himself to the change, both because he cannot deviate from what nature inclines him to do, and also because, having always prospered by acting in one way, he cannot be persuaded that it is well to leave it; and, therefore, the cautious man, when it is time to turn adventurous, does not know how to do it, hence he is ruined; but had he changed his conduct with the times fortune would not have changed. … 64 I conclude, therefore that, fortune being changeful and mankind steadfast in their ways, so long as the two are in agreement men are successful, but unsuccessful when they fall out. For my part I consider that it is better to be adventurous than cautious, because fortune is a woman, and if you wish to keep her under it is necessary to beat and ill- use her; and it is seen that she allows herself to be mastered by the adventurous rather than by those who go to work more coldly. She is, therefore, always, woman-like, a lover of young men, because they are less cautious, more violent, and with more audacity command her. 65 APPARTS Essay Reading: The 95 Theses

Martin Luther, Disputation of Doctor Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences (1517) More commonly known as the 95 theses (and thus in form similar to the 900 theses of Pico della Mirandola) these scholarly points of disputation lay out Luther’s objections to indulgences. He drafted them in the autumn of 1517, and sent them in a letter to Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz, who was sending indulgence peddlers into the area around Wittenberg to collect money to finance his election to other church offices and to pay for the building of St. Peter’s basilica in Rome. The story spread later that Luther also nailed them to the church door in Wittenberg. Whether this happened or not is impossible to say; what is known for certain is that they were translated quickly from the Latin in which Luther had written them into German, published, and sold widely. From: Works of Martin Luther, ed. and trans. Adolph Spaeth, L.D. Reed, Henry Eyster Jacobs, et al. (Philadelphia: A. J. Holman Company, 1915), Vol.1, pp. 29-38

Out of love for the truth and the desire to bring it to light, the following propositions will be discussed at Wittenberg, under the presidency of the Reverend Father Martin Luther, Master of Arts and of Sacred Theology, and Lecturer in Ordinary on the same at that place. Wherefore he requests that those who are unable to be present and debate orally with us, may do so by letter. In the Name our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen.

1. Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ, when He said Poenitentiam agite, willed that the whole life of believers should be repentance. 2. This word cannot be understood to mean sacramental penance, i.e., confession and satisfaction, which is administered by the priests. 3. Yet it means not inward repentance only; nay, there is no inward repentance which does not outwardly work divers mortifications of the flesh. 4. The penalty [of sin], therefore, continues so long as hatred of self continues; for this is the true inward repentance, and continues until our entrance into the kingdom of heaven. 5. The pope does not intend to remit, and cannot remit any penalties other than those which he has imposed either by his own authority or by that of the Canons. 6. The pope cannot remit any guilt, except by declaring that it has been remitted by God and by assenting to God's remission; though, to be sure, he may grant remission in cases reserved to his judgment. If his right to grant remission in such cases were despised, the guilt would remain entirely unforgiven. 7. God remits guilt to no one whom He does not, at the same time, humble in all things and bring into subjection to His vicar, the priest. 8. The penitential canons are imposed only on the living, and, according to them, nothing should be imposed on the dying. 9. Therefore the Holy Spirit in the pope is kind to us, because in his decrees he always makes exception of the article of death and of necessity. 10. Ignorant and wicked are the doings of those priests who, in the case of the dying, reserve canonical penances for purgatory. 11. This changing of the canonical penalty to the penalty of purgatory is quite evidently one of the tares that were sown while the bishops slept. 12. In former times the canonical penalties were imposed not after, but before absolution, as tests of true contrition. 13. The dying are freed by death from all penalties; they are already dead to canonical rules, and have a right to be released from them. 14. The imperfect health [of soul], that is to say, the imperfect love, of the dying brings with it, of necessity, great fear; and the smaller the love, the greater is the fear. 15. This fear and horror is sufficient of itself alone (to say nothing of other things) to constitute the penalty of purgatory, since it is very near to the horror of despair. 16. Hell, purgatory, and heaven seem to differ as do despair, almost-despair, and the assurance of safety. 17. With souls in purgatory it seems necessary that horror should grow less and love increase. 18. It seems unproved, either by reason or Scripture, that they are outside the state of merit, that is to say, of increasing love. 19. Again, it seems unproved that they, or at least that all of them, are certain or assured of their own blessedness, though we may be quite certain of it. 66 20. Therefore by "full remission of all penalties" the pope means not actually "of all," but only of those imposed by himself. 21. Therefore those preachers of indulgences are in error, who say that by the pope's indulgences a man is freed from every penalty, and saved; 22. Whereas he remits to souls in purgatory no penalty which, according to the canons, they would have had to pay in this life. 23. If it is at all possible to grant to any one the remission of all penalties whatsoever, it is certain that this remission can be granted only to the most perfect, that is, to the very fewest. 24. It must needs be, therefore, that the greater part of the people are deceived by that indiscriminate and high sounding promise of release from penalty. 25. The power which the pope has, in a general way, over purgatory, is just like the power which any bishop or curate has, in a special way, within his own diocese or parish. 26. The pope does well when he grants remission to souls [in purgatory], not by the power of the keys (which he does not possess), but by way of intercession. 27. They preach man who say that so soon as the penny jingles into the money-box, the soul flies out [of purgatory]. 28. It is certain that when the penny jingles into the money-box, gain and avarice can be increased, but the result of the intercession of the Church is in the power of God alone. 29. Who knows whether all the souls in purgatory wish to be bought out of it, as in the legend of Sts. Severinus and Paschal. 30. No one is sure that his own contrition is sincere; much less that he has attained full remission. 31. Rare as is the man that is truly penitent, so rare is also the man who truly buys indulgences, i.e., such men are most rare. 32. They will be condemned eternally, together with their teachers, who believe themselves sure of their salvation because they have letters of pardon. 33. Men must be on their guard against those who say that the pope's pardons are that inestimable gift of God by which man is reconciled to Him; 34. For these "graces of pardon" concern only the penalties of sacramental satisfaction, and these are appointed by man. 35. They preach no Christian doctrine who teach that contrition is not necessary in those who intend to buy souls out of purgatory or to buy confessionalia. 36. Every truly repentant Christian has a right to full remission of penalty and guilt, even without letters of pardon. 37. Every true Christian, whether living or dead, has part in all the blessings of Christ and the Church; and this is granted him by God, even without letters of pardon. 38. Nevertheless, the remission and participation [in the blessings of the Church] which are granted by the pope are in no way to be despised, for they are, as I have said, the declaration of divine remission. 39. It is most difficult, even for the very keenest theologians, at one and the same time to commend to the people the abundance of pardons and [the need of] true contrition. 40. True contrition seeks and loves penalties, but liberal pardons only relax penalties and cause them to be hated, or at least, furnish an occasion [for hating them]. 41. Apostolic pardons are to be preached with caution, lest the people may falsely think them preferable to other good works of love. 42. Christians are to be taught that the pope does not intend the buying of pardons to be compared in any way to works of mercy. 43. Christians are to be taught that he who gives to the poor or lends to the needy does a better work than buying pardons; 44. Because love grows by works of love, and man becomes better; but by pardons man does not grow better, only more free from penalty. 45. Christians are to be taught that he who sees a man in need, and passes him by, and gives [his money] for pardons, purchases not the indulgences of the pope, but the indignation of God. 46. Christians are to be taught that unless they have more than they need, they are bound to keep back what is necessary for their own families, and by no means to squander it on pardons. 47. Christians are to be taught that the buying of pardons is a matter of free will, and not of commandment. 48. Christians are to be taught that the pope, in granting pardons, needs, and therefore desires, their devout prayer for him more than the money they bring. 49. Christians are to be taught that the pope's pardons are useful, if they do not put their trust in them; but altogether harmful, if through them they lose their fear of God. 67 50. Christians are to be taught that if the pope knew the exactions of the pardon-preachers, he would rather that St. Peter's church should go to ashes, than that it should be built up with the skin, flesh and bones of his sheep. 51. Christians are to be taught that it would be the pope's wish, as it is his duty, to give of his own money to very many of those from whom certain hawkers of pardons cajole money, even though the church of St. Peter might have to be sold. 52. The assurance of salvation by letters of pardon is vain, even though the commissary, nay, even though the pope himself, were to stake his soul upon it. 53. They are enemies of Christ and of the pope, who bid the Word of God be altogether silent in some Churches, in order that pardons may be preached in others. 54. Injury is done the Word of God when, in the same sermon, an equal or a longer time is spent on pardons than on this Word. 55. It must be the intention of the pope that if pardons, which are a very small thing, are celebrated with one bell, with single processions and ceremonies, then the Gospel, which is the very greatest thing, should be preached with a hundred bells, a hundred processions, a hundred ceremonies. 56. The "treasures of the Church," out of which the pope. grants indulgences, are not sufficiently named or known among the people of Christ. 57. That they are not temporal treasures is certainly evident, for many of the vendors do not pour out such treasures so easily, but only gather them. 58. Nor are they the merits of Christ and the Saints, for even without the pope, these always work grace for the inner man, and the cross, death, and hell for the outward man. 59. St. Lawrence said that the treasures of the Church were the Church's poor, but he spoke according to the usage of the word in his own time. 60. Without rashness we say that the keys of the Church, given by Christ's merit, are that treasure; 61. For it is clear that for the remission of penalties and of reserved cases, the power of the pope is of itself sufficient. 62. The true treasure of the Church is the Most Holy Gospel of the glory and the grace of God. 63. But this treasure is naturally most odious, for it makes the first to be last. 64. On the other hand, the treasure of indulgences is naturally most acceptable, for it makes the last to be first. 65. Therefore the treasures of the Gospel are nets with which they formerly were wont to fish for men of riches. 66. The treasures of the indulgences are nets with which they now fish for the riches of men. 67. The indulgences which the preachers cry as the "greatest graces" are known to be truly such, in so far as they promote gain. 68. Yet they are in truth the very smallest graces compared with the grace of God and the piety of the Cross. 69. Bishops and curates are bound to admit the commissaries of apostolic pardons, with all reverence. 70. But still more are they bound to strain all their eyes and attend with all their ears, lest these men preach their own dreams instead of the commission of the pope. 71. He who speaks against the truth of apostolic pardons, let him be anathema and accursed! 72. But he who guards against the lust and license of the pardon-preachers, let him be blessed! 73. The pope justly thunders against those who, by any art, contrive the injury of the traffic in pardons. 74. But much more does he intend to thunder against those who use the pretext of pardons to contrive the injury of holy love and truth. 75. To think the papal pardons so great that they could absolve a man even if he had committed an impossible sin and violated the Mother of God -- this is madness. 76. We say, on the contrary, that the papal pardons are not able to remove the very least of venial sins, so far as its guilt is concerned. 77. It is said that even St. Peter, if he were now Pope, could not bestow greater graces; this is blasphemy against St. Peter and against the pope. 78. We say, on the contrary, that even the present pope, and any pope at all, has greater graces at his disposal; to wit, the Gospel, powers, gifts of healing, etc., as it is written in I. Corinthians xii. 79. To say that the cross, emblazoned with the papal arms, which is set up [by the preachers of indulgences], is of equal worth with the Cross of Christ, is blasphemy. 80. The bishops, curates and theologians who allow such talk to be spread among the people, will have an account to render. 81. This unbridled preaching of pardons makes it no easy matter, even for learned men, to rescue the reverence due to the pope from slander, or even from the shrewd questionings of the laity. 68 82. To wit: -- "Why does not the pope empty purgatory, for the sake of holy love and of the dire need of the souls that are there, if he redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of miserable money with which to build a Church? The former reasons would be most just; the latter is most trivial." 83. Again: -- "Why are mortuary and anniversary masses for the dead continued, and why does he not return or permit the withdrawal of the endowments founded on their behalf, since it is wrong to pray for the redeemed?" 84. Again: -- "What is this new piety of God and the pope, that for money they allow a man who is impious and their enemy to buy out of purgatory the pious soul of a friend of God, and do not rather, because of that pious and beloved soul's own need, free it for pure love's sake?" 85. Again: -- "Why are the penitential canons long since in actual fact and through disuse abrogated and dead, now satisfied by the granting of indulgences, as though they were still alive and in force?" 86. Again: -- "Why does not the pope, whose wealth is to-day greater than the riches of the richest, build just this one church of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with the money of poor believers?" 87. Again: -- "What is it that the pope remits, and what participation does he grant to those who, by perfect contrition, have a right to full remission and participation?" 88. Again: -- "What greater blessing could come to the Church than if the pope were to do a hundred times a day what he now does once, and bestow on every believer these remissions and participations?" 89. "Since the pope, by his pardons, seeks the salvation of souls rather than money, why does he suspend the indulgences and pardons granted heretofore, since these have equal efficacy?" 90. To repress these arguments and scruples of the laity by force alone, and not to resolve them by giving reasons, is to expose the Church and the pope to the ridicule of their enemies, and to make Christians unhappy. 91. If, therefore, pardons were preached according to the spirit and mind of the pope, all these doubts would be readily resolved; nay, they would not exist. 92. Away, then, with all those prophets who say to the people of Christ, "Peace, peace," and there is no peace! 93. Blessed be all those prophets who say to the people of Christ, "Cross, cross," and there is no cross! 94. Christians are to be exhorted that they be diligent in following Christ, their Head, through penalties, deaths, and hell; 95. And thus be confident of entering into heaven rather through many tribulations, than through the assurance of peace. 69 Reading for Discussion "Functions of festivals in Early Modern Europe."

'What were the functions of popular festivals, etc. in Early Modern Europe? And why did the authorities, civil and ecclesiastical seek to control or suppress them?' In Early Modern Europe festivals were the setting for heroes and their stories, to be celebrated by the populace. They posed a change from their everyday life. In those days people lived in remembrance of one festival and in expectance of the next. Different kinds of festivals were celebrated in different ways. There were festivals that marked an individual occasion and weren't part of the festival calendar, like family festivals such as weddings and christenings. Some took place at the same time every year and were for everyone, like community festivals like the different saints' days. Pilgrimages took place all year round. Annuals festivals like Christmas and Midsummer always took place on the same day every year.

In those days the average village in Western Europe celebrated at least 17 festivals annually, not counting family occasions and saints' days. Some festivals, such as Carnival, lasted several days or sometimes even several weeks. In the Netherlands Carnival started every year at the 11th of November (St. Martin) and culminated in a big festival of 'Dranck, pleijsier ende vrouwen' (Drink, fun and women) at the end of the Carnival period, proceeding the period of Lent.

Festivals were meant to take the minds of the people off their everyday life , off the hard times and their work. Everyday life in Early Modern Europe was filled with rituals, both religious and secular. Songs and stories played an important role in their lives, although they sometimes adjusted the details of the legends and stories to fit the way they thought a certain festival should take place.

Popular culture was mixed with ecclesiastical culture in many ways. The story of St. John the Baptist is a good example of this. The ancient ritual of bathing and lighting fires during Midsummer's Eve was a remnant of a ritual from the pre-Christian period. Fire and water, symbols of purification, could be seen as the tools of St. John the Baptist, and therefore a combination of the two elements of popular and ecclesiastical culture was obvious. It looks as if the Medieval Church took over the festival and made it theirs. The same thing happened to the Midwinter Festival, which became linked with the birth of Christ, on 25 December. There are many more examples to be found, such as the connection between St. Martin and geese caused by the fact that the St. Martins Day (11 November) coincided with the period during which the people used to kill their geese in the period preceding the Christian period.

Carnival plays a special role in popular culture in Early Modern Europe. It is a great example of a festival of images and texts. It was a popular festival, taking on different forms in different regions of Europe. Aside from regional variations, these differences were also caused by factors such as the climate, the political situation and the economical situation in an area. On a whole Carnival started in late December or early January and reached its peak upon approaching Lent. The actual feast, taking place at the end of the festive period, could take days and would usually involve large quantities of food and drinks. The festival took place in the open air in the center of a town or city. Within a region, the way Carnival was celebrated varied from town to town.

The festival was a play, with the streets as a stage and the people as actors and spectators. They often depicted everyday life scenes and made fun of them. Informal events took place throughout the Carnival period. There was massive eating and drinking, as a way of 'stocking up' for Lent. People sang and danced in the streets, using the special songs of Carnival, and people wore masks and fancy-dress. There was verbal aggression, insults were exchanged and satirical verses were sung. More formally structures events were concentrated in the last days of the Carnival period. These events took places in the central squares and were often organized by clubs or fraternities.

The main theme during Carnival was usually 'The World Upside Down'. Situations got turned around. It was an enactment of the world turned upside down. Men dressed up as women, women dressed up as men, the rich traded places with the poor, etc. There was physical reversal: people standing on their heads, horses going backwards and fishes flying. There was reversal of relationships between man and beast: the horse shoeing the master or the fish eating the fisherman. The other reversal was that of relationships between men: servants giving orders to their masters or men feeding children while their wives worked the fields. Many events centered on the figure of 'Carnival', often depicted as a fat man, cheerful and surrounded by food. The figure of 'Lent', for contrast, often took the form of a thin, old woman, dressed in black and hung with fish. These depictions varied in form and name in the different regions in Europe. A recurring element was the performance of a play, usually a farce. Mock battles were also a favorite pass-time during the Carnival period.

Carnival usually ended with the defeat of 'Carnival' by 'Lent'. This could happen in the form of the mock trial and execution of 'Carnival', (Bologna, Italy, 16th century), the beheading of a pig (Venice, Italy), or the burial of a sardine (Madrid, Spain). 70 So what was the meaning of Carnival in Early Modern Europe? Was it merely an excuse for the populace to go crazy or did Carnival have a deeper meaning hidden behind the façade of food, violence and sex?

Carnival was a holiday, a game. It was a time of ecstasy and liberation. The form was determined by three major themes: food, sex and violence. It was the time of indulgence, of abundance. It was also a time of intense sexual activity - tables of the seasonal movement of conceptions in 18th century France show a peak around February. Carnival was also a festival of aggression, destruction and desecration. It was the ideal time to insult or pester people who had wronged someone, often in the form of a mock battle of a football match. A time for paying off old grudges. Serious violence was not avoided and in most areas the rates of serious crimes and killings went up during Carnival. It was also a time of opposition, in more than one way. It opposed the ecclesiastical ritual of Lent. Lent was a period of fasting and abstinence of all things enjoyed by the people, not just food and drink but also sex and recreation. The elements that were taken out of life during Lent were emphasized during Carnival. All that was portrayed by the figures of 'Carnival' and 'Lent' (fat versus thin).

Carnival was polysemous, meaning different things to different people in different areas. In different regions, different heroes were celebrated. Sometimes elements were taken over from other regions. Carnival did not have the same importance all over Europe. In the north of Europe (Britain, Scandinavia) it was less important than in the rest of Europe. This was probably partly due to the climate, which discouraged an elaborate street festival at that time of the year. In these regions, people preferred to elaborate the festivities during the Midsummer festival (St. John's Eve). Two reasons for this are the pagan survivals that were stronger in these regions, partly because they were isolated from the rest of Europe due to geographical obstacles, causing a lesser ecclesiastical influence, and the climatic situation as mentioned above.

Carnival was a festival in extremis, but elements of Carnival can be found in every festival that was celebrated in Early Modern Europe. During the harvest season, all over Europe festivals and rituals were held. The harvest was celebrated, again , with elaborate drinking and eating, although in a more moderate way than the Carnival celebrations.

All these festival had one thing in common: they offered the people an escape from their everyday life and a way to express themselves. It offered the people a way to vent their resentments and some form of entertainment. Festivals were an escape from their struggle to earn a living. They were something to look forward to and were a celebration of the community and a display of its ability to put on a good show. It is said that the mocking of outsiders (the neighboring village or Jews) and animals might be seen as a dramatic expression of community solidarity. Some rituals might be seen as a form of social control, in a sense that it was a means for a community to express their discontent with certain members of the community (charivari). The ritual of public punishment can be seen in this light, as it was used to deter people from committing crimes.

Professor Max Gluckman used the African popular culture to explain the social function of the ritual of reversal of roles as it happened during rituals as Carnival. Similar rituals still occur in certain regions in Africa. Gluckman explains this ritual as an emphasis of certain rules and taboos through lifting them for a certain period of time. The apparent protests against the social order were intended to preserve and even to strengthen the established order. As a counter example Gluckman states that: "...in regions where the social order is seriously questioned, 'rites of protest' do not occur." Riots and rebellions frequently took place during major festivals. Rebels and rioters employed rituals and symbols to legitimise their actions. Inhibitions against expressing hostility towards the authorities or individuals were weakened by the excitement of the festival and the consumption of large quantities of alcohol. If those factors were combined with discontent over a bad harvest, tax increases or other calamities, this situation could get out of control. It could prove a good opportunity for people excluded from power to try and enforce certain changes. 71 It is hardly surprising that members of the upper classes often suggested that particular festivals ought to be abolished. They felt threatened by the populace who during festivals tried to revolt against the ruling classes and change the economical situation they were in. The reform of popular festivals was instigated by the will of some of the 'educated' to change the attitudes and values of the rest of the population (" to improve them"). This reformation took on different forms in different regions and it took place at different moments in time. There were also differences in the practices that were being reformed. Catholics and Protestants opposed to different elements of popular festivals and they did so for different reasons. Even within the Protestant movement, the views towards reformation of festivals and popular rituals varied. Missionaries on both sides worked in Europe to install their religious values in the local people. Reformers on both sides objected in particular to certain elements in popular religion. Festivals were part of popular religion or were at least disguised as an element of popular religion. The festival of Martinmas (11 November) was a good example of this.

What were the objections of the authorities against these elements of popular culture in general and popular religion in particular? There were two essential religious objections. Firstly, the majority of festivals were seen as remnants of ancient paganism. Secondly, the festivals offered the people an occasion to over-indulge in immoral or offensive behavior, at many occasions attacking the establishment (both ecclesiastical and civil).

The first objection meant that reformers disliked many of the popular customs because they contained traces of ancient customs dating from pre-Christian times. Protestant reformers went very far in their objections, even denouncing a number of Catholic rituals as being pre-Christian survivals, considering the saints as successors of pagan gods and heroes, taking over their curative and protective functions. Magic was also considered a pagan remnant: the Protestants accused the Catholics of practicing a pagan ritual by claiming that certain holy places held magical powers and could cure people. The reformers denounced the rituals they didn't find fitting as being irreverent and blasphemous. Carnival and the charivaris were considered "the work of the devil", because it made a mockery of certain godly elements the Church held sacred. The reformers thought people who didn't honor God in their way to be heathen, doomed to spend their afterlife in eternal damnation. Flamboyance was to be chased out of all religious aspects of culture, and, where possible, out of all other aspects of life, according to the Protestant doctrine. In some areas, gesturing during church services was banned, as was laughter. All these things were seen as irreverent, making a mockery of religion. All these changes were introduced in order to create a sharper separation between the 'sacred' and the 'profane'. The ecclesiastical authorities were out to destroy the traditional familiarity with the sacred because "familiarity breeds irreverence." 72 The objection against popular recreations stemmed from the idea that they were 'vanities', displeasing God because they were a waste of time and money and distracted people from going to church. This objection was shared by both the ecclesiastical and civil authorities. The latter mainly objected because it distracted the populace from their work, which in turn affected the revenues of the leading upper classes, or from other activities that were benefiting the rich, reasons that would vary per region.

Catholic and Protestant reformers were not equally hostile to popular culture, nor were they hostile for quite the same reasons. Protestant reformers were more radical, denouncing festivals as relics of popery and looking to abolish feast-days as well as the feast that came with it, because they considered the saints that were celebrated during these festivals as remnants of a pre-Christian era. Many of these Protestant reformers were equally radical in their attacks on holy images, which they considered 'idols'. During the end of the 16th and the first half of the 17th century Dutch churches were pillaged by Protestants trying to destroy all religious relics and images (de Beeldenstorm). Catholic reformers were more modified in their actions; they tried to reach a certain modification of popular religious culture, even trying to adapt certain elements to the Catholic way of worshipping and incorporating popular elements into their religion. They insisted that some times were holier than others, and they did object to the extend to which the holy days were celebrated with food and drink. Some argued that it was impossible to obey the rites of Lent with proper reverence and devotion if they had indulged in Carnival just before. Catholic reformers also installed rules in order to regulate certain popular festivals and rituals, such as a prohibition on dressing up as a member of the clergy during Carnival or a prohibition on dancing or performing plays in churches or churchyards. Contrary to the Protestant reformers however, the Catholic reformers did not set out to abolish festivals and rituals completely.

Civil authorities had their own reasons to object to popular festivals in Early Modern Europe. Apart from taking the people away from work or other obligations, the authorities feared that during the time of a festival, the abundance of alcohol could stir up the feelings of discontent the people had been hiding all throughout the year. Misery and alcohol could create a dangerous mix that would give people the courage they needed to rebel against authorities. This was a good reason for the authorities to try and stop, or at least control, popular festivals.

Bibliography Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe; P. Burke The Reasons of Misrule: Youth Groups and Charivaris in 16th century France; N.Z.Davis, Past and Present 1971 Order and rebellion in Tribal Africa; M. Gluckman The waning of the Middle Ages; J. Huizinga Levend Verleden; Prof. Dr. H.P.H. Jansen Blood, tears and Xavier-water: Jesuit missionaries and popular religion in the 18th century in the Upper Palatinate; T. Johnson Popular religion in Germany and Central Europe 1400-1800

Unit III - Age of Religious Wars and European State Consolidation Chapters 12-13 73

Our tutors never stop bawling into our ears, as though they were pouring water into a funnel; and our task is only to repeat what has been told us. I should like the tutor to correct this practice, and right from the start, according to the capacity of the mind he has in hand, to begin putting it through its paces, making it tastes things, choose them, and discern them by itself; sometimes clearing the way for him, sometimes letting him clear his own way. I don't want him to think and talk alone, I want him to listen to his pupil speaking in his turn. Socrates, and later Arcesilaus, first had their disciples speak, and then they spoke to them. The authority of those who teach is often an obstacle to those who want to learn [Cicero].

Montaigne, Of the education of children (1579)

After reading chapter 12 you should understand:

 The French wars of religion between Catholics and Calvinists.  Spanish struggle against Dutch independence in the Netherlands.  The struggle between Catholic Spain and Protestant England.  The course of the Thirty Years’ War and the devastation of central Europe.

 The origins and decline of the Netherlands' Golden Age.  Factors behind the different political paths of France and England.  The origins and consequences of the English Civil War.  The development of Parliamentary supremacy in England, particularly after the Glorious Revolution.  The rise of absolute monarchy in France, particularly under Louis XIV.  The wars of Louis XIV and the development of a European diplomatic system.  The sixteenth to eighteenth century developments and influence of the three monarchies of central and eastern Europe.  Russia Enters the European Political Arena under Peter the Great.  The factors behind the demise of the Ottoman Empire.

Potential FRQ Questions 74 The Age of Religious Wars

Discuss the relationship between politics and religion by examining the wars of religion. Choose TWO specific examples from the following: Dutch Revolt, French Wars of Religion, English Civil War, Thirty Years War

Evaluate the relative importance of the religious rivalries and dynastic ambitions that shaped the course of the Thirty Years War.

Use the Huguenot conflict in France and the Dutch revolt to illustrate the ways in which the "Religious Wars" were much more political than they were religious.

In what ways did the "new monarchs" of Europe continue to use religion as a tool for nation building during the age of Religious Wars?

In 1519 Charles of Habsburg became Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Discuss and analyze the political, social, and religious problems he faced over the course of his imperial reign (1519-1556).

Absolutism and Constitutionalism

Machiavelli suggested that a ruler should behave both "like a lion" and "like a fox." Analyze the policies of TWO of the following European rulers, indicating the degree to which they successfully followed Machiavelli's suggestions: Elizabeth I of England, Henry IV of France, Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick II of Prussia.

European monarchs of the late 15th and early 16th centuries were often referred to as "New Monarchs". What was "new" about them? Do their actions warrant this label?

In the 17th century, how did England and the Dutch Republic compete successfully with France and Spain for control of overseas territory?

In the 17th century, what political conditions accounted for the increased power of both the parliament in England and the monarch in France?

Describe and analyze the changes in the role of Parliament in English politics between the succession of James I and the Glorious Revolution.

Analyze the military, political and social factors that account for the rise of Prussia between 1640 and 1786.

Between 1450 and 1800, many women gained power, some as reigning queens, others as regents. Identify two such powerful women and discuss how issues of gender, such as marriage and reproduction, influenced their ability to obtain and exercise power.

Compare and contrast the goals and major policies of Peter the Great of Russia (ruled 1682-1725) with those of Frederick the Great of Prussia (ruled 1740-1786).

Major Unit Assignments Parliament vs. Stuart Kings Debate and Paper - In Reader TIAA Assignment- Chapter 12-13 Worksheet Rise of Absolute Government Chart Wars_of_Louis_XIV_chart

PARLIAMENT vs. THE STUART KINGS 75 1603-1700 Debate Overview: This debate is based on the English period from 1603-1700. During this time, the English rulers and Parliament were in constant turmoil over who should have the governing power in their country, the Monarchy or Parliament. Ultimately, a revolution occurred that eventually leads to the signing of an English Bill of Rights and a Declaration of Rights for the English people.

Debate Objectives:  Our main objective for the class, is that each one of you understand, in detail, what occurred during this period in English history  A second objective is for the rulers that are addressing the members of the English Parliament to convince the different groups represented that their way, the ruler's way, is what is right for England and her citizens.  The third objective is for the different members of the English Parliament to consider who they would support on the issues presented to them

Research and Preparation Time:  Only two days will be allowed for library time: ______, ______ For Block Schedules- a Day = 45 minutes  On the first day of the debate, we will take a few minutes to get organized. So prepare before you arrive in class.

Debate Days:  Debate Day #1 - Issue #1, #2, #3, #4 (20 minutes each)  Debate Day #2 – Issue #5, #6 (20 minutes each)

Your Overall Grade Will Be Based on the Following: Parliament members/religious groups o Participation - 50 pts o Paper - 50 pts Rulers o Presentations - 50 pts o Paper - 50 pts Roles to Choose From For the Debate:

Rulers: Parliament members: Religious groups: James I – 1 person House of Commons – 2 persons Catholics- 1 person Charles I – 1 person House of Lords- 3 persons Anglicans- 2 persons Cromwell – 1 person Roundheads- 2 persons Puritans- 4 persons Charles II – 1 person Cavaliers- 2 persons James II – 1 person William & Mary- 1 person

If you wish to choose a specific historical personage to personalize your role, you can, just get it approved first.

Individual Written Assignment: Rulers must submit a "short" biography…email this to the class and to me via Turnitin.com Parliament members & religious group members must submit a "short" paper addressing your role in the conflict between "ruler" & "parliament"…email this to the class and to me via Turnitin.com

Papers should be a minimum of 2-3 pages, typed, Chicago Style, with a minimum of 2 sources used Papers are not due until after the debate. Make that ______. 76 Rulers' Responsibilities: Parliament & Religious groups: o prepare for the issue relevant to you o prepare a minimum of 3 relevant questions to ask for o you will make a presentation to support the issue each issue...be sure to be historically accurate with o be prepared to field questions from groups your support or lack of support for the ruler in each o when your "reign" is over...some will sit in the issue back where you started…of course, paying o the questioning session will last no longer than 8-10 o attention…others will become members of groups minutes within the Parliament o make a sign and create a symbol for your group (try o make a name tag for yourself & wear during both to be historically accurate...could be some type of days clothing, wig, etc... o BE CREATIVE !!

THE ISSUES BEING DEBATED ISSUE #1- JAMES I (r 1603-1625) - James I makes the following statement: "The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth; for kings are not only God's lieutenants on earth, and sit upon God's throne, but even by God himself they are called gods. "

Debate Question: Do you support James I's right to rule with "divine" authority? ISSUE #2 - CHARLES I (r 1625-1649) & the English Civil War Debate Question: Should Charles I live or die ???

ISSUE #3 - OLIVER CROMWELL (r 1653-1658) - "Lord Protector" of England Debate Question: Do you support the idea of a military dictatorship under Cromwell? *historical note...Commonwealth from 1649-1653 ISSUE #4 - CHARLES II (r 1660-1685) - the "Merry Monarch" Debate Question: Do you support Charles II's tolerant policies?

ISSUE #5 - JAMES II (r 1685-1689)...Fear of Catholic heir...Glorious Revolution begins Debate Question: Do you support the removal of James II from the English throne?

ISSUE #6 - WILLIAM & MARY (r 1689-1694) Debate Questions: Do you support the presentation of the throne to them? Do you support the signing of the English Bill of Rights & Declaration of Rights? Would you place any special restrictions on them?

Groups for Issue #1 - James I James I - ______House of Commons - (2 members) House of Lords - (3 members) Catholics - (1 member) Anglicans - (2 members) Puritans - (4 members) *All leaders are sitting out for now

Groups for Issue #2 - Charles I Charles I - ______House of Commons becomes the Roundheads - (2 members) 77 House of Lords becomes the Cavaliers - (3 members) Catholics stay Catholic - (1 member) Anglicans stay Anglican - (2 members) Puritans break up into a Puritan faction and Arminian faction - (4 members) *all leaders are sitting out for now

Groups for Issue #3 - Oliver Cromwell Oliver Cromwell - ______House of Commons/Roundheads become the Independents - (2 members) House of Lords/Cavaliers become the Diggers - (3 members) Catholics stay Catholic - (James I joins your group) - (2 members) Anglicans stay Anglican - (Charles I joins your group) - (3 members) Puritans & Arminians become the Presbyterians, Levellers, and Ranters - (4 members) *James I has joined Catholics *Charles I has joined Anglicans

Groups for Issue #4 - Charles II Charles II - ______House of Commons/Roundheads/Independents become Whigs - (2 members) House of Lords/Cavaliers/Diggers also become Whigs - (3 members) *now the Whigs have 5 members Catholics stay Catholic - (2 members) Anglicans stay Anglican - (3 members) Puritans/Arminians/Presbyterians/Levellers/Ranters become Tories - (5 members…Cromwell joins you)

Groups for Issue #5 - James II James II - ______Whigs stay Whigs - (5 members) Catholics stay Catholic - (2 members) Anglicans stay Anglican and Charles II joins your group - (4 members) Tories stay Tories - (5 members)

Groups for Issue #6 - William & Mary William - ______& Mary ______Whigs stay Whigs - (5 members) Catholics stay Catholic - (2 members) Anglicans stay Anglican - (4 members) Tories stay Tories (gain James II…now you have 6 members) 78 Chapter 12 Worksheet- Age of Religious Wars

Terms to Identify Cardinal Granvelle Peace of Prague Coligny, Gaspard de Perpetual Edict Compromise of 1564 politiques Congregationalists Presbyterians Defenestration of Prague Puritans Edict of Fontainebleau Spanish Armada Edict of Nantes Stuart, Mary Edict of Restitution Thirty-Nine Articles Ferdinand II Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis Gustavus Adolphis II Treaty of Westphalia Henry of Navarre Tudor, Mary Huguenots Union of Arras Knox, John Union of Utrecht Medicis, Catherine de Wallenstein, Albrecht of Pacification of Ghent William of Nassau Palatinate

Chapter Questions What caused the infamous St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre?

How did Spain achieve a position of dominance in the 16th century? What were its strengths and weaknesses as a nation?

What were Philip II's goals? Which was he unable to achieve, and why?

What was Elizabeth I's settlement, and how difficult was it to impose on all of England?

What were the causes, both long-term and immediate, of the 30 Years' War?

Textbook DQ’s

Theodore Beza Defends the Right to Resist Tyranny According to Beza, when are subjects allowed to resist rulers who fail in their obligations?

Henry IV Recognizes Huguenot Religious Freedom Are Huguenots given equal religious standing with Catholics?

Are there limitations on their freedoms?

Going to the Theater (Secondary) What were the basic elements and purpose of the medieval stage, and what was carried over from it to the Elizabethan theater?

An Unknown Contemporary Describes Queen Elizabeth What qualities of Elizabeth impressed this observer?

Why did the queen take such care with her appearance? 79 Chapter 13 Worksheet- European State Consolidation

Terms to Identify Act of Settlement Nine Years War Cavaliers Ottoman Empire Charles I parlements Cromwell, Oliver Petition of Right English Bill of Rights Popish Plot English Civil War Pragmatic Sanction Frederick III the Wise Romanov, Michael Frederick William Roundheads Glorious Revolution Short Parliament Grand Alliance streltsy Ivan IV the Fronde James I Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Janissaries Ulama junker Walpole, Robert millets War of Spanish Succession Mississippi Company

Chapter Questions Why did the English king and Parliament come into conflict in the 1640s?

What was the Glorious Revolution, and why did it take place?

What kind of settlement emerged from the Glorious Revolution? How did England in 1700 differ from England in 1600?

How did Henry IV and Louis XIII pave the way for French absolutism?

In what ways did Louis XIV consolidate his power?

What was Louis XIV's religious policy?

What were Louis XIV's foreign policy aims?

Textbook DQ’s

King James Defends Popular Recreation Against the Puritans What motives of state might have led James I to issue this declaration?

How does he attempt to make it favorable to the Church of England?

Why might so many clergy have refused to read this statement to their congregation?

Early Controversy Over Tobacco and Smoking (Secondary) Which groups in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries opposed the habit of smoking tobacco?

Why did the English government under King James I modify it’s opposition to tobacco?

John Milton Defends Freedom to Print Books Why does Milton think that it may be more dangerous and harmful to attack a book than to attack a person? 80 Was life cheaper and intelligence rarer in his time?

Does he have particular kinds of books in mind?

What can a book do for society that people cannot?

Louis XIV Revokes the Edict of Nantes What specific actions does this declaration order against Protestants?

Does it offer any incentives for Protestants to convert Catholicism?

How does this declaration compare with the English Test Act?

Louis XIV’s Sister-in-law Grieves for Her Homeland How do these letters reflect the plight of a woman who had been required to enter a dynastic marriage when war broke out?

How does she report Louis XIV’s using her name to further his own political and financial ends in the Palatinate?

What kind of destruction was Charlotte Elisabeth aware of in her homeland?

The Great Elector Welcomes Protestant Refugees from France In reading this document, do you believe religious or economic concerns more nearly led the elector of Brandenberg to welcome the French Protestants?

What specific privileges did the elector extend to them?

To what extent were these privileges a welcoming measure, and to what extent were they inducements to emigrate to Brandenberg?

In what kind of economic activity does the elector expect the French refugees to engage?

Peter the Great Tells His Son to Acquire Military Skills How did Peter use his recent war with Sweden to argue for the necessity of his son acquiring military skills?

What concept of leadership does Peter attempt to communicate to his son?

Why did Peter see military prowess as the most important ability in a ruler?

“ROUNDHEAD, n. A member of the Parliamentarian party in the English civil war --so called from his habit of wearing his hair short, whereas his enemy, the Cavalier, wore his long. There were other points of difference between them, but the fashion in hair was the fundamental cause of quarrel. The Cavaliers were royalists because the king, an indolent fellow, found it more convenient to let his hair grow than to wash his neck. This the Roundheads, who were mostly barbers and soap-boilers, deemed an injury to trade, and the royal neck was therefore the object of their particular indignation. Descendants of the belligerents now wear their hair all alike, but the fires of animosity enkindled in that ancient strife smoulder to this day beneath the snows of British civility.” Ambrose Bierce quotes 81 APPARTS ESSAY Reading- THE EDICT OF NANTES

This edict was signed in Nantes in Brittany on April 13, 1598, by Henry IV of France. It granted a large measure of religious liberty to his Protestant subjects, the Huguenots. The edict permitted the Protestants to hold public worship in many parts of the kingdom, though not in Paris. It granted them full civil rights and established a special court, the Chambre de l’Édit, composed of both Protestants and Catholics, to deal with disputes arising from the edict. Protestant pastors were to be paid by the state and released from certain obligations; finally, the Protestants could keep the places they were still holding in August 1597 as strongholds for eight years, the expenses of garrisoning them paid by the king.

Excerpts:

Henry, By the Grace of God, King of France, and Navarre, To all Present, and to Come, greeteth. Among the infinite Mercies that God hath pleased to bestow upon us, that most Signal and Remarkable is, his having given us Power and Strength not to yield to the dreadful Troubles, Confusions, and Disorders, which were found at our coming to this Kingdom, divided into so many Parties and Factions, that the most Legitimate was almost the least, enabling us with Constancy in such manner to oppose the Storm, as in the end to surmount it, reducing this Estate to Peace and Rest; For which, to Him alone be given the Honour and Glory, and us the Grace to acknowledge our obligation, in having our Labours made use of for the accomplishing so good a work, in which it hath been visible to all, that we have not only done what was our Duty, and in our Power, but something more than at another time, would (peradventure) have been agreeable to the Dignity we now hold; as in not having more Care, than to have many times so freely exposed our own Life. And in this great concurrence of weighty and perillous Affairs, not being able to compose all at one and the same time, We have chosen in this order, First to undertake those who were not to be suppressed but by force, and rather to remit and suspend others for some time, who might be dealt with by reason, and Justice: For the general difference among our good Subjects, and the particular evils of the soundest parts of the State, we judged might be easily cured, after the Principal cause (the continuation of the Civil Wars) was taken away, in which we have, by the blessing of God, well and happily succeeded, all Hostility and Wars through the Kingdom being now ceased, and we hope he will also prosper us in our other affairs, which remain to be composed, and that by this means we shall arrive at the establishment of a good Peace, with tranquility and rest, (which hath ever been the end of all our vows and intentions) as all the reward we desire or expect for 80 much pains and trouble, as we have taken in the whole course of our Life. Amongst our said affairs (towards which it behooves us to have patience) one of the principal hath been, the many complaints we received from divers of our Provinces and Catholick Cities, for that the exercise of the Catholick Religion was not universally re-established, as is provided by Edicts or Statutes heretofore made for the Pacification of the Troubles arising from Religion; as also the Supplications and Remonstrances which have been made to us by our Subjects of the reformed Religion, as well upon the execution of what hath been granted by the said former Laws, as that they desire to have some addition for the exercise of their Religion, the liberty of their Consciences and the security of their Persons and Fortunes. . . . For this cause, acknowledging this affair to be of the greatest importance, and worthy of the best consideration, after having considered the papers of complaints of our Catholick subjects, and having also permitted to our Subjects of the Reformed Religion to assemble themselves by Deputies, for framing their complaints, and making a collection of all their Remonstrances; and having thereupon conferred divers times with them, viewing the precedent Laws, we have upon the whole judged it necessary to give to all our said Subjects one general Law, Clear, Pure, and Absolute, by which they shall be regulated in all differences which have heretofore risen among them, or may hereafter rise, wherewith the one and other may be contented, being framed according as the time requires: and having had no other regard in this deliberation than solely the Zeal we have to the service of God, praying that he would henceforward render to all our subjects a durable and Established peace. Upon which we implore and expect from his divine bounty the same protection and favour, as he hath alwayes visibly bestowed upon this Kingdom from our Birth, during the many years we have attained unto, and give our said Subjects the grace to understand, that in observation of this our Ordinance consisteth (after that which is their duty toward God and us) the principal foundation of their Union, Concord, Tranquility, Rest, and the Re-establishment of all this Estate in its first splendor, opulency and strength. . . . 6. And not to leave any occasion of trouble and difference among our Subjects, we have permitted and do permit to those of the Reformed Religion, to live and dwell in all the Cities and places of this our Kingdom and Countreys under our obedience, without being inquired after, vexed, molested, or compelled to do any thing in Religion, contrary to their Conscience, nor by reason of the same be searched after in houses or places where they live, they comporting themselves in other things as is contained in this our present Edict or Statute. 82 7. We also permit to all Lords, Gentlemen and other Persons, as well inhabitants as others, making profession of the Reformed Religion, having in our Kingdom and Countreys under our obedience, high Justice as chief Lord (as in Normandy) be it in propriety or usage, in whole, moiety, or third part, to have in such of their houses of the said high Justice or Fiefs, as abovesaid (which they shall be obliged to Nominate for their principall residence to our Bayliffs and chief Justice each in their jurisdiction) the exercise of the said Religion as long as they are Resident there, and in their absence, their wives or families, or part of the same. And though the right of Justice or whole Fief be controverted, nevertheless the exercise of the said Religion shall be allowed there, provided that the abovesaid be in actual possession of the said high Justice, though our Attorney Generall be a Party. We per mitting them also to have the said exercise in their other houses of high Justice or Fiefs abovesaid, so long as they shall be present, and not otherwise: and all, as well for them, their families and subjects, as others that shall go thither.

8. In the Houses that are Fiefs, where those of the said Religion have not high Justice, there the said Exercise of the Reformed Religion shall not be permitted, save only to their own Families, yet nevertheless, if other persons, to the number of thirty, besides their Families, shall be there upon the occasion of Christenings, Visits of their Friends, or otherwise, our meaning is, that in such case they shall not be molested: provided also, that the said Houses be not within Cities, Burroughs, or Villages belonging to any Catholick Lord (save to Us) having high Justice, in which the said Catholick Lords have their Houses. For in such cases, those of the said Religion shall not hold the said Exercise in the said Cities, Burroughs, or Villages, except by permission of the said Lords high Justices.

9. We permit also to those of the said Religion to hold, and continue the Exercise of the same in all the Cities and Places under our obedience, where it hath by them been Established and made publick by many and divers times, in the Year 1586, and in 1597, until the end of the Month of August, notwithstanding all Decrees and Judgments whatsoever to the contrary. . . .

16. Following the second Article of the Conference of Nerat, we grant to those of the said Religion power to build Places for the Exercise of the same, in Cities and Places where it is granted them. . . .

27. To the end to reunited so much the better the minds and good will of our Subjects, as is our intention, and to take away all complaints for the future; We declare all those who make or shall make profession of the said Reformed Religion, to be capable of holding and exercising all Estates, Dignities, Offices, and publick charges whatsoever, Royal, Signioral, or of Cities of our Kingdom, Countreys, Lands, and Lordships under our obedience, notwithstanding all Oaths to the contrary, and to be indifferently admitted and received into the same, and our Court of Parliament and other Judges shall content themselves with informing and inquiring after the lives, manners, Religion and honest Conversation of those that were or shall be preferred to such offices, as well of the one Religion as the other, without taking other Oath of them than for the good and faithful service of the King in the exercise of their Office. . . . from Roland Mousnier. The Assassination of Henry IV (New York, 1973), 316-347 83

APPARTS Essay Reading- Bishop Burnet's Impressions of Peter the Great in 1698

[excerpted from Readings in Modern European History, James Harvey Robinson and Charles Beard, eds. (Boston:Ginn and Company, 1908), pp. 57-58]

I mentioned in the relation of the former vear[1698] the Tsar's coming out of his own country - on which I will now enlarge. He came this winter over to England and stayed some months among us. I waited often on him, and was ordered both by the king and the archbishop and bishops to attend upon him and to offer him such informations of our religion and constitution as he was willing to receive. I had good interpreters, so I had much free discourse with him. He is a man of a very hot temper, soon inflamed and very brutal in his passion. He raises his natural heat by drinking much brandy, which be rectifies himself with great application. He is subject to convulsive motions all over his body, and his head seems to be affected with these. He wants not capacity, and has a larger measure of knowledge than might be expected from his education, which was very indifferent. A want of judgment, with an instability of temper, appear in him too often and too evidently. He is mechanically turned, and seems designed by nature rather to be a ship carpenter than a great prince. This was his chief study and exercise while he stayed here. He wrought much with his own hands and made all about him work at the models of ships. He told me he designed a great fleet at Azuph [i.e. Azov] and with it to attack the Turkish empire. But he did not seem capable of conducting so great a design, though his conduct in his wars since this has discovered a greater genius in him than appeared at this time.

He was desirous to understand our doctrine, but he did not seem disposed to mend matters in Moscovy. He was, indeed, resolved to encourage learning and to polish his people by sending some of them to travel in other countries and to draw strangers to come and live among them. He seemed apprehensive still [i.e. ever] of his sister's [i.e. the Princess Sophia's] intrigues. There was a mixture both of passion and severity in his temper. He is resolute, but understands little of war, and seemed not at all inquisitive that way.

After I had seen him often, and had conversed much with him, I could not but adore the depth of the providence of God that had raised up such a furious man to so absolute an authority over so great-- a part of the world. David, considering the great things God had made for the use of man, broke out into the meditation, " What is man, that thou art so mindful of him? " But here there is an occasion for reversing these words, since man seems a very contemptible thing in the sight of God, while such a person as the Tsar has such multitudes put, as it were, under his feet, exposed to his restless jealousy and savage temper.

He went from hence to the court of Vienna, where he purposed to have stayed some time, but he was called home sooner than he had intended upon a discovery, or a suspicion, of intrigues managed by his sister. The strangers, to whom he trusted most, were so true to him that those designs were crushed before he came back. But on this occasion he let loose his fury on all whom he suspected. Some hundreds of them were hanged all around Moscow, and it was said that he cut off many heads with his own hand ; and so far was he from relenting or showing any sort of tenderness that he seemed delighted with it. How long he is to be the scourge of that nation God only knows. 84

Unit IV New Directions in Thought and Culture and the Old Regime Chapters 14 and 15

"Philosophy," he wrote, "is written in the great book which never lies before our eyes - I mean the universe - but we cannot understand it if we do not first learn the language and grasp the symbols, in which it is written. The book is written in the mathematical language, and the symbols are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures, without whose help it is impossible to comprehend a single word of it; without which one wanders in vain through a dark labyrinth." - Galileo

 The astronomical theories of Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton.  The emergence of new scientific institutions.  The role of women in early science.  The relationship between science and religion.  New directions in philosophy and political science.  Witch-hunts in the early modern era.  The distinguishing characteristics of Baroque art.

 The power and privilege of the aristocracy and how they were maintained.  The struggle of rural peasants to survive.  Family structure and family economy.  Population growth and the expansion of cities.  The impact of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions.  The revolution in consumption.  Ghettos and the status of European Jews. 85 Potential FRQ’ Questions Describe the impact of the Scientific Revolution on European thought and culture.

Analyze the ways in which specific intellectual and scientific developments of the 17th and 18th centuries contributed to the emergence of the religious outlook known as "Deism."

Discuss the combination of social, cultural, political, and economic factors that allowed Great Britain to be the first nation to industrialize.

How did the agricultural revolution serve as a starting point for the industrial revolution and the changes it made on society?

Describe the change in the lifestyle and working conditions of the average peasant forced out by the enclosure movement.

Major Unit Assignments Sci-Philo Fair Scientific Revolution DBQ Science vs. Religion Discussion Europe in the Ancien Regime Map TIAA Assignment with Art Analysis- Baroque Art Chapter 14 Worksheet Chapter 15 Worksheet 86 Scientific Philosophy Fair

As a scientist during the scientific revolution, you are excited about the first scientific and philosophical conference that is bringing together all the brilliant minds of the era. You will create a poster presentation to explain to your colleagues your work. The “conference” will last two “days”, half the class will be presenting while the other will be attending the conference. For a block schedule- a “day” is “45 minutes” It is highly possible that the same “scientist” will attend both days of the conference, but will be portrayed by a different student. The list of the presenting scientists will be available a few weeks prior to the conference.

Requirements For the A Possible Earned Use the internet or books to find information about the life Include the sources (at least 3) on 15 and inventions of your scientist. (10) your poster (5) Create a poster presentation that clearly shows your Include pictures, diagrams, samples 30 colleagues (and visiting scholars) of your scientific work/theories on a. What you invented/discovered/examined (5) the poster (10) b. How you conducted your research (5) c. Why your research/examination was important for the world (10) Mount the poster on a stand alone tri-fold board (available at Information on the board is typed 20 Staples and other office supply stores) Can also be and neat (10) constructed from a cardboard box (10) In character, give a short (2-3 minute) presentation to the Create a small handout that can 15 other scientists and philosophers at the fair, explaining your remind visitors of your work and its influence (if you work in a partnership, both invention/theories (be creative— must speak) (10) edible is always fun) (5) Listen attentively to the Keynote Speaker (if applicable) and 10 all presentations (10) Listen to the other presenters and fill out the information Sheet filled out with detail (5) 20 sheet (15) Dress appropriately (as a scientist would have) for a 10 presentation (nice dress, lab coat, period costume, etc.) (10) Total 120 87 Chapter 14 Worksheet - The Scientific Revolution Scientific Revolution Hobbes, Thomas revolution Harvey, William Ptolemaic system Locke, John epicycle Royal Society of London heliocentric Enlightenment Brahe, Tycho Christinia Kepler, Johannes Chatelet, Emilie Newton, Isaac Urban VIII mechanism Pascal. Blaise Bacon, Francis maleficium scientific induction sabbats

Chapter Questions

What was the impact of the scientific revolution on women?

Galileo, Brahe, Kepler and Newton: Which made the most important contribution to the Scientific Revolution, and why?

What were the chief factors accounting for the condemnation of Galileo?

How did Pascal seek to reconcile faith and reason?

What role did the Church play in the witch-hunts?

Why were the majority of "witches" women?

Why did the witch-hunts end in the 17th century?

Textbook DQ’s

Copernicus Ascribes Movement to the Earth How does Copernicus justify his argument to the Pope?

How important was historical precedent and tradition to the pope?

Might Copernicus have thought that the pope would be especially susceptible to such an argument, even though what Copernicus proposed (the movement of the earth) contradicted the Bible?

Decartes explores the Promise of Science How does Decartes compare the usefulness of science with previous speculative philosophy?

How does he portray science as an instrument whereby human beings may master nature?

What, if any, limits does he place on the extension of scientific knowledge?

Why does he place so much emphasis on the promise of science to improve human health?

Margaret Cavendish Questions the Fascination with Scientific Instruments Why might Margaret Cavendish think that the experiments which were reported about new optical instruments dealt with superficial wonders?

Why does she contrast experimental philosophy with the beneficial arts? 88 Do you find a feminist perspective in her comparison of men of the Royal Society with boys playing with bubbles?

Galileo discusses the Relationship of Science with the Bible Is Galileo argument based on science or theology?

Did the church believe that nature was as much a revelation of God as the Bible was?

As Galileo describes them, which is the surer revelation of God, nature or the Bible?

Why might the pop reject Galileo’s argument?

Why More Women than Men are Witches Why would two Dominican monks say such things about women?

What are the biblical passages that they believe justify them?

Do their descriptions have any basis in the actual behavior of women in that age?

What is the rivalry between married and unmarried people that they refer to?

Midwives (Secondary) What types of women became midwives in early modern Europe?

How did the authorities regulate the practice of midwifery?

Why did male professionals gradually replace midwives in delivering babies?

“Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night. God said, 'Let Newton be!' and all was light.” - Alexander Pope 89

Who Ruled Where When? (Major Regimes, Roughly 1490-1790) England Spain France HRE/Austria Russia Prussia Tudor Habsburg Valois Habsburg Ferdinand of (Electorate of Henry VII Aragon Isabella Charles VIII Frederick III Ivan III (Great) Brandenburg 1487-1509 of Castille 1483-1498 1452-1493 1462-1505 subject to 1469-1516 HRE to 1701) Louis XII Disputed Maximilian I 1498-1515 Succession 1493-1519 1505-1533 Henry VIII Ivan IV Charles I Francis I Charles V 1509-1547 (Terrible) 1533- 1516-1556 1515-1547 1519-1556 1584 Edward VI Henry II 1547-1553 1547-1559 Ferdinand I Mary I Philip II Francis II 1556-1564 1553-1558 1556-1598 1559-1560 Charles IX 1560-1574 Elizabeth I Henry III Maximilian II Time of Troubles 1558-1603 1574-1589 1564-1576 1584-1613 Bourbon Henry IV Rudolf II 1589-1610 1576-1612 Stuart Romanov Michael James I Philip III Louis XIII Mathais Romanov 1603-1625 1598-1621 1610-1643 1612-1619 1613-1645 Hohenzollern Frederick William Charles I Philip IV Ferdinand II “The Great 1625-1649 1621-1665 1619-1637 Elector” 1640- 1688 90

England Spain France Austria Russia Prussia Stuart Habsburg Bourbon Habsburg Romanov Hohenzollern “Commonwealth” Frederick William Louis XIV Ferdinand III Alexis Interregnum Great Elector 1643-1715 1637-1657 1645-1676 1649-1660 1640-1688 Charles II Charles II Leopold I Feodor III 1660-1685 1665-1700 1658-1705 1676-1682 War of Spanish James II Peter I/Ivan V Frederick I Succession 1685-1688 1682-1696 1688-1713 1701-1714 Bourbon William III/Mary II Philip V Joseph I Peter I (Great) 1688-1702 1700-1746 1705-1711 1682-1725 Anne Charles VI Catherine I Frederick William 1702-1714 1711-1740 1725-1727 I1713-1740 Hanover War of Austrian George I Louis XV Peter II Succession 1714-1727 1715-1774 1727-1730 1740-1748 George II Anna 1727-1760 1730-1740 Maria Theresa Ferdinand VI Empress of Ivan VI Frederick II 1746-1759 Austria 1740-1741 (Great) 1740-1786 1740-1780 Elizabeth 1741-1762 Joseph II Frederick William George III Charles III Louis XVI Peter III HRE: 1765- II 1760-1820 1759-1788 1774-1792 1762 1790 1786-1797 Austria: 1780- 1790 Charles IV Catherine II Executed during 1788-1819 (great) 1762- Revolution, 1793 1796 91 Chapter 15 Worksheet- The Old Regime

Ancien Regime hobereaux aristocratic resurgence Kay, John Arkwright, Richard Newcomen, Thomas Bakewell, Robert Pugachev's Rebellion banalities robot barshchina szlachta Consumer Revolution Townsend, Charles corve Tull, Jethro enclosures urbanization family economy Vermuyden, Cornelius ghetto vingtieme Gordon Riots Watt, James Hargreaves, James Wedgewood, Josiah

Chapter Questions

How did family structures in Western Europe differ from those in Eastern Europe?

What caused the Agricultural Revolution?

What caused the 18th-century population explosion in Europe?

What caused the Industrial Revolution?

Textbook DQ’s

Rules are established for The Berlin Poorhouse What distinguishes the poor who deserved sympathy from those who did not?

How would such a distinction affect social policy?

Why might beggars have been regarded as dangers to public order?

What attitudes toward work do these regulations display?

Turgot Describes French Landholdings Why does Turgot favor those farmers who can make investments in the land they rent from a proprietor?

What are the structures of the metayer system?

Why did it lead to poor investments and lower harvests?

What is Turgot’s attitude toward work and entrepreneurship?

Priscilla Wakefield Demands More Occupations For Women What arguments were used at the end of the eighteenth century to limit the kinds of employment that women might enter?

Why did women receive less pay than men for similar or the same work?

What occupations traditionally filled by men does Wakefield believe women might also pursue? 92

Water, Washing, and Bathing (Secondary) Why did bathing become less frequent after the late Middle Ages? How did the use of linen clothing contribute to this change?

Belorussian Jews Petition Catherine the Great How do the petitioners attempt to appeal to long-standing custom to defend their interests?

How does the petition suggest that Jewish law and practice, distinct from the rest of the society, governed by Jewish social life?

In the context of this petition, which non-Jewish authorities may actually or potentially influence Jewish life?

"We don't have to protect the environment -- the Second Coming is at hand." - James Watt 93 APPARTS Essay Reading Excerpts from the Malleus Maleficarum, 1486 by Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger

The method of beginning an examination by torture is as follows: First, the jailers prepare the implements of torture, then they strip the prisoner (if it be a woman, she has already been stripped by other women, upright and of good report) [1]. This stripping is lest some means of witchcraft may have been sewed into the clothing--such as often, taught by the Devil, they prepare from the bodies of un-baptized infants, [murdered] that they may forfeit salvation. And when the implements of torture have been prepared, the judge, both in person and through other good men zealous in the faith, tries to persuade the prisoner to confess the truth freely; but, if he will not confess, he bids attendants make the prisoner fast to the strappado or some other implement of torture. The attendants obey forthwith, yet with feigned agitation. Then, at the prayer of some of those present, the prisoner is loosed again and is taken aside and once more persuaded to confess, being led to believe that he will in that case not be put to death.

Here it may be asked whether the judge, in the case of a prisoner much defamed, convicted both by witnesses and by proofs, nothing being lacking but his own confession, can properly lead him to hope that his life will be spared--when, even if he confess his crime, he will be punished with death.

It must be answered that opinions vary. Some hold that even a witch of very ill repute, against whom the evidence justifies violent suspicion, and who, as a ringleader of the witches, is accounted very dangerous, may be assured her life, and condemned instead to perpetual imprisonment on bread and water, in case she will give sure and convincing testimony against other witches; yet this penalty of perpetual imprisonment must not be announced to her, but only that her life will be spared, and that she will be punished in some other fashion, perhaps by exile. And doubtless such notorious witches, especially those who prepare witch-potions or who by magical methods cure those bewitched, would be peculiarly suited to be thus preserved, in order to aid the bewitched or to accuse other witches, were it not that their accusations cannot be trusted, since the Devil is a liar, unless confirmed by proofs and witnesses. [Page 12] Others hold, as to this point, that for a time the promise made to the witch sentenced to imprisonment is to be kept, but that after a time she should be burned.

A third view is, that the judge may safely promise witches to spare their lives, if only he will later excuse himself from pronouncing the sentence and will let another do this in his place. . . . But if, neither by threats nor by promises such as these, the witch can be induced to speak the truth, then the jailers must carry out the sentence, and torture the prisoner according to the accepted methods[,] with more or less of severity as the delinquent's crime may demand. And, while he is being tortured, he must be questioned on the articles of accusation, and this frequently and persistently, beginning with the lighter charges-for he will more readily confess the lighter than the heavier. And, while this is being done, the notary must write down everything in his record of the trial-- how the prisoner is tortured, on what points he is questioned, and how he answers.

And note that, if he confesses under the torture, he must afterward be conducted to another place, that he may confirm it and certify that it was not due alone to the force of the torture. But, if the prisoner will not confess the truth satisfactorily, other sorts of tortures must be placed before him, with the statement that, unless he will confess the truth, he must endure these also. But, if not even thus he can be brought into terror and to the truth, then the next day or the next but one is to be set for a continuation of the tortures--not a repetition, [2] for they must not be repeated unless new evidences be produced.

The judge must then address to the prisoners the following sentence: We, the judge, etc., do assign to you,------, such and such a day for the continuation of the tortures, that from your own mouth the truth may be heard, and that the whole may be recorded by the notary. And during the interval, before the day assigned, the judge, in person or through approved men, must in the manner above described try to persuade the prisoner to confess, promising her (if there is aught to be gained by this promise) that her life shall be spared. The judge shall see to it, moreover, that throughout this interval guards are constantly with the prisoner, so that she may not be left alone; because she will be visited by the Devil and tempted into suicide. 94 Footnotes [1] Sometimes, in place of the prisoner's clothing, a garment furnished by the court was now supplied, to be worn during the torture. [2] This was, of course, a legal fiction, to avoid the merciful restriction put by law upon the repetition of torture. [3] This change in the gender of pronoun is a faithful following of the original.

SOURCE: George L. Burr, ed., The Witch Persecutions in translations and reprints from the o0riginal sources of European History, 6 vols. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania History Department, 1898-1912) vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 10-13. Found on the “Hanover Historical Texts Project.” 95 Unit V - The Transatlantic Economy and the Enlightenment Chapters 16 and 17

The monarchy is so extraordinarily useful. When Britain wins a battle she shouts, "God save the Queen"; when she loses, she votes down the prime minister.”- Winston Churchill

 Europe’s concept of mercantilism and empire-building.  The nature and decline of Spain’s vast colonial empire in the Americas.  The structure of slavery in the Americas, and the role of slave labor in the Atlantic economy's plantation system.  The wars in Europe and the colonies, particularly the Seven Years’ War.  The conflict between Britain and its colonies, and its outcome in the War of American Independence.

After reading chapter 17 you should understand o The intellectual and social background of the Enlightenment. o The philosophes and their political and intellectual proposals for reform. o The beliefs of the Deists. o The roles of women in the Enlightenment. o Enlightened Absolutism and its effects in central and eastern Europe. 96

Potential FRQ questions Mercantilism Analyze the influence of the theory of mercantilism on the foreign and domestic policies of European nations between 1650 and 1775.

Describe and analyze the economic, cultural, and social changes that led to and sustained Europe's rapid population growth in the period from approximately 1650 to 1800.

Analyze the changes in the European economy from about 1450 to 1700 brought about by the voyages of discovery and by colonization. Give specific examples.

In 1490 there was no such country as Spain, yet within a century it had become the most powerful nation in Europe and within another had sunk to the status of a third-rate power. Describe and analyze the major social, economic, and political reasons for Spain's rise and fall.

The Enlightenment Compare the economic, political, and social conditions in Great Britain and in France during the eighteenth century, showing why they favored the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain more so than in France.

Compare and contrast the cultural values of the Enlightenment with those of the 16th century Northern Renaissance.

In what ways did Enlightenment thinkers build on or make use of the ideas of Newton and Locke?

Compare and contrast the views of Machiavelli and Rousseau on human nature and the relationship between government and the governed.

Compare and contrast the views of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau on the nature of man and the best possible form of government.

Evaluate the effectiveness of the various "enlightened absolutist" regimes of the late 1700s.

Analyze the ways in which specific intellectual and scientific developments of the 17th and 18th centuries contributed to the emergence of the religious outlook known as "Deism."

Both Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683) and Adam Smith (1723-1790) sought to increase the wealth of their respective countries. How did their recommendations differ?

Describe and analyze the influence of the Enlightenment on both elite culture and popular culture in the 18th century.

Major Unit Assignments Enlightened Facebook Slavery Chart 18th Century Wars Chart Europe in 1783 Map Salons POV Philiosophes and Politics Discussion Colombian Exchange Virtual Discussion Philosophers chart Enlightened despots chart TIAA Assignment with Art Analysis -Rococo Art Chapter 16 and 17 Worksheet 97

Enlightenment Facebook

 Project - 30 points ; to be evaluated by colleagues.  Evaluation sheet - 3 points for each sheet, at least one sheet for each round of browsing .

 Develop the equivalent of a Facebook page for a major figure of the Enlightenment. o Your page must contain profile information, "photos," applications, games, wall-to-wall postings, invitations, invitations to join groups...you get the idea. o The "page" is actually a larger than life "paper" version of Facebook. o Your colleagues should be able to take "notes" on it. o You should submit a formatted bibliography WITH your project. o You will have 1/2 the period over two days to work on your projects in class. The rest must be completed outside class.

 The Facebook page will be presented in rounds: each group will "do something" - invite someone to join a group, post new pictures, become a friend.  Other groups will respond by ignoring a friend request, accepting an invitation, etc.

 Actions must be accompanied by a paper equivalent – in other words, you will have to justify in writing, why you accepted or denied a friend request, why you chose certain people over others, as well as accepting/declining invitations. 98

Questions Circle a response. Group ready to go? Yes No

Enlightenment Figure: Group Members:

Circle a number (1 – Comments (You must have at weak, 6 – very strong) least three DETAILED comments below). The Facebook “page” contains accurate and thorough profile 1 2 3 4 5 6 information about the Enlightenment figure. It was possible to take notes from the information presented on the page. Facebook “page” has relevant analogous applications, games, wall- 1 2 3 4 5 6 to-wall postings, invitations. The members participated in all browsing rounds. They sent out 1 2 3 4 5 6 invitations for “friendship,” for an application, and wrote on another figure’s wall. Their requests are plausible given the historical context of the other Enlightenment figures. The members responded to other figures’ requests in a plausible 1 2 3 4 5 6 member: acceptance or rejection of a invitation to friendship, participation in the application received, and a response to a wall-to-wall message. Facebook “page” is larger than life (at least two construction paper 1 2 3 4 5 6 sheets large). It contains pictures (photos) of the Enlightenment figure, relevant artwork, or text from that particular figure. I learned the following from this presentation: 99 Chapter 16 Worksheet- Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial Rebellion

Terms to Identify Bill of Rights Pitt, William the Younger Charles III Pitt, William, the Elder Clive, Robert Seven Years War Commonwealth men Stamp Act Compagnie des Indies Sugar Act Convention of Westminster Townshend, Charles Declaratory Act Treaty of Paris of 1763 factories Treaty of Utrecht First Continental Congress War of the Austrian Succession flota Wilkes, John intendant Wolfe, James Intolerable Acts Yorkshire Association Movement Montcalm, Joseph de

Chapter Questions What were the goals of mercantilist nations?

In what areas of the world did the major European powers concentrate their colonial aspirations?

Why did slavery flourish in Spanish controlled colonies in the New World?

Textbook DQ’s

Visitors Describe the Portobello Fair What products were sold at the fair?

How does this passage illustrate the inefficiency of monopoly trade in the Spanish Empire and the many chances for smuggling?

Buccaneers Prowl the High Seas How did the restrictive commercial policy of the Spanish Empire encourage piracy and privateering?

Was there a code of honor among the pirates?

What kinds of people may have suffered most from piracy?

To what extent did pirates have any respect for individual freedom?

How romantic was the real world of pirates?

Sugar Enters the Western Diet How did the colonization of the Americas affect the European demand for sugar?

Why did sugar consumption increase so rapidly in Europe during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries? 100 A Slave Trader Describes the Atlantic Passage Who are the various people described in this document who in one way or another were involved in our profited from the slave trade?

What dangers did the Africans face on the voyage?

What contemporary attitudes could have led this captain to treat and think of his human cargo simply as goods to be transported?

What are the grounds of his self-pity for the difficulties he met?

Major Cartwright Calls for the Reform of Parliament What does Cartwright mean by “corruption”?

How does he believe Britain has been deprived of its liberties?

Why does he prefer an annual election of Parliament to elections every seven years?

How does he illustrate the wrongful state of representation under the present system?

The Columbian Exchange What was the impact of European diseases on the Americas?

Why was the impact so profound?

Why could so many European crops grow so well in the Americas?

What was the cultural impact of animals taken from Europe to the Americas?

How did food from the Americas change the diet of Europe and then later, as Europeans immigrated, the diet of the entire world?

"Whenever I hear anyone arguing for slavery, I feel a strong impulse to see it tried on him personally." - Abraham Lincoln 101

Chapter 17 Worksheet- The Enlightenment Terms to Identify Encyclopedia Montesquieu, Baron de Beccaria, Cesare Neoclassical David. Jacques Louis physiocrats deism print culture enlightened absolutism Rococo hotels salon laissez-faire Spinoza, Baruch Mendelsohn, Moses Voltaire Chapter Questions In your own words, what were the major beliefs of the philosophes?

Why did the philosophes consider organized religion to be their greatest enemy?

In what ways does Adam Smith overturn previous mercantilist economic theory?

Of the three rulers, Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, and Joseph II, which was the most absolute, and why?

Of the three rulers, Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, and Joseph II, which was the most enlightened, and why?

What led to the Partition of Poland, and who gained the most from it?

Textbook DQ’s

Coffeehouses and Enlightenment (Secondary) How did coffeehouses help spread the ideas of the Enlightenment?

How was the consumption of coffee related to the transatlantic slave trade?

Immanuel Kant Defines Enlightenment What authorities should the liberated intellect have the courage to question?

Why does Kant believe intellectual liberation requires effort and rejection of laziness and cowardice?

Why does Kant link enlightenment with freedom?

Denis Diderot Condemns European Empires What is the basis for Diderot’s view that European have behaved tyrannically?

How does he portray the behavior of Europeans in foreign areas?

What specific social results does he associate with European greed?

Rousseau Argues For Separate Spheres For Men and Women How does Rousseau move from the physical differences between men and women to an argument for distinct social roles and social spheres?

What would be the proper kinds of social activities for women in Rousseau’s vision?

What kind of education would he think appropriate for women? 102 Mary Wollstonecraft Criticizes Rousseau’s View of Women What criticisms does Wollstone direct against Rousseau’s views?

Why does Wollstonecraft emphasize a new kind of education for women?

Maria Theresa and Joseph II of Austria Debate Toleration

How does Joseph define toleration and why does Maria Theresa believe it is the same as religious indifference?

Why does Maria Theresa fear that toleration will bring about political as well as religious turmoil?

Why does Maria Theresa think that Joseph’s belief in toleration has come from Joseph’s acquaintance with wicked books?

To do is to be. - Descartes To be is to do. - Voltaire Do be do be do. - Frank Sinatra 103

APPARTS Essay Reading- George III's Letter on the Loss of America

The precise date of this letter by King George III is unknown, but it is believed that he wrote it in the 1780s

America is lost! Must we fall beneath the blow? Or have we resources that may repair the mischief? What are those resources? Should they be sought in distant Regions held by precarious Tenure, or shall we seek them at home in the exertions of a new policy?

The situation of the Kingdom is novel, the policy that is to govern it must be novel likewise, or neither adapted to the real evils of the present moment, or the dreaded ones of the future.

For a Century past the Colonial Scheme has been the system that has guided the Administration of the British Government. It was thoroughly known that from every Country there always exists an active emigration of unsettled, discontented, or unfortunate People, who failing in their endeavours to live at home, hope to succeed better where there is more employment suitable to their poverty. The establishment of Colonies in America might probably increase the number of this class, but did not create it; in times anterior to that great speculation, Poland contained near 10,000 Scotch Pedlars; within the last thirty years not above 100, occasioned by America offering a more advantageous asylum for them.

A people spread over an immense tract of fertile land, industrious because free, and rich because industrious, presently became a market for the Manufactures and Commerce of the Mother Country. An importance was soon generated, which from its origin to the late conflict was mischievous to Britain, because it created an expense of blood and treasure worth more at this instant, if it could be at our command, than all we ever received from America. The wars of 1744, of 1756, and 1775, were all entered into from the encouragements given to the speculations of settling the wilds of North America.

It is to be hoped that by degrees it will be admitted that the Northern Colonies, that is those North of Tobacco, were in reality our very successful rivals in two Articles, the carrying freight trade, and the Newfoundland fishery. While the Sugar Colonies added above three millions a year to the wealth of Britain, the Rice Colonies near a million, and the Tobacco ones almost as much; those more to the north, so far from adding anything to our wealth as Colonies, were trading, fishing, farming Countries, that rivaled us in many branches of our industry, and had actually deprived us of no inconsiderable share of the wealth we reaped by means of the others. This comparative view of our former territories in America is not stated with any idea of lessening the consequence of a future friendship and connection with them; on the contrary it is to be hoped we shall reap more advantages from their trade as friends than ever we could derive from them as Colonies; for there is reason to suppose we actually gained more by them while in actual rebellion, and the common open connection cut off, than when they were in obedience to the Crown; the Newfoundland fishery taken into the Account, there is little doubt of it.

The East and West Indies are conceived to be the great commercial supports of the Empire; as to the Newfoundland fishery time must tell us what share we shall reserve of it. But there is one observation which is applicable to all three; they depend on very distant territorial possessions, which we have little or no hopes of retaining from their internal strength, we can keep them only by means of a superior Navy. If our marine force sinks, or if in consequence of wars, debts, and taxes, we should in future find ourselves so debilitated as to be involved in a new War, without the means of carrying it on with vigour, in these cases, all distant possessions must fall, let them be as valuable as their warmest panegyrists contend.

It evidently appears from this slight review of our most important dependencies, that on them we are not to exert that new policy which alone can be the preservation of the British power and consequence. The more important they are already, the less are they fit instruments in that work. No man can be hardy enough to deny that they are insecure; to add therefore to their value by exertions of policy which shall have the effect of directing any stream of capital, industry, or population into those channels, would be to add to a disproportion already an evil. The more we are convinced of the vast importance of those territories, the more we must feel the insecurity of our power; our view therefore ought not to be to increase but preserve them. 104

APPARTS Essay Reading Jean Jacques Rousseau: The Social Contract, 1763

Jean-Jacques Rousseau stresses, like John Locke the idea of a social contract as the basis of society. Locke's version emphasized a contact between the governors and the governed: Rousseau's was in a way much more profound - the social contract was between all members of society, and essentially replaced "natural" rights as the basis for human claims.

Origin and Terms of the Social Contract

Man was born free, but everywhere he is in chains. This man believes that he is the master of others, and still he is more of a slave than they are. How did that transformation take place? I don't know. How may the restraints on man become legitimate? I do believe I can answer that question....

At a point in the state of nature when the obstacles to human preservation have become greater than each individual with his own strength can cope with . . ., an adequate combination of forces must be the result of men coming together. Still, each man's power and freedom are his main means of self-preservation. How is he to put them under the control of others without damaging himself . . . ?

This question might be rephrased: "How is a method of associating to be found which will defend and protect-using the power of all-the person and property of each member and still enable each member of the group to obey only himself and to remain as free as before?" This is the fundamental problem; the social contract offers a solution to it.

The very scope of the action dictates the terms of this contract and renders the least modification of them inadmissible, something making them null and void. Thus, although perhaps they have never been stated in so man) words, they are the same everywhere and tacitly conceded and recognized everywhere. And so it follows that each individual immediately recovers hi primitive rights and natural liberties whenever any violation of the social contract occurs and thereby loses the contractual freedom for which he renounced them.

The social contract's terms, when they are well understood, can be reduced to a single stipulation: the individual member alienates himself totally to the whole community together with all his rights. This is first because conditions will be the same for everyone when each individual gives himself totally, and secondly, because no one will be tempted to make that condition of shared equality worse for other men....

Once this multitude is united this way into a body, an offense against one of its members is an offense against the body politic. It would be even less possible to injure the body without its members feeling it. Duty and interest thus equally require the two contracting parties to aid each other mutually. The individual people should be motivated from their double roles as individuals and members of the body, to combine all the advantages which mutual aid offers them....

Individual Wills and the General Will

In reality, each individual may have one particular will as a man that is different from-or contrary to-the general will which he has as a citizen. His own particular interest may suggest other things to him than the common interest does. His separate, naturally independent existence may make him imagine that what he owes to the common cause is an incidental contribution - a contribution which will cost him more to give than their failure to receive it would harm the others. He may also regard the moral person of the State as an imaginary being since it is not a man, and wish to enjoy the rights of a citizen without performing the duties of a subject. This unjust attitude could cause the ruin of the body politic if it became widespread enough.

So that the social pact will not become meaningless words, it tacitly includes this commitment, which alone gives power to the others: Whoever refuses to obey the general will shall be forced to obey it by the whole body politic, which means nothing else but that he will be forced to be free. This condition is indeed the one which by dedicating 105 each citizen to the fatherland gives him a guarantee against being personally dependent on other individuals. It is the condition which all political machinery depends on and which alone makes political undertakings legitimate. Without it, political actions become absurd, tyrannical, and subject to the most outrageous abuses.

Whatever benefits he had in the state of nature but lost in the civil state, a man gains more than enough new ones to make up for them. His capabilities are put to good use and developed; his ideas are enriched, his sentiments made more noble, and his soul elevated to the extent that-if the abuses in this new condition did not often degrade him to a condition lower than the one he left behind-he would have to keep blessing this happy moment which snatched him away from his previous state and which made an intelligent being and a man out of a stupid and very limited animal....

Property Rights

In dealing with its members, the State controls all their goods under the social contract, which serves as the basis for all rights within the State, but it controls them only through the right of first holder which individuals convey to the State....

A strange aspect of this act of alienating property rights to the state is that when the community takes on the goods of its members, it does not take these goods away from them. The community does nothing but assure its members of legitimate possession of goods, changing mere claims of possession into real rights and customary use into property.... Through an act of transfer having advantages for the public but far more for themselves they have, so to speak, really acquired everything they gave up....

Indivisible, Inalienable Sovereignty

The first and most important conclusion from the principles we have established thus far is that the general will alone may direct the forces of the State to achieve the goal for which it was founded, the common good.... Sovereignty is indivisible ... and is inalienable.... A will is general or it is not: it is that of the whole body of the people or only of one faction. In the first instance, putting the will into words and force is an act of sovereignty: the will becomes law. In the second instance, it is only a particular will or an administrative action; at the very most it is a decree.

Our political theorists, however, unable to divide the source of sovereignty, divide sovereignty into the ways it is applied. They divide it into force and will; into legislative power and executive power; into the power to tax, the judicial power, and the power to wage war; into internal administration and the power to negotiate with foreign countries. Now we see them running these powers together. Now they will proceed to separate them. They make the sovereign a being of fantasy, composed of separate pieces, which would be like putting a man together from several bodies, one having eyes, another arms, another feet-nothing more. Japanese magicians are said to cut up a child before the eyes of spectators, then throw the pieces into the air one after the other, and then cause the child to drop down reassembled and alive again. That is the sort of magic trick our political theorists perform. After having dismembered the social body with a trick worthy of a traveling show, they reassemble the pieces without anybody knowing how....

If we follow up in the same way on the other divisions mentioned, we find that we are deceived every time we believe we see sovereignty divided. We find that the jurisdictions we have thought to be exercised as parts of sovereignty in reality are subordinate to the [one] sovereign power. They presuppose supreme wills, which they merely carry out in their jurisdictions . . . .

Need for Citizen Participation, Not Representation

It follows from the above that the general will is always in the right and inclines toward the public good, but it does not follow that the deliberations of the people always have the same rectitude. People always desire what is good, but they do not always see what is good. You can never corrupt the people, but you can often fool them, and that is the only time that the people appear to will something bad....

If, assuming that the people were sufficiently informed as they made decisions and that the citizens did not communicate with each other, the general will would always be resolved from a great number of small differences, and 106 the deliberation would always be good. But when blocs are formed, associations of parts at the expense of the whole, the will of each of these associations will be general as far as its members are concerned but particular as far as the State is concerned. Then we may say that there are no longer so many voters as there are men present but as many as there are associations. The differences will become less numerous and will yield less general results. Finally, when one of these associations becomes so strong that it dominates the others, you no longer have the sum of minor differences as a result but rather one single [unresolved] difference, with the result that there no longer is a general will, and the view that prevails is nothing but one particular view....

But we must also consider the private persons who make up the public, apart from the public personified, who each have a life and liberty independent of it. It is very necessary for us to distinguish between the respective rights of the citizens and the sovereign and between the duties which men must fulfill in their role as subjects from the natural rights they should enjoy in their role as men.

It is agreed that everything which each individual gives up of his power, his goods, and his liberty under the social contract is only that part of all those things which is of use to the community, but it is also necessary to agree that the sovereign alone is the judge of what that useful part is.

All the obligations which a citizen owes to the State he must fulfill as soon as the sovereign asks for them, but the sovereign in turn cannot impose any obligation on subjects which is not of use to the community. If fact, the sovereign cannot even wish to do so, for nothing can take place without a cause according to the laws of reason, any more than according to the laws of nature [and the sovereign community will have no cause to require anything beyond what is of communal use]....

Government . . is wrongly confused with the sovereign, whose agent it is. What then is government? It is an intermediary body established between the subjects and the sovereign to keep them in touch with each other. It is charged with executing the laws and maintaining both civil and political liberty.... The only will dominating government ... should be the general will or the law. The government's power is only the public power vested in it. As soon as [government] attempts to let any act come from itself completely independently, it starts to lose its intermediary role. If the time should ever come when the [government] has a particular will of its own stronger than that of the sovereign and makes use of the public power which is in its hands to carry out its own particular will-when there are thus two sovereigns, one in law and one in fact-at that moment the social union will disappear and the body politic will be dissolved.

Once the public interest has ceased to be the principal concern of citizens, once they prefer to serve State with money rather than with their persons, the State will be approaching ruin. Is it necessary to march into combat? They will pay some troops and stay at home. Is it necessary to go to meetings? They will name some deputies and stay at home. Laziness and money finally leave them with soldiers to enslave their fatherland and representatives to sell it....

Sovereignty cannot be represented.... Essentially, it consists of the general will, and a will is not represented: either we have it itself, or it is something else; there is no other possibility. The deputies of the people thus are not and cannot be its representatives. They are only the people's agents and are not able to come to final decisions at all. Any law that the people have not ratified in person is void, it is not a law at all.

Sovereignty and Civil Religion

Now then, it is of importance to the State that each citizen should have a religion requiring his devotion to duty; however, the dogmas of that religion are of no interest to the State except as they relate to morality and to the duties which each believer is required to perform for others. For the rest of it, each person may have whatever opinions he pleases....

It follows that it is up to the sovereign to establish the articles of a purely civil faith, not exactly as dogmas of religion but as sentiments of social commitment without which it would be impossible to be either a good citizen or a faithful subject.... While the State has no power to oblige anyone to believe these articles, it may banish anyone who does not believe them. This banishment is not for impiety but for lack of social commitment, that is, for being incapable of 107 sincerely loving the laws and justice or of sacrificing his life to duty in time of need. As for the person who conducts himself as if he does not believe them after having publicly stated his belief in these same dogmas, he deserves the death penalty. He has lied in the presence of the laws.

The dogmas of civil religion should be simple, few in number, and stated in precise words without interpretations or commentaries. These are the required dogmas: the existence of a powerful, intelligent Divinity, who does good, has foreknowledge of all, and provides for all; the life to come; the happy rewards of the just; the punishment of the wicked; and the sanctity ol` the social contract and the laws. As for prohibited articles of faith, I limit myself to one: intolerance. Intolerance characterizes the religious persuasions we have excluded.

From JeanJacques Rousseau, Contrat social ou Principes du droit politique (Paris: Garnier Frères 1800), pp. 240332, passim. Translated by Henry A. Myers. 108 Readings for Discussion Timeline- The World of 1607 Looking Back on America’s 400th Anniversary

By Dana Huntley

This morning’s television newscast brought into our homes live video reports from London and around the world. Four hundred years ago in 1607, however, people in England did not know that half the world existed. It would be more than a century before Captain Cook explored the South Pacific. It would be 200 years before Lewis and Clark would cross the American continent. There were no toaster ovens, newspapers or cell phones, no GPS or jumbo jets, no electricity or refrigeration, let alone television or instant global communications. Word traveled no faster than a horse or a sail.

Among the many events surrounding America’s 400th anniversary this year is the opening of dramatic new exhibition galleries at Jamestown Settlement—a signature event in the Jamestown 2007 celebrations. The freshly constructed halls contain 30,000 square feet of exhibit space dedicated to “The World of 1607.” A new introductory film, 1607: A Nation Takes Root, provides an overview of the first two decades of the Virginia colony and the cultures that converged there: the indigenous Powhatan Indians and the first documented Africans from Angola, as well as the early English settlers.

Jamestown’s waterfront discovery area highlights 17th-century water travel, commerce and cultural exchange, with interactive exhibits on navigation and cargo. Exhibits also explore overseas trade and colonization, and advances in cartography and ship design. The story of the Virginia Company is told in a re-created English manor house. (British Heritage readers who visit can decide for themselves how much the re-creation resembles the original Otley Hall [see British Heritage November 2006].) A short film, The Crossing, describes the historic 1607 voyage to Virginia. More than 500 artifacts from the 17th century enhance the exhibits, videos, dioramas and reconstructions in the new Jamestown Settlement galleries.

Artifacts and re-creations can only go so far, however, in conveying a sense of time and place over the distance of 400 years and 4,000 miles. What was the world really like in 1607?

About this time of year four centuries ago, 104 young men and boys aboard Susan Constant, Godspeed and Discovery were making their way toward the tidewater of Chesapeake Bay. The Virginia Company of London had won its charter, and the tiny flotilla had set sail from London in December 1606. Its purpose was to establish the first English settlement in the New World. The fleet admiral was Christopher Newport, sailing on Constant. The motive force behind the Virginia Company, however, was Vice Admiral Captain Bartholomew Gosnold aboard Godspeed. His story, of course, we have told (British Heritage November 2006).

The London they left behind was in some turmoil. King James I had come down from Edinburgh a few years before, after the death of Queen Elizabeth. He was still putting his personal imprint on the monarchy, filling his court with Scottish favorites, spending lavishly and giving out honors and titles with unprecedented generosity—and unnerving the English political establishment.

Before he came down from Edinburgh, where he was King James VI of Scotland, James had written The True Law of Free Monarchies, in which he defended the divine right of kings as an insoluble part of apostolic succession. His belief in his own divine right brought him into real conflict with an English Parliament that had long ago limited the power of its monarchy, especially when it came to taxes. James’ belief in his royal prerogatives not only created policy conflict, it also gave him an attitude.

Out in the shires, and back in the East Anglican villages of Essex and Suffolk, where most of the young Virginia Company adventurers called home, life remained largely unchanged from monarch to monarch, year to year, generation to generation. It would be another half-dozen generations at least, before the first effects of the Industrial Revolution would begin to draw people off the land to the towns and emergent factories and mills, bringing such things as manufactured cloth, dishes and tools. 109 In 1607 most of England’s population was rural, living in manorial villages and on the farmsteads of large estates, spread out across the countryside. There were few towns as large as 1,000 people. Apart from the capital, Bristol and Norwich were the only “big” towns. Wealth lay in the land; living lay in farming it. The agrarian economy, way of life and quality of life in the early 17th century remained largely unchanged from what it had been two centuries earlier. It would be 200 years more before the introduction of elementary machines like the seed drill would begin to transform the way the land was farmed.

The one element of life that had changed dramatically over the last two generations was religion.

Through the reigns of Henry VIII and his children, the country’s formal ecclesiastical allegiance had switched four times. Religious passions were still strong, and nearly everyone from the court to the croft believed their personal convictions held eternal consequences. In the Suffolk town of Bury St. Edmunds, where Captain Gosnold went to church with his family, the churchyard contained the remains of men who had died in flames at the stake within living memory for their Protestant convictions under Catholic Queen Mary. An early 20th-century monument honors their memory in the close of St. Edmundsbury Cathedral.

In the East of England in particular, a desire to distance the local church from Catholic worship and doctrine was strong; it was a hotbed of Puritanism, fueled at Cambridge University. In 1603 the new English king had been presented with the Millenary Petition, signed by 1,000 Puritan clerics and lay leaders, requesting more reforms for the Anglican Church. At the Hampton Court Conference of 1604, James rejected most of their demands. Hundreds refused to comply, and more than 100 clergymen lost their living within the Anglican Church. Dissenting congregations grew— the folks who became Congregationalists and Baptists.

Scottish Presbyterians wanted a Presbyterian form of church government; the Anglican conservatives wanted to impose bishops on the Kirk of Scotland. Catholics and dissenters sought freedom of conscience and of worship. What King James I wanted was control. Under James’ rules, all were coerced into worshiping in the Church of England.

Up in Lincolnshire, local congregations of dissenters in the villages of Scrooby, Babworth and Austerfield determined together to leave their homes and homeland to find freedom to worship as they chose. We know them as the Pilgrims. It is their 400th anniversary too. After elaborate preparations had been made, in the autumn of 1607 they quietly slipped away from their villages and made their way to the coast just above the small port of Boston, where a Dutch ship was waiting. Even fleeing, however, violated James’ law. When their plans were betrayed, the groups’ leaders, William Bradford, John Robinson, William Brewster and others, were imprisoned in the Guildhall in Boston (where the courtroom and their jail cells can still be seen), and the families were forced to return home. The next spring they made their escape successfully and re-formed their community at Leiden in the Netherlands. In 1620, of course, some in the company would sail Mayflower across the Atlantic.

Back on board Godspeed, it was not religious freedom that motivated the sailors and settlers, but commerce. The Virginia Company was a stock company aiming to make money. Theirs was an economic migration, seeking a better life in a New World. They sailed without medicine; there were no antibiotics, no anesthetic and no analgesic stronger than alcohol. It would be nine years before William Harvey announced his discovery of the circulation of the blood, and 200 years before the germ theory of disease was widely accepted. They sailed without communications; there was no telephone, radio, radar or satellite navigation. Captain Gosnold could determine latitude with a sextant, but it would be a century and a half before navigators could measure longitude. There were no manufactured goods aboard; every shoe and shirt, nail, barrel and tool was the product of an artisan.

Through the 1600s, tens of thousands of English settlers would follow the Jamestown adventurers and the Pilgrim congregation in the dangerous crossing to the New World—in just the same way and for the same reasons. They came for land and a better life, and they came for freedom from the religious conflicts that would embroil England in a long and bitter civil war. With few and rudimentary possessions, and little knowledge of their destination, they set out for a journey of months under sail on the cold Atlantic waters. 110

The Columbian Exchange: Plants, Animals, and Disease between the Old and New Worlds Alfred W. Crosby, Professor Emeritus, University of Texas at Austin National Humanities Center

For tens of millions of years the dominant pattern of biological evolution on this planet has been one of geographical divergence dictated by the simple fact of the separateness of the continents. Even where climates have been similar, as in the Amazon and Congo basins, organisms have tended to get more different rather than more alike because they had little or no contact with each other. The Amazon has jaguars, the Congo leopards.

However, very, very recently—that is to say, in the last few thousand years—there has been a countervailing force, us, or, if you want to be scientific about it, Homo sapiens. We are world-travelers, trekkers of deserts and crossers of oceans. We have gone to and lived or at least spent some time everywhere, taking with us, intentionally, our crops and domesticated animals and, unintentionally, our weeds, varmints, disease organisms, and such free-loaders as house sparrows. Humans have in the very last tick of time reversed the ancient trend of geographical biodiversification.

Many of the most spectacular and the most influential examples of this are in the category of the exchange of organisms between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. It began when the first humans entered the New World a few millennia ago. These were the Amerindians (or, if you prefer, proto-Amerindians), and they brought with them a number of other Old World species and subspecies, for instance, themselves, an Old World species, and possibly the domesticated dog, and the tuberculosis bacillus. But these were few in number. The humans in question were hunter-gatherers who had domesticated very few organisms, and who in all probability came to America from Siberia, where the climate kept the number of humans low and the variety of organisms associated with them to a minimum.

There were other avant garde humans in the Americas, certainly the Vikings about 1,000 CE, possibly Japanese fishermen, etc., but the tsunami of biological exchange did not begin until 1492. In that year the Europeans initiated contacts across the Atlantic (and, soon after, across the Pacific) which have never ceased. Their motives were economic, nationalistic, and religious, not biological. Their intentions were to make money, expand empires, and convert heathen, not to spread Old World DNA; but if we take the long view we will see that the most important aspect of their imperialistic advances has been the latter.

They off-handedly and often unintentionally effected enormous augmentations and deletions in the biota of the continents, so enormous it is difficult to imagine what these biotas were like prior to Columbus, et al. A large tome would not provide enough space to list the plant, animal, and micro-organism exchanges, and a thousand volumes would be insufficient to assess their effect. In the space of this essay, we can only manage to convey an impression of the magnitude of these biological revolutions.

Let us begin with a thumbnail sketch of the biogeography of the globe when Columbus set sail. Everyone in the Americas was a Amerindian. Everyone in Eurasia and Africa was a person who shared no common ancestor with Amerindians for at the very least 10,000 years. (I omit the subpolar peoples, such as the Inuit, from this analysis because they never stopped passing back and forth across the Bering Strait). The plants and animals of the tropical continents of Africa and South America differed sharply from each other and from those in any other parts of the world. I recommend that you consider the contrast between the flexibly nosed tapir of South America and the more extravagantly nosed elephant of Africa. The plants and animals of the more northerly continents, Eurasia and North America, differed not so sharply, but clearly differed. European bison and American buffalo (which should also be called bison) were very much alike, but Europe had nothing like the rattlesnake nor North America anything like the humped camel.

The contrast between the two sets of organisms, Old World and New World, those closely associated with humanity— crop plants, domesticated animals, germs, and weeds—was very sharp. The difference between the two lists of crops was, with the possible exception of cotton, absolute. (I am omitting dozens of not quite so important crops in these lists.) The difference between the two lists of domesticated animals is even more amazing. They differ not only in content but in length. 111 The achievements of Amerindian farmers were as impressive as those of Old World farmers, especially if you take into account the fact that the Amerindians' lands were smaller in area and they had fewer species of plants to work with than the Old World farmers, but the achievements of Amerindian livestockmen were clearly inferior to their Old World opposite numbers. Perhaps the Americas simply had fewer species of large mammals that could be tamed. There were, for instance, no wild horses or cattle in the Americas to tame. What about North American buffalo? They resisted and still resist domestication. The Amerindians did domesticate the llama, the humpless camel of the Andes, but it cannot carry more than about two hundred pounds at most, cannot be ridden, and is anything but an amiable beast of burden.

More astonishing than the difference between the length of the lists of Old World's and New World's domesticated animals is the difference between the lengths of the lists of infectious diseases native to the two. The New World had only a few, possibly because humans had been present there and had lived in dense populations, cities, for a short time compared to the Old. Possibly of greater importance is the relative lack of domesticated herd animals in America, one of our richest sources of disease micro-organisms. (For instance, we share influenza with pigs and other barnyard animals).

There were infections in the New World before 1492 that were not present in the Old (Chargas' disease, for instance). There were those it shared with the Old World, certainly one or more of the treponematoses (a category including syphilis) and possibly tuberculosis; but the list is short, very short. When we list the infections brought to the New World from the Old, however, we find most of humanity's worst afflictions, among them smallpox, malaria, yellow fever, measles, cholera, typhoid, and bubonic plague. 112 Unit VI -The French Revolution/ Age of Napoleon Chapters 18 and 19

The consequences of things are not always proportionate to the apparent magnitude of those events that have produced them. Thus the American Revolution, from which little was expected, produced much; but the French Revolution, from which much was expected, produced little.” - Charles Caleb Colton

 France’s financial crisis, which caused Louis XVI to call the Estates General.  The creation of a National Assembly, and the storming of the Bastille.  The reconstruction of political and religious institutions within the context of a constitutional monarchy.  The second revolution of 1792, the execution of the king and radical reforms.  The war between France and the rest of Europe.  The Reign of Terror under Robespierre, the Thermidorian Reaction, and the establishment of the Directory.

After reading chapter 19, you should be able to:

 Discuss Napoleon's rise to power and explain how he was able to become Emperor.  Identify Napoleon's administrative reforms and understand how they differed from Old Regime policies.  Trace France's military conquests, the establishment of the French Empire, and European resistance to France.  Explain Napoleon's reasons for invading Russia and understand how the failed invasion marked the beginning of his downfall.  Discuss the Congress of Vienna and its significance.  Differentiate between Romanticism and the Enlightenment and explain why Romanticism thrived during the Napoleonic Age. 113 Potential FRQ Questions

French Revolution Discuss the impact of enlightenment ideals on the French Revolution.

Discuss the role of women in the French Revolution. How do their actions and treatment reflect the historical context.

Identify the major social groups in France on the eve of the 1789 Revolution. Assess the extent to which their aspirations were achieved in the period from the meeting of the Estates General (May 1789) to the declaration of the Republic (September 1792).

Identify and describe the key causes of French Revolution, going back to the reign of Louis XIV.

“Political leaders committed to radical or extremist goals often exert authoritarian control in the name of higher values." Support or refute this statement with reference to the policies and actions of Robespierre during the French Revolution.

“The essential cause of the French Rev. was the collision between a powerful, rising bourgeoisie and an entrenched aristocracy defending its privileges." Assess the validity of the statement as an explanation of the events from 1788- 1792.

Napoleon and Romanticism

Discuss some of the ways that Romantic musicians, writers, and artists responded to political and socioeconomic conditions from the period 1800 to 1850. Document your response with specific examples from at least 2 of the 3 disciplines: visual arts, music, and literature.

Napoleon I is sometimes called the greatest enlightened despot. Evaluate this assessment in terms of Napoleon I's policies and accomplishments. Be sure to include a definition of enlightened despotism in your answer

Major Unit Assignments The Trial of Robespierre and Paper Liberty, Equality and Fraternity Handout Liberty Equality and Fraternity Virtual Discussion Europe under Napoleon Map TIAA Assignment with Art Analysis- Romantic Art Chapter 18 and 19 Worksheet 114 The Trial of Robespierre

Each of you will participate in this creative re-enactment of an event that never happened in the French Revolution (but should have): a trial of Maximilien Robespierre.

The question to be decided will be: Did Robespierre defend the principles of the French Revolution, or did he betray them? Each of you will play the role of a historical character in this re-enactment.

In addition to taking part in the re-enactment, you will do some additional research on your character and prepare a 750-1000 word (3-4 pp double-spaced typed) paper on the person you are re-enacting and the reasons for his or her actions. You will have to do some research in the library to obtain the necessary background on your "character." You should attach a bibliography of sources consulted to your essay.

 The purpose of this class project is to help us better understand the issues at stake in the French Revolution.  Robespierre was involved in key debates on many revolutionary issues; understanding what he and other major revolutionary figures had to say about them will enrich our comprehension of these conflicts.

Most of the characters for the re-enactment are actual historical personages. Some are “composite characters” who will stand in for major groups from the revolutionary period. If you are taking the part of an actual person, you will try to make the arguments that your character might have voiced if an actual trial of Robespierre had been held. If you are doing a “composite character,” you will have to combine research with some imagination to understand how such a person might have viewed Robespierre. Because Robespierre himself is obviously such a key figure in this debate, we will clone him: different students will represent his views on different issues.

How to proceed: Look over the list of characters for the trial. I will pass out a sign-up sheet, list at least 3 characters you would be interested in playing. I will give out actual assignments, and you can then start researching your character. The trial will take place over the course of two days. As there are four groups, each group will debate their particular topic for about 20 minutes (40 minutes) The rest of the class will be used for additional content from lecture.

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Robespierre 1 will debate Robespierre 2 as an Robespierre 3 - will be Robespierre 4 will have to justify his with characters who opponent of war and questioned about his positions conduct as the dominant figure in the opposed his advocacy of expansion will have to on the trial and execution of Committee of Public Safety democracy and natural defend his policy on the Louis XVI and on the expulsion rights in the National declaration of war of the Girondin deputies from Assembly the National Convention Joseph Mounier (moderate J.-P. Brissot (radical and Louis XVI, king of France Georges Danton, longtime radical conservative opponent of war advocate) leader (executed by Robespierre) universal suffrage) Madame Roland (moral leader Lafayette (hero of the of Girondin group, opponent of Père Duchesne, a populist journalist Abbé Sieyès (early American war, Robespierre) (executed by Robespierre) revolutionary leader, commander of the French opponent of universal National Guard) Olympe de Gouges (author of Bertrand Barère, Committee of suffrage) Declaration of the Rights of Public Safety member (helped Marie-Antoinette, Queen Women) overthrow Robespierre) Edmund Burke (English of France critic of the French Jean-Paul Marat, radical Madame de Farge (sans-culotte Revolution) A member of the Feuillant journalist (often more radical woman and knitting specialist) party in the Legislative than Robespierre) Condorcet (advocate of Assembly (opponent of An ordinary soldier in the French women’s rights) war) Vergniaud (leading Girondin army spokesman in debate over the An ordinary citizen of Paris king’s execution) and ‘passive citizen’ (supporter of Robespierre) 115 Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity

Part A. Answer the following questions in preparation for a class Discussion on this topic.

1. Write your own definition of each of the following terms: a. Liberty b. Equality c. Fraternity

2. Research the Count of Artois, Madame Roland, Robespierre, a member of the Directory, and Napoleon. Answer the three questions below for each of these individuals. a. What was his/her view of government? b. How did each view social classes? c. How did each view justice and law?

3. Put the following items in the correct chronological order:

1. Declaration of the Rights of Man 2. Brunswick Manifesto 3. National conscription 4. Concordat of 1801 5. White Terror 6. Reign of Terror 7. Tennis Court Oath 8. Mirabeau's constitutional monarchy 9. Night of August 4 10. Tricolor 11. Metric System 12. Committee of Public Safety 13. Civil Constitution of the Clergy 14. Fall of the Bastille 15. Code Napoleon 16. Thermidorean Reaction 17. "Marseillaise" 18. Abolition of the monarchy 19. Napoleon crowned Emperor 20. Consulate

Part B. Define liberty, equality, and fraternity according to the views of each of the following: (a) Count of Artois, (b) Madame Roland, (c) Robespierre, (d) a member of the Directory, (e) Napoleon.

Virtual Discussion Alternative Assignment

Part C. Answer each of the following questions based on the activity above.

1. In each of the above, which is most emphasized—liberty. equality, or fraternity? 2. Which person represents the period that was most constructive for the development of these human rights? 3. With which of the above would your views on liberty, equality, and fraternity be most closely related?

Part D. Link the events in Part B with the appropriate person in Part A.

a. Count of Artois: b. Madame Roland: c. Robespierre c. Member of the Directory d. Napoleon:

Part E: To conclude this lesson, develop a thesis statement on the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity based on the events of the French Revolution. 116 Chapter 18 Worksheet- The French Revolution

Terms to Identify Antoinette, Marie Girondists Assembly of Notables Gouges, Olympe de assignats Great Fear Calonne, Alexandre de Lafayette, Marquis de Civil Constitution of the Clergy levee en masse Committee of Public Safety Necker, Jacques commune Robespierre, Maxilmilen Convention Second Estate Declaration of Pillnitz Storming of the Bastille Directory Tennis Court Oath emigres Thermidorian Reaction enrages Women's March on Versailles First Estate

Chapter Questions What was the role of Louis XVI in the French Revolution?

Besides the monarchy, what other factors might be cited as causes of the French Revolution?

How was the Estates General transformed into the National Assembly?

How does the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen reflect the social and political values of the Enlightenment?

What were the chief reforms instituted by the Constitution of 1791?

How did the sans-culottes, the working classes of Paris, become a factor in politics during the French Revolution?

Why did France go to war with Austria in 1792?

What caused the Reign of Terror?

Textbook DQ’s

The Third Estate of a French City Petitions the King Which of the following petitions relate to political rights and which to economic equality?

The slogan most associated with the French Revolution was “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity,” Which of these petitions represents each of these values?

The National Assembly Decrees Civic Equality in France What institutions and privileges are included in “the feudal regime”?

How do these decrees recognize that the abolitions of some privileges and former tax arrangements will require new kinds of taxes and government financing to support religious, educational and other institutions?

The Metric System (Secondary) Why did the French revolutionary government introduce the metric system? 117

How did the metric system reflect the ideas of the Enlightenment ?

Why has most of the world accepted this system?

The Revolutionary Government Forbids Workers Organizations Why are workers organizations declared to be contrary to the principles of liberty?

Why were guilds seen as one of the undesirable elements of the Old Regime?

What coercive powers are to be brought to bear against workers organizations?

After this legislation, how could workers confront the operation of the market economy?

French Women Petition to Bear Arms How does this petition challenge the concept of citizenship in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen?

How do these petitioners relate their demand to bear arms to their role as women in French society?

How do these petitioners relate their demands to the use of all national resources against the enemies of the revolution?

Burke Denounces the Extreme Measures of the French Revolution To which of the major events in the French Revolution does Burke refer?

Why, by 1796, would Burke and others have emphasized the religious policies of the revolution?

Did Burke exaggerate the evils of the revolution?

Who was Burke trying to persuade?

The Paris Jacobin Club Alerts the Nations to Internal Enemies of the Revolution How did the Jacobins use the war to call for action against their own domestic political enemies?

What real and imagined forces did they see threatening the revolution?

How did this circular constitute a smear campaign by one group of revolutionaries against other groups?

What actions did the Jacobins seek?

The Convention Establishes the Worship of the Supreme Being How does the declaration reflect the ideas of the Enlightenment?

Why has it been seen as establishing a civil religion?

What personal and social values was this religion supposed to nurture?

Boy, those French: They have a different word for everything! – Steve Martin 118 Chapter 19 Worksheet- The Age of Napoleon

Terms to Identify Battle of Austerlitz Metternich, Klemens von Battle of Waterloo Napoleonic Code Beauharnais, Josephine Nelson, Horatio Bonaparte, Napoleon Peace of Amiens Bourbon Quadruple Alliance Byron, Lord Romanticism Carlyle, Thomas Schlegel, Friedrich categorical imperative Second Coalition Consulate Stein, Baron von Continental System Stewart, Robert coup d'etat Sturm und Drang Fichte, J. C. Talleyrand-Perigord, Charles Maurice de Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von Treaty of Campo Formio Grimm, Jakob and Wilhelm Treaty of Chaumont Herder, Johann Gottfried Treaty of Tilsit Hundred Days Wellesley, Arthur Louise, Marie Wesley, John Methodism

Chapter Questions

How did Napoleon rise to power? What groups supported him?

What regions became part of Napoleon's empire? How did he rule his empire?

A motto of the French Revolution was "equality, liberty and fraternity." Did Napoleon's rule more nearly fulfill or betray these ideals? What evidence can you give for each side of the argument?

Who were the principal personalities, and what were the most significant problems, of the Congress of Vienna?

What were the results of the Congress, and why were they significant?

How was the map of Europe altered by the Congress of Vienna?

Textbook DQ’s Napoleon Makes Peace with the Papacy Why was it to Napoleon’s political advantage to make this agreement with the papacy?

What privileges or advantages does the church achieve in this document?

Would the highest loyalty of a bishop who took the oath in Article 6 reside with the church or the French state?

Sailors and Canned Food (Secondary) What advantages did canning have over other methods of preserving food?

Why was the military interested in it?

How did canning become a part of everyday life?

Napoleon Advises His Brother to Rule Constitutionally What benefits does Napoleon believe his conquest and subsequent rule by his brother will bring to their new subjects? 119

Why does he believe that these, rather than military victory will achieve new loyalty?

How does Napoleon suggest playing off the resentment of the upper classes to consolidate power?

What is the relationship between having a written constitution such as Napoleon is sending to his brother and the power of public opinion that he mentions toward the close of the letter?

A German Writer Describes the War of Liberation Why does Arndt claim each of these groups wanted war?

How does Arndt suggest the possibility of a united nation that did not actually exist?

Madame De Stael Describes the New Romantic Literature of Germany How does Stael characterize the new Romantic school of poetry?

Why does she contrast it with the literature that had its roots in ancient Greece and Rome?

Why does she believe the new literature will continue to grow?

What is the relationship of the Middle Ages to the new poetry and other examples of the fine arts touched by Romantic sensibilities?

Hegel Explains the Role of Great Men in History How might the career of Napoleon have inspired this passage?

What are the antidemocratic implications of this passage?

In this passage, do great men make history or do historical developments make great men?

Why do you think Hegel does not associate this power of shaping history with women as well as men?

The French complain of everything, and always. – Napoleon Bonaparte 120 APPARTS Essay Reading Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (26 August 1789)

The French people, as represented at the National Assembly, consider that the ignorance, disregard or contempt of human rights are the sole causes of the nation's misfortunes and of the corruption of governments and have resolved to state the natural, inalienable and sacred human rights in a solemn declaration, so that this declaration be a constant reminder to the members of the body politic of their rights and their duties; so that as the actions of the legislative and those of the executive power may be compared at any time with the aim of all political institutions, these actions shall be more respectful of that aim; so that the claims of the citizens, based henceforth on simple and indisputable principles, always be turned towards upholding the Constitution and the common good. Consequently, the National Assembly acknowledges and declares in the presence of and under the auspices of the Supreme Being, the following rights of man and citizen. Article One - All people shall have equal rights upon birth and ever after. General utility is the only permissible basis for social distinctions. Article 2 - The aim of all political associations shall be to preserve man's natural and imprescriptible rights. These are the right to freedom, property, safety and the right to resist oppression. Article 3 - The principle of all sovereignty resides in the Nation. No body or individual may exercise any power other than that expressly emanating from the Nation. Article 4 - Freedom is the power to do anything which does not harm another: therefore, the only limits to the exercise of each person's natural rights are those which ensure that the other members of the community enjoy those same rights. Legislation only may set these limits. Article 5 - Only actions harmful to the community may be made illegal. No-one may be prevented from doing that which the law does not forbid, nor be forced to do that which the law does not command. Article 6 - Legislation expresses the overall will. All citizens, either in person or through their representatives, are entitled to contribute to its formation. Legislation must be the same for all, whether it serves to protect or to punish. As all citizens are equal in the eye of the law, positions of high rank, public office and employment are open to all on an equal basis according to ability and without any distinction other than that based on their merit or skill. Article 7 - A person may be accused, arrested or detained only in the cases specified by law and in accordance with the procedures which the law provides. Those who solicit, forward, carry out or have arbitrary orders carried out shall be punished; however, any citizen summoned or apprehended pursuant to law must obey forthwith; by resisting, he admits his guilt. Article 8 - Only penalties which are strictly and clearly necessary may be established by law, and no-one may be punished other than pursuant to a law established and enacted prior to the offence, and applied lawfully. Article 9 - As all persons are presumed innocent until declared guilty, force used in making indispensable arrests which exceeds that needed, shall be severely punished by law. Article 10 - No-one may be troubled due to his opinions, whether or not they are on religious issues provided that the expression of these opinions does not disturb the peace. Article 11 - Free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious human rights; all citizens may therefore speak, write and print freely, though they may be required to answer for abusing this right in cases specified by law. Article 12 - The protection of the rights of man and the citizen requires a police force; consequently this force is established in the interest of all, not in that of those to whom it has been entrusted. Article 13 - The maintenance of the police force and administration expenses require public contributions. These contributions are to be borne by the citizens equally according to their resources. Article 14 - All citizens have the right, either in person or through their representatives, to ascertain the need for the public contributions, to freely authorize these contributions, to monitor their use, and to determine the amount, basis, collection and duration of contributions. Article 15 - The community has the right to ask any public officer to account for his service. Article 16 - Any society in which rights are not guaranteed, nor the scope of power determined, has no Constitution. Article 17 - The right of ownership is an inviolable and sacred right; one may not be deprived of one's property, unless where public need, duly ascertained by law, clearly requires it, and subject to the condition that fair and prior compensation be made. 121 APPARTS Essay Reading Maximilien Robespierre: Justification of the Use of Terror

Maximilien Robespierre (1758 1794) was the leader of the twelve man Committee of Public Safety elected by the National Convention, and which effectively governed France at the height of the radical phase of the revolution. He had once been a fairly straightforward liberal thinker - reputedly he slept with a copy of Rousseau's Social Contract at his side. But his own purity of belief led him to impatience with others.

The committee was among the most creative executive bodies ever seen - and rapidly put into effect policies which stabilized the French economy and began the formation of the very successful French army. It also directed it energies against counter-revolutionary uprisings, especially in the south and west of France. In doing so it unleashed the reign of terror. Here Robespierre, in his speech of February 5,1794, from which excerpts are given here, discussed this issue. The figures behind this speech indicate that in the five months from September, 1793, to February 5, 1794, the revolutionary tribunal in Paris convicted and executed 238 men and 31 women and acquitted 190 persons, and that on February 5 there were 5,434 individuals in the prisons in Paris awaiting trial.

Robespierre was frustrated with the progress of the revolution. After issuing threats to the National Convention, he himself was arrested in July 1794. He tried to shoot himself but missed, and spent his last few hours with his jaw hanging off. He was guillotined, as a victim of the terror, on July 28, 1794.

But, to found and consolidate democracy, to achieve the peaceable reign of the constitutional laws, we must end the war of liberty against tyranny and pass safely across the storms of the revolution: such is the aim of the revolutionary system that you have enacted. Your conduct, then, ought also to be regulated by the stormy circumstances in which the republic is placed; and the plan of your administration must result from the spirit of the revolutionary government combined with the general principles of democracy.

Now, what is the fundamental principle of the democratic or popular government-that is, the essential spring which makes it move? It is virtue; I am speaking of the public virtue which effected so many prodigies in Greece and Rome and which ought to produce much more surprising ones in republican France; of that virtue which is nothing other than the love of country and of its laws.

But as the essence of the republic or of democracy is equality, it follows that the love of country necessarily includes the love of equality.

It is also true that this sublime sentiment assumes a preference for the public interest over every particular interest; hence the love of country presupposes or produces all the virtues: for what are they other than that spiritual strength which renders one capable of those sacrifices? And how could the slave of avarice or ambition, for example, sacrifice his idol to his country?

Not only is virtue the soul of democracy; it can exist only in that government ....

.Republican virtue can be considered in relation to the people and in relation to the government; it is necessary in both. When only the government lacks virtue, there remains a resource in the people's virtue; but when the people itself is corrupted, liberty is already lost.

Fortunately virtue is natural to the people, notwithstanding aristocratic prejudices. A nation is truly corrupted when, having by degrees lost its character and its liberty, it passes from democracy to aristocracy or to monarchy; that is the decrepitude and death of the body politic....

But when, by prodigious efforts of courage and reason, a people breaks the chains of despotism to make them into trophies of liberty; when by the force of its moral temperament it comes, as it were, out of the arms of the death, to recapture all the vigor of youth; when by turns it is sensitive and proud, intrepid and docile, and can be stopped neither by impregnable ramparts nor by the innumerable armies of the tyrants armed against it, but stops of itself upon 122 confronting the law's image; then if it does not climb rapidly to the summit of its destinies, this can only be the fault of those who govern it. . . .

From all this let us deduce a great truth: the characteristic of popular government is confidence in the people and severity towards itself.

The whole development of our theory would end here if you had only to pilot the vessel of the Republic through calm waters; but the tempest roars, and the revolution imposes on you another task.

This great purity of the French revolution's basis, the very sublimity of its objective, is precisely what causes both our strength and our weakness. Our strength, because it gives to us truth's ascendancy over imposture, and the rights of the public interest over private interests; our weakness, because it rallies all vicious men against us, all those who in their hearts contemplated despoiling the people and all those who intend to let it be despoiled with impunity, both those who have rejected freedom as a personal calamity and those who have embraced the revolution as a career and the Republic as prey. Hence the defection of so many ambitious or greedy men who since the point of departure have abandoned us along the way because they did not begin the journey with the same destination in view. The two opposing spirits that have been represented in a struggle to rule nature might be said to be fighting in this great period of human history to fix irrevocably the world's destinies, and France is the scene of this fearful combat. Without, all the tyrants encircle you; within, all tyranny's friends conspire; they will conspire until hope is wrested from crime. We must smother the internal and external enemies of the Republic or perish with it; now in this situation, the first maxim of your policy ought to be to lead the people by reason and the people's enemies by terror.

If the spring of popular government in time of peace is virtue, the springs of popular government in revolution are at once virtue and terror: virtue, without which terror is fatal; terror, without which virtue is powerless. Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible; it is therefore an emanation of virtue; it is not so much a special principle as it is a consequence of the general principle of democracy applied to our country's most urgent needs.

It has been said that terror is the principle of despotic government. Does your government therefore resemble despotism? Yes, as the sword that gleams in the hands of the heroes of liberty resembles that with which the henchmen of tyranny are armed. Let the despot govern by terror his brutalized subjects; he is right, as a despot. Subdue by terror the enemies of liberty, and you will be right, as founders of the Republic. The government of the revolution is liberty's despotism against tyranny. Is force made only to protect crime? And is the thunderbolt not destined to strike the heads of the proud?

. . . Indulgence for the royalists, cry certain men, mercy for the villains! No! mercy for the innocent, mercy for the weak, mercy for the unfortunate, mercy for humanity.

Society owes protection only to peaceable citizens; the only citizens in the Republic are the republicans. For it, the royalists, the conspirators are only strangers or, rather, enemies. This terrible war waged by liberty against tyranny- is it not indivisible? Are the enemies within not the allies of the enemies without? The assassins who tear our country apart, the intriguers who buy the consciences that hold the people's mandate; the traitors who sell them; the mercenary pamphleteers hired to dishonor the people's cause, to kill public virtue, to stir up the fire of civil discord, and to prepare political counterrevolution by moral counterrevolution-are all those men less guilty or less dangerous than the tyrants whom they serve?

Source: Robespierre: On the Moral and Political Principles of Domestic Policy

This text is part of the Internet Modern History Sourcebook. The Sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copy- permitted texts for introductory level classes in modern European and World history. 123 Unit VII -The Conservative Order - Economic Advance and Social Unrest Chapters 20 and 21

We should not sit back. We have to strengthen our efforts to explain Europe, and that nationalism has always failed in European history, and has brought many wars.” - Friedbert Pflueger

o The challenge of nationalism and liberalism to the conservative order. o Domestic and international policies of the conservative governments comprising the Concert of Europe. o The Latin American independence movements. o The revolutions of 1830 in Europe and the passage of the Great Reform Bill of 1832 in Britain.

After reading chapter 21 you should understand: o Industrialization and its impact on labor and the family. o The changing role of women in industrial society. o Problems of crime and the response of police forces and prisons. o Classical economics and its theorists. o The development of socialism and radical reform. o The revolutions of 1848. 124

Potential FRQ Questions

Chapter 20 Evaluate Metternich's attempts to maintain the old order in Europe. Be sure to discuss their short term and long term success.

Compare and contrast conservatism, nationalism, and liberalism.

Evaluate the effectiveness of collective responses by workers to industrialization in Western Europe during the course of the 19th Century.

How and in what ways did the writings of Karl Marx draw on the Enlightened concepts of progress, natural law, and reason?

Chapter 21 What were the underlying causes of the failure the 1848 Revolution in France. Analyze what transpired to divide the groups and describe the consequences for French politics.

Discuss three of the "revolutions" of 1848 and evaluate the ways in which they put an end to the old regimes.

Compare and contrast the roles of British working women in the pre-industrial economy (before 1750) with their roles in the mid19th century.

Describe and analyze the reforms that social critics and politicians between 1815 and 1848 proposed to resolve the conditions of the laboring classes and the problem of political stability.

Analyze and compare the effects of nationalism on Italian and Austro-Hungarian politics between 1815 and 1914.

Major Unit Assignments

Semester Research Paper

British Cloth Industry Virtual Discussion Women in the Industrial Revolution Discussion - In class Revolutions_of_1848 chart TIAA Assignment Chapter 20-21 Worksheet 125

Chapter 20 Worksheet- the Conservative Order

Terms to Identify

Bolivar, Simon Irish Problem Carlsbad Decrees July Monarchy Catholic Emancipation Act July Revolution Cato Street Conspiracy Liberal Charles X Liverpool, Lord Charter Louis XVIII Concert of Europe Nicholas I Conservatism Organic Statute Corn Law Peterloo Decembrist Revolt Philippe, Louis Don Pedro Protocol of Troppau Final Act rotten boroughs George, Kara Six Acts German Confederation Spanish Revolution Greek Revolution Toussaint, Francois-Dominique Holy Alliance Turnverein Independence of Belgium

Chapter Questions How did nationalism influence the governments of England, Germany and the Austrian Empire ?

How did the Burschenschaften movement force German states to reform?

How did the revolutions of South America adopt the ideals of the Enlightenment?

How did the Great Reform Bill impact the lives of regular Englishmen?

Textbook DQ’s

Mazzini Defines Nationality What qualities of a people does Mazzini associate with nationalism?

How and why does Mazzini relate nationalism to divine purposes?

How does this view of nationality relate to the goals of liberal freedoms?

How might these ideals of nationalism lead to international or domestic conflict?

Benjamin Constant Discusses Modern Liberty According to Constant, what are the ways in which a modern citizen is free of government control and interference?

How does he defend a representative government?

On the basis of this passage, do you believe that Constant was opposed to a democratic government? 126 Metternich Discusses Sources of Political Unrest According to Metternich, what is the difference between people who conspire against things and those who conspire against theories?

Why does he fear the role of universities as a source of revolutionary disturbances?

Why does he consider the press the greatest danger?

Gymnastics and German Nationalism (Secondary Source) What factors turned Jahn to nationalism?

Why did he associate nationalism with physical strength?

How could the Turnverein movement spread easily in the Germanies?

Thomas Babington Macaulay Defends the Great Reform Bill

Who does Macaulay think should be represented in Parliament?

Why does he oppose universal suffrage?

Why does he regard the Reform Bill as “a measure of conservatism”?

Why would Metternich have seen little or nothing conservative about the measure?

“It is not easy to see how the more extreme forms of nationalism can long survive when men have seen the Earth in its true perspective as a single small globe against the stars.” - Arthur C. Clarke 127 Chapter 21 Worksheet- Economic Advance and Social Unrest

Terms to Identify

Anarchism Kossuth, Louis Auburn system Malthus, Thomas Bentham, Jeremy Owen, Robert Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon Pan-Slavism Chartism Philadelphia system Charwoman Proletarianization confection Revolutions of 1848 English Factory Act Ricardo, David Fourier, Charles Saint-Simon, Claude Henri de Great Hunger Six Points of the Charter Grossdeutsch Utilitarianism hulks utopian socialism kleindeutsch Zollverein

Chapter Questions

What were the positive and negative effects of the Industrial Revolution for the working class?

How did the roles of women change in the new industrial era?

How did police change in the 19th century, and why were new systems of enforcement instituted?

What were the chief ideas of the early socialists?

How did the ideas of Karl Marx differ from those of earlier writers?

What factors, old and new, led to the widespread outbreak of revolutions in 1848?

What roles did liberals and nationalists play in the revolutions?

Textbook DQ’s

The Potato and the Great Hunger in Ireland (Secondary) Why was the failure of the potato crop such a disaster for Ireland?

How did the famine effect the Irish population?

Women Industrial Workers Explain Their Economic Situation What reasons do these women give to prove why they need to hold manufacturing jobs?

What changes in production methods have led women from the home to the factory?

How does the situation of these women relate to the possibility of their marrying? 128 A Frenchwoman Writes to Her Father About Marriage How does Stephanie Jullien distinguish between these vocational and social opportunities available to woman from those available to a man?

What are her expectations of marriage?

What does the letter also tell you about her relationship to her father?

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels Describe the Class Struggle Whom do Marx and Engels portray as the previous enemies of the bourgeoisie?

How did bourgeois economic development and dominance lead to a society based on the “cash nexus”?

Why is the bourgeoisie responsible for the emergence of the proletariat?

Why is the victory of the proletariat inevitable?

The Pan Slavic Congress Calls for the Liberation of the Slavs How did authors apply the individual freedoms associated with the French Revolution to the fate of individual nations?

What areas of Europe would these demands have changed?

What potential differences among the Slavic peoples does the manifesto ignore or gloss over?

Marxism has not only failed to promote human freedom, it has failed to produce food” - John Dos Passos 129

APPARTS Essay Reading The Peterloo Massacre

A little before noon on the 16th August, the first body of reformers began to arrive on the scene of action, which was a piece of ground called St. Peters Field, adjoining a church of that name in the town of Manchester. These persons bore two banners, surmounted with caps of liberty, and bearing the inscriptions, 'no corn laws', 'annual parliaments', 'universal suffrage', 'vote by ballot'. Some of these flags, after being paraded round the field, were planted in the cart on which the speakers stood; but others remained in different parts of the crowd.

Numerous large bodies of reformers continued to arrive from the towns in the neighbourhood of Manchester till about one o clock, all preceded by flags and many of them in regular marching order, five deep. Two clubs of female reformers advanced, one of them numbering more than 150 members and bearing a white silk banner. One body of reformers timed their steps to the sound of a bugle with much of a disciplined air; another had assumed to itself the motto of the illustrious Wallace; 'God armeth the patriot'. A band of special constables assumed a position on the field without resistance.

The congregated multitude now amounted to a number roundly computed at 80,000, and the arrival of the hero of the day was impatiently expected. At length, Mr. Hunt made his appearance, and after a rapturous greeting, was incited to preside; he signified his assent, and mounting a scaffolding, began to harangue his admirers. He had not proceeded far, when the appearance of the yeomanry cavalry advancing towards the area in a brisk trot, excited a panic in the outskirts of the meeting. They entered the enclosure, and after pausing a moment to recover their disordered ranks, and breathe their horses, they drew their swords, and brandished them fiercely in the air.

The multitude, by the direction of their leaders, gave three cheers to show that they were undaunted by this intrusion, and the orator had just resumed his speech to assure the people that this was only a trick to disturb the meeting, and to exhort them to stand firm, when the cavalry dashed into the crowd, making for the cart on which the speakers were placed. The multitude offered no resistance, they fell back on all sides. The commanding officer then approaching Mr. Hunt, and brandishing his sword, told him that he was his prisoner.

Mr. Hunt, after enjoining the people to tranquility, said he would readily surrender to any civil officer on showing his warrant, and Mr. Nadin, the principal police officer, received him in charge. Another person named Johnson, was likewise apprehended, and a few of the mob, some others against whom there were warrants, escaped in the crowd. A cry now arose among the military of, 'have at their flags' and they dashed down not only those in the cart, but the other dispersed in the field; cutting to right and left to get at them. The people began running in all directions; and from this moment the yeomanry lost all command of temper; numbers were trampled under the feet of men and horses; many, both men and women were cut down by sabres; several, and a peace officer and a female in the number, slain on the spot. The whole number of persons injured amounted to between three and four hundred. The populace threw a few stones and brick bats in their retreat, but in less than ten minutes, the ground was entirely cleared of its former occupants, and filled by various bodies of military, both horse and foot.

Samuel Bamford, Passages in the Life of a Radical (1893)

Having crossed Piccadilly [in Manchester], we went down Mosely street, then almost entirely inhabited by wealthy families. We took the left side of St. Peter's Church; and at this angle, we wheeled quickly and steadily into Peter Street, and soon approached a wide unbuilt space occupied by an immense multitude, which opened and received us with loud cheers. We walked into that chasm of human beings, and took our station from the hustings across the causeway of Peter Street and so remained, undistinguishable from without, but still forming an almost unbroken line, with our colours in the centre.

My wife I had not seen for some time; but when last I caught a glimpse of her, she was with some decent married females; and thinking the party quite safe in their own discretion, I felt not much uneasiness on their account, and so had greater liberty in attending to the business of the meeting.

'The soldiers are here,' I said, 'We must go back and see what this means.' 'Oh,' someone made reply, 'they are only come to be ready if their should be any disturbance in the meeting.' 'Well, let us go back,' I said, and we forced our way towards the colours. 130 On the cavalry drawing up, they were received with a shout of goodwill, as I understood it. They shouted again, waving their sabres over their heads; and then, slackening rein and striking spur into their steeds, they dashed forward, and began cutting the people. 'Stand fast,' I said, 'they are riding upon us, stand fast.' And there was a general cry in our quarter of 'Stand fast.' The cavalry were in confusion: they evidently could not, with the weight of man and horse, penetrate that compact mass of human beings; and their sabres were plied to hew a way through naked heldup hands, and defenceless heads, and then chopped limbs, and woundgaping skulls were seen; and groans and cries were mingled with the din of that horrid confusion. 'Ah! ah! 'for shame! for shame' was shouted. Then, 'Break! break! they are killing in front and they cannot get away!' and there was a general cry of 'break! break!' For a moment, the crowd held back as in a pause; then was a rush, heavy and resistless as a headlong sea; and a sound like low thunder, with screams, prayers, and imprecations from the crowdmoiled and sabre-doomed, who could not escape . . .

. . . On the breaking of the crowd, the yeomanry wheeled; and dashing wherever there was an opening, they followed, pressing and wounding. Many females appeared as the crowd opened; and striplings or mere youths were also found. Their cries were piteous and heart-rending, and would, one might have supposed, have disarmed any human resentment: but here, their appeals were vain. Women, - white vested maids, and tender youths, were indiscriminately sabred or trampled; and we have reason for believing, that few were the instances in which that forbearance was vouchsafed, which they so earnestly implored.

In ten minutes from the commencement of the havoc, the field was an open and almost deserted space. The sun looked down through a sultry and motionless air. The curtains and blinds of the windows within view were all closed. A gentleman or two might occasionally be seen looking out from one of the new houses before mentioned, near the door of which, a group of persons, (special constables) were collected, and apparently in conversation; others were assisting the wounded, or carrying off the dead. The hustings remained, with a few broken and hewed flag staves erect, and a torn and gashed banner or two dropping; whilst over the whole field, were strewn caps, bonnets, hats, shawls, and shoes, and other parts of male and female dress; trampled, torn and bloody. The yeomanry had dismounted, - some were easing their horses girths, others adjusting their accoutrements; and some were wiping their sabres. Several mounds of human beings still remained where they had fallen, crushed down, and smothered. Some of these still groaning, - others with staring eyes, were gasping for breath, and others would never breathe more. All was silent save those low sounds, and the occasional snorting and pawing of steeds. Persons might sometimes be noticed peeping from attics and over the tall ridges of houses, but they quickly withdrew, as if fearful of being observed, or unable to sustain the full gaze, of a scene so hideous and abhorrent.

... the account given by my dear wife, of her attendance at the meeting on Saint Peter's field, and of some incidents which befell her, may not be devoid of interest to the reader, and certainly will not be out of place if introduced here. She says:

I was determined to go to the meeting, and should have followed, even if my husband had refused his consent to my going with the procession. From what I, in common with others, had heard the week previous, 'that if the country people went with their caps of liberty, and their banners, and music, the soldiers would be brought to them,' I was uneasy, and felt persuaded, in my own mind, that something would be the matter, and I had best go with my husband, and be near him; and if I only saw him I should be more content than in staying at home. I accordingly, he having consented after much persuasion, gave my little girl something to please her, and promising more on my return, I left her with a careful neighbour woman, and joined some other married females at the head of the procession. Every time I went aside to look at my husband, and that was often, an ominous impression smote my heart. He looked very serious, I thought, and I felt a foreboding of something evil to befall us that day.

I was dressed plainly as a countrywoman in my second best attire. My companions were also neatly dressed as the wives of working men; I had seen Mr. Hunt before that time; they had not, and some of them were quite eager to obtain good places, that they might see and hear one of whom so much had been reported.

In going down Mosely Street, I lost sight of my husband. Mrs Yates, who had hold of my arm, would keep hurrying forward to get a good place, and when the crowd opened for the Middleton procession, Mrs. Yates and myself, and some others of the women, went close to the hustings, quite glad that we had obtained such a situation for seeing an hearing all. My husband got on the stage, but when afterwards I saw him leap down, and lost sight of him, I began to be unhappy. The crowd seemed to have increased very much, for we became insufferably pressed. We were surrounded by men who were strangers; we were almost suffocated, and to me the heat was quite sickening; but Mrs. Yates, being taller than myself, supported it better. I felt I could not bear this long, and I became alarmed. I reflected that if there was any more pressure, I must faint, and then what would become of me? I begged of the men to open a way and let me go out, but they would not move. Every moment I became worse, and I told some other men, who stood in a row, that I was sick, and begged they would let me pass them, and 131 they immediately made a way, and I went down a long passage betwixt two ranks of these men, many of them saying, 'make way, she's sick, she's sick, let her go out,' and I passed quite out of the crowd and, turning to my right, I got on some high ground, on which stood a row of houses - this was Windmill Street.

I thought if I could get to stand at the door of one of those houses, I should have a good view of the meeting, and should perhaps see my husband again; and I kept going further down the row, until I saw a door open, and I stepped within it, the people of the house making no objections. By this time Mr. Hunt was on the hustings, addressing the people. In a minute or two some soldiers came riding up. The good folks of the house, and some who seemed to be visitors, said, 'the soldiers were only come to keep order; they would not meddle with the people;' but I was alarmed. The people shouted, and then the soldiers shouted, waving their swords. Then they rode amongst the people, and there was a great outcry, and a moment after, a man passed without hat, and wiping the blood of his head with his hand, and it ran down his arm in a great stream.

The meeting was all in a tumult; there were dreadful cries; the soldiers kept riding amongst the people, and striking with their swords. I became faint, and turning from the door, I went unobserved down some steps into a cellared passage; and hoping to escape from the horrid noise, and to be concealed, I crept into a vault, and sat down, faint and terrified, on some fire wood. The cries of the multitude outside, still continued, and the people of the house, up stairs, kept bewailing most pitifully. They could see all the dreadful work through the window, and their exclamations were so distressing, that I put my fingers in my ears to prevent my hearing more; and on removing them, I understood that a young man had just been brought past, wounded. The front door of the passage before mentioned, soon after opened, and a number of men entered, carrying the body of a decent, middle aged woman, who had been killed. I thought they were going to put her beside me, and was about to scream, but they took her forward, and deposited her in some premises at the back of the house.

Richard Carlile in Sherwin's Weekly Political Register, 18 August 1819

The meeting was one of the most calm and orderly that I have ever witnessed. No less than 300,000 people were assembled [a wild exaggeration]. Mr Hunt started his speech when a cart was moved through the middle of the field to the great annoyance and danger of the assembled people, who quietly endeavoured to make way for its procedure. The cart had no sooner made its way through, when the Yeomanry Cavalry made their appearance from the same quarter as the cart had gone out. They galloped furiously round the field, going over every person who could not get out of their way.

The Yeomanry Cavalry made their charge with a most infuriate frenzy; they cut down men, women and children, indiscriminately, and appeared to have commenced a pre-meditated attack with the most insatiable thirst for blood and destruction. They merit a medallion, on one side of which should be inscribed 'The Slaughter Men of Manchester', and a reverse bearing a description of their slaughter of defenceless men, women and children, unprovoked and unnecessary.

As a proof of meditated murder of the part of the magistrates, every stone was gathered from the ground on the Friday and Saturday previous to the meeting, by scavengers sent there by the express command of the magistrates, that the populace might be rendered more defenceless.

Richard Carlile, The Republican, 17 August 1819

The massacre of the unoffending inhabitants of Manchester, on the 16th of August, by the Yeomanry Cavalry and Police at the instigation of the Magistrates, should be the daily theme of the Press until the murderers are brought to justice. Captain Nadin and his banditti of Police, are hourly engaged to plunder and ill-use the peaceable inhabitants; whilst every appeal from those repeated assaults to the Magistrates for redress, is treated by them with derision and insult. Every man in Manchester who avows his opinions on the necessity of reform, should never go unarmed - retaliation has become a duty, and revenge an act of justice. 132 APPARTS Essay Reading Women Miners in the English Coal Pits

In England, exclusive of Wales, it is only in some of the colliery districts of Yorkshire and Lancashire that female Children of tender age and young adult women are allowed to descend into the coal mines and regularly to perform the same kinds of underground work, and to work for the same number of hours, as boys and men; but in the East of Scotland their employment in the pits is general; and in South Wales it is not uncommon.

West Riding of Yorkshire: Southern Part - In many of the collieries in this district, as far as relates to the underground employment, there is no distinction of sex, but the labour is distributed indifferently among both sexes…. In great numbers of the coal pits in this district the men work in a state of perfect nakedness, and are in this state assisted in their labour by females of all ages, from girls of six years old to women of twenty-one, these females being themselves quite naked down to the waist.

"Girls," says the Sub-Commissioner [J. C. Symons], -regularly perform all the various offices of trapping, hurrying [Yorkshire terms for drawing the loaded coal corves], filling, riddling, tipping, and occasionally getting, just as they are performed by boys. One of the most disgusting sights I have ever seen was that of young females, dressed like boys in trousers, crawling on all fours, with belts round their waists and chains passing between their legs, at day pits at Hunshelf Bank…. I visited the Hunshelf Colliery on the 18th of January: it is a day pit; that is, there is no shaft or descent; the gate or entrance is at the side of a bank, and nearly horizontal. The gate was not more than a yard high, and in some places not above 2 feet.

" When I arrived at the board or workings of the pit I found at one of the sideboards down a narrow passage a girl of fourteen years of age in boy's clothes, picking down the coal with the regular pick used by the men. She was half sitting half lying at her work, and said she found it tired her very much, and 'of course she didn't like it." The place where she was at work was not 2 feet high….

"Whilst I was in the pit the Rev Mr Bruce, of Wadsley, and the Rev Mr Nelson, of Rotherham, who accompanied me, and remained outside, saw another girl of ten years of age, also dressed in boy's clothes, who was employed in hurrying, and these gentlemen saw her at work. She was a nice-looking little child, but of course as black as a tinker, and with a little necklace round her throat.

"In two other pits in the Huddersfield Union I have seen the same sight. In one, … the chain, passing high up between the legs of two of these girls, had worn large holes in their trousers; and any sight more disgustingly indecent or revolting can scarcely be imagined than these girls at work-no brothel can beat it.

"On descending Messrs Hopwood's pit at Barnsley, I found assembled round a fire a group of men, boys, and girls, some of whom were of the age of puberty; the girls as well as the boys stark naked down to the waist, their hair bound up with a tight cap, and trousers supported by their hips. At Silkstone and at Flockton, they work in their shifts and trousers. Their sex was recognizable only by their breasts, and some little difficulty occasionally arose in pointing out to me which were girls and which were boys, and which caused a good deal of laughing and joking. In the Flockton and Thornhill pits, the system is even more indecent: for though the girls are clothed, at least three-fourths of the men for whom they "hurry" work stark naked, or with a flannel waistcoat only, and in this state they assist one another to fill the corves 18 or 20 times a day: I have seen this done myself frequently.

"When it is remembered that these girls hurry chiefly for men who are not their parents; that they go from 15 to 20 times a day into a dark chamber (the bank face), which is often 50 yards apart from any one, to a man working naked, or next to naked, it is not to be supposed but that where opportunity thus prevails sexual vices are of common occurrence. Add to this the free intercourse, and the rendezvous at the shaft or bullstake, where the corves are brought, and consider the language to which the young ear is habituated, the absence of religious instruction, and the early age at which contamination begins, and you will have before you, in the coal-pits where females are employed, the picture of a nursery for juvenile vice which you will go far and we above ground to equal."

Two Women Miners 133 Betty Harris, age 37: I was married at 23, and went into a colliery when I was married. I used to weave when about 12 years old; can neither read nor write. I work for Andrew Knowles, of Little Bolton (Lancs), and make sometimes 7s a week, sometimes not so much. I am a drawer, and work from 6 in the morning to 6 at night. Stop about an hour at noon to eat my dinner; have bread and butter for dinner; I get no drink. I have two children, but they are too young to work. I worked at drawing when I was in the family way. I know a woman who has gone home and washed herself, taken to her bed, delivered of a child, and gone to work again under the week.

I have a belt round my waist, and a chain passing between my legs, and I go on my hands and feet. The road is very steep, and we have to hold by a rope; and when there is no rope, by anything we can catch hold of. There are six women and about six boys and girls in the pit I work in; it is very hard work for a woman. The pit is very wet where I work, and the water comes over our clog-tops always, and I have seen it up to my thighs; it rains in at the roof terribly. My clothes are wet through almost all day long. I never was ill in my life, but when I was lying in.

My cousin looks after my children in the day time. I am very tired when I get home at night; I fall asleep sometimes before I get washed. I am not so strong as I was, and cannot stand my work so well as I used to. I have drawn till I have bathe skin off me; the belt and chain is worse when we are in the family way. My feller (husband) has beaten me many a times for not being ready. I were not used to it at first, and he had little patience.I have known many a man beat his drawer. I have known men take liberties with the drawers, and some of the women have bastards.

Patience Kershaw, age 17, Halifax: I go to pit at 5 o'clock in the morning and come out at 5 in the evening; I get my breakfast, porridge and milk, first; I take my dinner with me, a cake, and eat it as I go; I do not stop or rest at any time for the purpose, I get nothing else until I get home, and then have potatoes and meat, not every day meat.

Source: from Parliamentary Papers, 1842, vols. XV-XVII, Appendix I, pp. 252, 258, 439, 461; Appendix II, pp. 107, ; I do not like working in pit, but I am obliged to get a living; I work always without stockings, or shoes, or trousers; I wear nothing but my chemise; I have to go up to the headings with the men; they are all naked there; I am got well used to that, and don't care now much about it; I was afraid at first, and did not like it; they never behave rudely to me; I cannot read or write.

No. 7--Benjamin Miller, Underlooker at Mr. Woolley's, near Staley Bridge, April 14, 1841. How do you account for women being used so frequently as drawers in the coal-pits? --One reason is, that a girl of 20 will work for 2s. a-day or less, and a man of that age would want 3s. 6d.: It makes little difference to the coal-master, he pays the same whoever does the work; some would say he got his coal cheaper, but I am not of that opinion, the only difference is that the collier can spend 1s. to 1s. 6d. more at the alehouse, and very often the woman helps him to spend it.

Do women ever become coal-getters? --Not one woman in a hundred ever becomes a coal-getter, and that is one of the reasons the men prefer them.

Source: Parliamentary Papers, 1842, vols. XV-XVII, Appendix I, pp. 252, 258, 439, 461; Appendix II, pp. 107, 122, 205. 134 Discussion Reading British Textiles Clothe the World How did Britain come to dominate the global production of cloth?

By Claire Hopley

By the middle of the 19th century, Britain was producing half the world's cotton cloth in giant mills that dotted the valleys and dominated many towns in the north of England. The largest was Quarry Bank Mill at Styal in Cheshire, which alone met 0.6 percent of world demand. Yet not a scrap of cotton was grown in Britain. How then did Britain come to dominate global production of a cloth made entirely from material imported from the southern United States, India and Egypt? The answer lies in a set of circumstances no less complex than the finely woven, beautifully printed British muslins, calicoes and chintzes that clothed people and furnished homes everywhere.

Britain had long manufactured textiles. The damp climate is good for grazing sheep, so for centuries the country was renowned for its fine woolens. Flax, the raw material for linen, also thrives in rain. Linen and wool were used to make the linsey-woolsey worn by all but the richest people in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Silk, introduced by French Protestant silk workers fleeing persecution in the 17th century, was also made in Britain, mostly in London.

Textile workers plied their craft at home, sometimes to supplement farming. Women spun yarn, often helped by children. The yarn then went to a weaver, usually a man, who might be another family member weaving cloth for the household. More likely, both spinsters and weavers worked on the "putting out" system: A merchant supplied the raw fiber and then picked up the finished goods for sale elsewhere.

Traditionally, one handloom weaver needed the yarn output of four spinsters. But by the mid-18th century, many weavers were using the flying shuttle that had been invented by John Kay of Bury, Lancashire, in 1733. By speeding the shuttle across the loom and freeing one of the weaver's hands, this invention upped the demand for yarn; one worker could now weave the output of 16 spinsters. With cloth in demand both at home, where the population was increasing, and abroad, where British colonies were a captive market, improved spinning methods were essential to meet the need for cloth.

Wool production was difficult to mechanize because centuries-old laws protected traditional ways of making it. Conversely, by the 1740s silk was already being machine-made in factories in Derby and Macclesfield with equipment based on pirated Italian designs. But silk was too delicate and expensive for mass consumption. Cotton, on the other hand, was hardwearing, comfortable and inexpensive. Unlike wool, its production was not controlled by ancient practices because it had only become widely available after the East India Company began exporting it from India in the late 17th century. Inventors therefore bent their minds to creating cotton-processing machines, and cotton spearheaded British industry into the factory system.

The first major improvement in spinning technology was the spinning jenny, introduced in 1764 by Thomas Highs (1718-1803) of Lancashire and named for his daughter. Highs wanted a machine for spinning cotton that would multiply threads more quickly, and he built a device with six spindles. James Hargreaves (1720-78), who is widely credited for inventing the spinning jenny and was also from Lancashire, apparently "improved" Highs' design by adding more spindles. Hargreaves acquired the patent for it in 1770, but by then the device had been widely copied. By the time of Hargreaves' death, more than 20,000 spinning jennies were in use. It spun yarn from between 20 and 30 spindles at one time, thus doing the work of several spinsters -- a prospect that had made Hargreaves so unpopular in his neighborhood that a mob destroyed his spinning jennies and ran him out of town.

The next development was the water frame, again largely conceived by Highs, who now wanted a machine for the spinning of twist by rollers. Richard Arkwright (1732-92), a Lancashire barber interested in weaving wigs, obtained one of Highs' water frame models and built a full-size machine that used three or four sets of rollers to draw out the cotton before it was twisted. In 1769 Arkwright obtained the patent for the water-powered device. Threatened by workers who would be put out of business by the invention, Arkwright left his native Lancashire for Nottingham, where he met Jedediah Strutt, who had improved the 16th-century machines that knit cotton for stockings. With his efficient new 135 knitting machines, Strutt needed more cotton yarn, so he teamed with Arkwright to build the water frames in new water-driven mills they built in Cromford, Derbyshire, in 1771.

Samuel Crompton (1753-1827), also of Lancashire, further improved spinning with a dual set of rollers that drew out the yarn into a fine, soft, even filament. Since it used both the rolling action of the water frame and the drawing action of the spinning jenny, Crompton's hybrid machine was called a "mule." A single operator could now work more than 1,000 spindles simultaneously. Factories equipped with mules made the Lancashire town of Bolton into the world center for the finest cotton yarns. Crompton never did patent the mule, in part because the wording in Arkwright's water-frame patent made it difficult if not impossible. Eventually, in 1785, after prolonged litigation, Arkwright lost his patent rights, by a decision of the Court of King's Bench, and other manufacturers were able to use the water frame freely.

By the 1780s the new spinning machines were producing so much yarn that inventors turned to the mechanization of the loom. Weaving was a series of carefully timed steps, and weavers needed to watch the loom constantly so that if a thread broke or ran out of the shuttle, they could stop and repair it immediately before a disaster occurred. Many Manchester manufacturers therefore thought that mechanization was impossible. Hearing this, a man of the cloth, the Reverend Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823) of Melton Mowbray in Leicestershire, decided to prove them wrong -- even though he had no weaving experience and had never even seen anyone weave!

Cartwright's first power loom worked, but one moving part weighed more than 50 pounds and the springs threw the shuttle so fast that two strong men were needed to tend it. This was not suitable for cost-conscious Manchester businessmen. Nevertheless, Cartwright patented his machine in 1785, the same year Arkwright's patent was revoked.

Cartwright began to watch weavers at work, and based his next loom, invented between 1786 and 1788, on their actions. Still, his device required full-time attention. Cartwright then invented a warp protector that instantly stopped the loom when a problem occurred, and he began to produce fabric mechanically.

All these 18th-century machines needed vast supplies of cotton. In the 1790s, the first newly planted cotton came from American plantations manned by slaves. The raw cotton had to be cleaned before it could be used by the fast-moving equipment, but it was taking a full day for one person to remove the seeds from one pound of cotton. Eli Whitney, a New Englander, solved that problem with his cotton gin, which used a series of steel disks fitted with hooks to drag the cotton through slots in a grid, leaving the seeds behind. This invention both spurred the Industrial Revolution in Britain and induced Southern planters in America to grow more cotton.

Britain not only had clean supplies of American cotton and an array of machines to handle every stage of making it into cloth, it also had good power supplies. Eighteenth-century machines typically used water power, hence the sitting of early factories near the fast-flowing rivers of the Pennines. But after James Watt invented the steam engine in 1781, coal became the main fuel. Serendipitously, England's richest mines were also near the Pennines in Lancashire, Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. Thus, these northern areas became the textile strongholds of the country.

The new machinery ended the traditional domestic system of textile production. Machines had to be close to their power source; they could not be in cottages. Moreover, different machines sequenced to perform specific tasks required both a division of labor and specialized skills. Workers therefore had to follow strict rules about work and punctuality.

Some mills specialized in one textile-making process, but others, such as Quarry Bank Mill at Styal, established in 1784, performed all the needed tasks to turn cotton fiber into cloth. At Quarry Bank Mill, nearly half the workers were children between the ages of 7 and 21, most from workhouses and orphanages who were contracted to work for a period of seven years as apprentices. By 1800 there were 90 children who lived and worked without pay at the mill, learning the trade as the reward for their work, although there was no significant effort to teach them the trade; mostly they were regarded as a source of cheap labor.

Children were essential in textile factories because they were small enough to scramble under the looms to clean them or retie broken threads. Records from Quarry Bank Mill contain details of nearly 1,000 children who worked there between 1785 and 1847. Their day began early. They typically rose at 5:30 a.m., were given a piece of bread to eat and 136 began work at 6. Through the day, they usually had three short breaks, when they were fed oatmeal, and then at 8:30 p.m., after finishing their 141¼2-hour shift, they got a supper of bread or broth. On Sundays, they had reading lessons, church and chores, such as tending the owner's vegetable gardens.

The unpaid apprentices sometimes ran away. About 100 appear to have fled from Quarry Bank Mill. A notice describing fugitives Esther Price, 14, and Thomas Priestley, 13, read: "Whoever will apprehend the said Apprentices, and give information thereof he shall receive one guinea reward and be paid all reasonable expenses. Both apprentices committed this crime last night and are believed to be still hiding in the mill. Can you find them?" The guinea reward (21 shillings) would have been more than a week's pay for many workers. Once recaptured, apprentices frequently were beaten, had their hair cropped and had to work overtime to make up missed work and repay the costs of finding them. When Price was located and returned, she was forced to live in a room with boarded-up windows. Priestley, recovering from having one of his fingers torn off at the mill, was asked by the magistrate why he ran away. "I thought of my mother," he said.

Life was equally hard for adult factory workers. Until 1833, hours of employment were not regulated, and it was 1844 before the law insisted that the machinery had to be fenced to prevent death and dismemberment. The thunderous noise of the machinery never ceased, so most older workers became deaf. Lung diseases were also prevalent, caused by the minute fiber fragments in the air. Few adults could leave the mills, especially when whole cities were devoted to textiles and little other work was available.

The similarity to the conditions of America's slaves was not lost. Harriet Beecher Stowe noted it when she visited England in the 1850s. The workers, too, saw the comparison. During the American Civil War, only 40,000 of the 355,000 cotton operatives in Lancashire were working full time. As elucidated in the Illustrated London News on November 22, 1862, "The mills cannot be put to work until cotton is forthcoming, and the appearance of that substance does not depend on us, but on the continuance of the blockade of southern ports." Nonetheless, the magazine lauded the British government's support of the North, and encouraged its readers to heed "Lancashire's cry of distress" by sending financial aid. The workers themselves, though out of work, met in Manchester's Free Trade Hall on New Year's Eve 1862 to pledge their support for the Union forces. President Abraham Lincoln, aware of their sacrifices, responded quickly, sending the workers a letter of thanks just three weeks later. His statue still stands in Manchester.

One reason unemployed workers opposed the slavery on the plantations was that they were used to combating their own hideous working conditions. Earlier, weavers had fought the introduction of technology that put them out of work, often by breaking machines and burning factories. Wool and linen workers were for a while successful because their trades were protected by local guilds. But this restraint was overcome when the woolen trade, historically based in East Anglia with Norwich as its center, moved to Yorkshire, where guild practices were less stringent.

Even so, the woolen industry lagged 30 years behind the cotton industry in mechanization, partly because machines invented for making cotton had to be modified before they could be used for wool or other fibers. Indeed, machines for wool needed adapting for different kinds of wool, as Titus Salt discovered in the 1830s when he devised a way to handle the intractable but much-prized wool of the alpaca. As a result he became so wealthy that in 1851 he began work on his model village of Saltaire (see "The Town that Titus Built," July 2006 BH).

By this time, British cotton machines had long since jump-started America's industrial revolution. Samuel Slater of Derbyshire had worked with Arkwright and Strutt, but realizing he had little chance of a partnership, he responded to an advertisement offering £100 bounties to English mill workers prepared to emigrate to America. He took with him the secrets of the water frame and -- just as significant -- the management techniques of continuous factory production that Arkwright and Strutt had pioneered. In America, Slater teamed with Moses Brown, who had been experimenting with machinery in Providence, R.I., and introduced him to the water frame. In 1790, they built a new water-powered factory in Pawtucket, R.I., and in 1797 Slater built the White Mill on the Blackstone River and later a workers' village called Slatersville.

Francis Cabot Lowell of Massachusetts traveled to England in 1810 to tour Manchester's mills, just as they were being fitted with power looms. He gleaned enough so that in 1814 he built the first mill in America capable of transforming raw cotton into finished cloth, located on the Charles River at Waltham, Mass. Four years after Lowell's death in 1817, 137 the firm moved to a site on the Merrimack River, where a new town named Lowell in his honor soon became the center of America's cotton industry.

By 1840 Lowell had 10 mills employing more than 40,000 workers, mainly young women. Many were from England. The textile business in Britain, though successful, went through economic cycles. The 1840s were so grim that they were known as the "Hungry Forties," and even after the Civil War ended in 1865, American cotton supplies were uncertain and unemployment remained high. Many textile workers therefore emigrated. English immigrants staffed the sorting rooms of the mills in Lawrence, Mass. Contingents of immigrants from Lancashire went to the mills of New Bedford, Mass., and silk workers from Macclesfield in Cheshire left for Paterson, N.J. -- a town often called "Silk City," as was Macclesfield.

Today, the sturdy brick mills built to house the massive textile machinery still stand throughout New England and northern Britain, all turned to new uses. Among those that can be visited in Britain are Quarry Bank Mill, now a magnificently preserved National Trust property; Titus Salt's village of Saltaire in Morley, Yorkshire; and Paradise Mill and the Silk Trail at Macclesfield, Cheshire. There remains one original water frame, at the Helmshore Museum, and a quarter of it works, powered by electricity, since the museum does not yet have a working water wheel. These 18th- and 19th-century devices express both the engineering achievements of their inventors and the difficult lives of those who operated them.

This article was written by Claire Hopley and originally appeared in the September 2006 issue of British Heritage. 138 Semester Break Assignment From one of the units that you did not review in your study group or from one of topics from the semester research paper that you did not choose, you are going to create a poster.

The poster should have the following components

Time Period List the time period that your unit or topic occurs

Topic Images appropriate here A two paragraph synopsis of your unit or topic

Political Explain how your unit or topic influenced the politics or legislation of society at the time

Economic Explain how your unit or topic influenced the religious and/or general beliefs of society at the time

Religious Explain how your unit or topic influenced the religious and/or general beliefs of the time period

Social Explain how your unit or topic influenced the social patterns, ethnic relations, and/or class structure of the time period.

Intellectual Explain how your unit or topic influenced the intellectual Discussion s, scientific discovery and/or educational patterns of the time period

Artistic (Yes- there should be images) Explain how your unit or topic influenced the Arts (art, music, literature etc ) of the time period

If you’re clever, you’ve noticed the PERSIA acronym in this assignment. If were diligent through the first semester, you should be quite good at assessing those particular components by now.

Your poster will be assessed on the following:

Completeness Accuracy Professionalism Creativity The poster will be due on the first day of the second semester 139 "Alternative Assignment" Create a video "travelogue" that would cover at least six different countries of a specific year. A Travelogue is journal either real or fictional of an individuals travels.

 Your travelogue should have the following items: o A specific year that we covered this semester o Six specific locations throughout Europe that "you" visited  In each location you should describe the following: o Economic conditions of at least two social classes o The religious habits of the people o The type of arts you may have encountered o The type of political changes (if any) that were occurring in each country o Any major historical figures that you may have encountered at the time.

You don't have to use actual video, you can use a series of maps, pictures and text to describe your fictional journey. It also should have audio, either your own recitation of your journal or background music. 140 Unit VIII- The Age of Nation States Chapters 22

"If there is ever another war in Europe, it will come out of some damned silly thing in the Balkans”- Otto von Bismarck

 The causes and results of the Crimean War.  Reforms undertaken in the Ottoman Empire.  The unification of Germany and Italy.  The shift from the Second Empire to the Third Republic in France.  The emergence of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.  Russian political and social reforms, including emancipation of the serfs.  British liberalism and the confrontation with Irish nationalists over the Irish Question 141

Compare and contrast Bismarck's unification of Germany with the efforts of Cavour and Garibaldi in Italy.

Identify the barriers to German unification that existed for hundreds of years. How was Bismarck able to overcome these?

Assess the extent to which the unification of Germany under Bismarck led to authoritarian government there between 1871 and 1914.

Discuss the process by which Great Britain continues to give representation to new groups throughout the 1800s. In what other places in British history do such patterns exist?

How do the reigns of Alexanders II & III fit in with their predecessors going back to Peter the Great? What historical patterns, if any, can you identify?

Discuss the instability of the Austrian Regime from 1848 to 1914. In what ways is this instability stirring the larger pot of European conflict?

"The centralized governments of continental Europe dominated the rate and direction of industrial development in their respective countries in the period 1850-1940." Explain the facts and events that form the basis of this statement and describe the specific ways in which the statement is a valid generalization about the period 1850- 1940.

Evaluate the effectiveness of collective responses by workers to industrialization in Western Europe during the course of the 19th century.

Major Unit Assignments Semester (Winter) Break Assignment- Due first day of the term Nationalism Puppet Show **Europe in 1871 map** Bismarck and the Creation of Germany Virtual Discussion Unification and Accommodation Chart TIAA Assignment 142

Names in Group ______

National Unification Puppet Show

Group Points Required For the A Possible Earned Everyone in the group does the reading Each person writes a summary of the reading 15 together—one person reading out loud. (10) to turn in with the final script. (5) Together make a rough outline of how your Decide on the main characters and what the 15 puppet show will go. (10) puppet costumes will look like. (5) The final puppet show is historically accurate, The script is understandable and has a spirit 15 including dates (10) of fun. (5) No off task time for your group (-5 for each occurrence) Total 45 Extra Credit: Make your puppet show a musical (10)

Script Writers/Narrators Required For the A Possible Earned Work together to write a comprehensive script Script is historically accurate (10) 20 of the events. Use specific names and dates whenever possible (10) Script has a narrator and several other parts. Script also has actions in italics for the 20 Script is written in typical script format. (ie, puppeteers so they know how to move the Narrator: part…) (10) puppets (10) Type the script so that it can be read easily (5) Have at least 4 copies of the final script so 10 there are enough for the narrators and puppeteers (5) Total 50

Puppet Designers/Puppeteers Required For the A Possible Earned Make enough puppets out of the provided Costume each puppet appropriately for their 20 brown lunch sacks to fill all of the parts in your role (10) show (10) Make any other necessary props (like maps) Create backdrops for the different scenes in 20 out the provided paper. (10) your show (10) As puppeteers, use the script to make sure you Make the events in the show understandable 10 move and react accurately (5) through your work. (5) Total 50 143 Chapter 22 Worksheet – The Age of Nation States

Terms to Identify Alexander III North German Confederation Ausgleich October Diploma Austro-Prussian War Paris Commune Bismarck, Otto von Bismarck Parnell, Charles Stewart Bundesrat People's Will Carbonari Piedmont Crimean War populism Danish War Schleswig-Holstein Disraeli, Benjamin Tanzimat Education Act Thiers, Adolphe Franco-Prussian War transformismo Garibaldi, Giuseppe Victor Emmanuel II Gladstone, William Young Turks Hatt-I Sharif of Gulhane zemstvos Italia irredenta Zola, Emile Mazzini, Giuseppe

Chapter Questions

Why was it so difficult to unify Italy?

Who was Camillo Cavour, and how did he achieve what others failed to do?

What were Garibaldi's contributions to Italian unification?

What was Bismarck's policy of unification and why did he succeed?

What effect did the unification of Germany have on the rest of Europe?

Why did the Second Empire fail and what problems faced the new Third Republic?

What effect did the Dreyfus affair have on the politics of the Third Republic?

Can Alexander II be regarded as a "visionary" reformer? Why or why not?

What was the Irish Problem?

Textbook DQs

Heinrich Von Treitschke Demands The Annexation of Alsace and Lorraine On what grounds does Treitschke base the German clain to Alsace and Lorraine?

Why does he contend it is proper to ignore the wishes of the people involved?

What, if any, political morality informs his views?

Lord Acton Condemns Nationalism Why does Acton see the principle of nationality as dangerous to liberty?

Why does he see nationalism as a threat to minority groups and to democracy ? 144

The People’s Will Issues A Revolutionary Manifesto Which of the group’s seven demands might be associated with liberalism, and which go beyond liberalism in their radical intent?

Why does the group believe it must engage in terrorism as well as propaganda?

Would any reforms by the Russian government have satisfied this group or dissuaded them from terrorist action?

The Arrival of the Penny Postage (Secondary) What changes did Rowland Hill introduce into the British postal service?

How did those changes affect the quantity of mail and the size of the government work force?

Parnell Calls for Home Rule For Ireland How does Parnell say the Act of Union affected Irish sentiment toward England?

What parallel does he draw with Hungary and Austria?

Why might Parnell be regarded as a moderate nationalist?

Laws are like sausages, it is better not to see them being made. - Otto von Bismarck 145 APPARTS Essay Reading- 1844- Joseph Mazzini, An Essay On the Duties of Man Addressed to Workingmen (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1898) Hanover Historical Texts Project

Chapter V - Duties Towards Your Country 57-63

[Page 57] 1858. Your first duties - first as regards importance - are, as I have already told you, towards Humanity. You are men before you are either citizens or fathers. If you do not embrace the whole human family in your affection; if you do not bear witness to your belief in the Unity of that family, consequent upon the Unity of God, and in that fraternity among the peoples which is destined to reduce that Unity to action; if, wheresoever a fellow-creature suffers, or the dignity of human nature is violated by falsehood or tyranny - you are not ready, if able, to aid the unhappy, and do not feel called upon to combat, if able, for the redemption of the betrayed and oppressed - you violate your law of life, you comprehend not that Religion which will be the guide and blessing of the future.

But what can each of you, singly, do for the moral improvement and progress of Humanity? You can from time to time give sterile utterance to your belief; you may, on some rare occasions, perform some act of charity towards a brother- man not belonging to your own land - no more. But charity is not the watchword of the Faith of the Future. The watchword of the faith of the future is Association and fraternal cooperation towards a common aim; [Page 58] and this is far superior to all charity, as the edifice which all of you should unite to raise would be superior to the humble hut each one of you might build alone, or with the mere assistance of lending and borrowing stone, mortar, and tools.

But, you tell me, you cannot attempt united action, distinct and divided as you are in language, customs, tendencies, and capacity. The individual is too insignificant, and Humanity too vast. The mariner of Brittany prays to God as he puts to sea; "Help me, my God! my boat is so small and Thy ocean so wide!" And this prayer is the true expression of the condition of each one of you, until you find the means of infinitely multiplying your forces and powers of action.

This means was provided for you by God when He gave you a country; when, even as a wise overseer of labour distributes the various branches of employment according to the different capacities of the workmen, he divided Humanity into distinct groups or nuclei upon the face of the earth, thus creating the germ of nationalities. Evil governments have disfigured the Divine design. Nevertheless you may still trace it, distinctly marked out - at least as far as Europe is concerned - by the course of the great rivers, the direction of the higher mountains, and other geographical conditions. They have disfigured it by their conquests, their greed, and their jealousy even of the righteous power of others; disfigured it so far that, if we except England and France, there is not perhaps a single country whose present boundaries correspond to that design.

These governments did not, and do not, recognize [Page 59] any country save their own families or dynasty, the egoism of caste. But the Divine design will infallibly be realized; natural divisions and the spontaneous, innate tendencies of the peoples will take the place of the arbitrary divisions, sanctioned by evil governments. The map of Europe will be redrawn. The countries of the peoples, defined by the vote of free men, will arise upon the ruins of the countries of kings and privileged castes, and between these countries harmony and fraternity will exist. And the common work of Humanity, of general amelioration, and the gradual discovery and application of its Law of life, being distributed according to local and general capacities, will be wrought out in peaceful and progressive development and advance. Then may each one of you, fortified by the power and affection of many millions, all speaking the same language, gifted with the same tendencies, and educated by the same historical tradition, hope even by your own single efforts to be able to benefit all Humanity.

0, my brothers, love your Country! Our country is our Home, a house God has given us, placing therein a numerous family that loves us, and whom we love; a family with whom we sympathize more readily and whom we understand more quickly than we do others; and which, from its being centred round a given spot, and from the homogeneous nature of its elements, is adapted to a special branch of activity. Our Country is our common workshop, whence the products of our activity are sent forth for the benefit of the whole world; wherein the tools and implements of labour we 146 can most usefully [Page 60] employ are gathered together; nor may we reject them without disobeying the plan of the Almighty, and diminishing our own strength.

In labouring for our own country on the right principle, we labour for Humanity. Our country is the fulcrum of the lever we have to wield for the common good. If we abandon the fulcrum, we run the risk of rendering ourselves useless not only to Humanity but to our country itself. Before men can associate with the nations of which Humanity is composed, they must have a national existence. There is no true association except among equals. It is only through our country that we can have a recognized collective existence. Humanity is a vast army advancing to the conquest of lands unknown, against enemies both powerful and astute. The peoples are the different corps, the divisions of that army. Each of them has its post assigned to it, and its special operation to execute; and the common victory depends upon the exactitude with which those distinct operations are fulfilled. Disturb not the order of battle. Forsake not the banner given to you by God. Wheresoever you may be, in the centre of whatsoever people circumstances may have placed you, be ever ready to combat for the liberty of that people, should it be necessary, but combat in such wise that the blood you shed may reflect glory, not on yourself alone, but on your country. Say not I, but We. Let each man among you strive to incarnate his country in himself. Let each man among you regard himself as a guarantor, responsible for his fellow- countrymen, and learn so to govern his actions as to cause his country to be loved and respected [Page 61] through him. Your country is the sign of the Mission God has given you to fulfill towards Humanity. The faculties and forces of all her sons should be associated in the accomplishment of that mission. The true country is a community of free men and equals, bound together in fraternal concord to labour towards a common aim. You are bound to make it and to maintain it such. The country is not an aggregation, but an association. There is, therefore, no true country without a uniform right. There is no true country where the uniformity of that right is violated by the existence of caste privilege and inequality. Where the activity of a portion of the powers and faculties of the individual is either cancelled or dormant; where there is not a common Principle, recognized, accepted, and developed by all, there is no true Nation, no People; but only a multitude, a fortuitous agglomeration of men whom circumstances have called together and whom circumstances may again divide. In the name of the love you bear your country, you must peacefully but untiringly combat the existence of privilege and inequality in the land that gave you life.

There is but one sole legitimate privilege, the privilege of Genius when it reveals itself united with virtue. But this is a privilege given by God, and when you acknowledge it, and follow its inspiration, you do so freely, exercising your own reason and your own choice. Every privilege which demands submission from you in virtue of power, inheritance, or any other right than the Right common to all, is a usurpation and a tyranny which you are bound to resist and destroy.

[Page 62] Be your country your Temple: God at the summit; a people of equals at the base.

Accept no other formula, no other moral law, if you would not dishonour alike your country and yourselves. Let all secondary laws be but the gradual regulation of your existence by the progressive application of this Supreme law. And in order that they may be such, it is necessary that all of you should aid in framing them. Laws framed only by a single fraction of the citizens, can never, in the very nature of things, be other than the mere expression of the thoughts, aspirations, and desires of that fraction; the representation, not of the country, but of a third or fourth part, of a class or zone of the country.

The laws should be the expression of the universal aspiration, and promote the universal good. They should be a pulsation of the heart of the nation. The entire nation should, either directly or indirectly, legislate.

By yielding up this mission into the hands of a few, you substitute the selfishness of one class for the Country, which is the union of all classes.

Country is not only a mere zone of territory. The true Country is the Idea to which it gives birth; it is the Thought of love, the sense of communion which unites in one all the sons of that territory.

So long as a single one amongst your brothers has no vote to represent him in the development of the national life, so long as there is one left to vegetate in ignorance where others are educated, so long as a single man, able and willing to work, languishes in poverty through want of work to do, you have no [Page 63] country in the sense in which Country ought to exist - the country of all and for all. 147 Education, labour, and the franchise, are the three main pillars of the Nation; rest not until you have built them thoroughly up with your own labour and exertions.

Be it yours to evolve the life of your country in loveliness and strength; free from all servile fears or sceptical doubts; maintaining as its basis the People; as its guide the principles of its Religious Faith, logically and energetically applied; its strength, the united strength of all; its aim, the fulfillment of the mission given to it by God.

And so long as you are ready to die for Humanity, the life of your country will be immortal. 148

Discussion Reading Was Bismarck the Key Factor in the Unification of Germany? By James Graham Herr Otto Von Bismarcks iron-man image and the unique personality was the crucial factor in the unification of Germany. His skill as a diplomat was unrivalled during his reign as chancellor of Prussia and Germany. The mastery he showed in foreign policy was such that he was able to outwit all other powers and make their leaders look pathetic. Bismarck inherited the ideas and political principles of the Junker class of which he was born into. Bismarcks father was loyal to the Prussian crown and narrow minded in his outlook, except for his choice in wife. Whilhelmine, Bismarcks mother was from a middle class background and cultured. She passed onto her son her love of music and literature. He was later to become a master in many fields of knowledge through his interest in reading. Bismarck disliked his mother but revered his father. From his family Bismarck gained a highly autocratic, intensively conservative and monarchical outlook on life. He also became a Prussian patriot. Bismarck born into nobility accepted its beliefs as his own. Bismarck had a mostly typical Junker education that he used to gain employment in the Prussian Civil Service. Bismarck started his education in Berlin at the spartan boarding school Plenum Academy where religious and physical exercises dominated. He later transferred to the Gymnasium (high school) at which he learnt foreign languages. In 1832 he entered the University of Gottingen and studied law. Gottingen was one of the centres of German liberalism and a strange choice for Bismarck. He rarely attended lectures preferring instead to drink, duel and womanise. A dabbling in Liberal literature and German philosophy took up the rest of his time. Liberalism had no appeal to him so he changed universities to the University of Berlin where he passed in 1835. As Bismarck himself put it "mob interference with political authority conflicted with my Prussian upbringing and I returned to Berlin with less liberal opinions than when I quitted it." After reluctantly serving his compulsory year in the military as a Gardejager (sharpshooter) Bismarck entered the Prussian Civil Service. He disliked following other people's policy and left the Civil Service in 1839 to look after his estates. Bismarck lived a restless life on his estates but did manage to marry Johanna von Puttkammer. His first political break came in 1847 when he was appointed in place of an ill man to the United Diet. It was in the United Diet that Bismarck emerged as a defender of the monarchy and a Junker reactionary. Bismarcks reactionary stance and anti liberalism endeared him to the Prussian government. In 1851 he was appointed Prussian representative to the restored German Bund as a reward for his stance in the United Diet. During his time in the Bund Bismarck formed an anti- Austrian view point. He insisted on equal status for Prussia and Austria and emphasised it by smoking at the Bund. This violated diplomatic procedure as only Austria previously smoked. Regent William sidelined Bismarck in 1859 for his anti Austrian views and sent him to St Petersburg. As Ambassador in the Russian capital he formed a great respect for Russian strength. In 1862 he was made Ambassador in Paris. Bismarcks views and attitudes saw him hold a series of political posts. The constitutional crisis brought Bismarck to power. William I now King of Prussia was by training a soldier and was convinced the brief mobilisation of 1859 had revealed inadequacies in the Prussian military. In collaboration with the Minister of War von Roon and the Chief of General Staff Moltke William presented proposals to the Prussian parliament to increase the size of the army and various other army reforms. The Liberals dominated the parliament and were determined to exercise one of the few powers that the constitution of 1849-50 had given the parliament. That is control over the budget. The expansion of the army naturally involved considerable expenditure that would entail an increase in taxation of 1.5 million pounds a year. The Liberals were opposed to this since they would have to pay the extra taxation. Also another of the reforms was to consolidate the Landwehr a small middle class militia into the Junker dominated Prussian army. By an overwhelming majority the proposed army reforms were rejected and a class struggle ensued. On the verge of abdication William turned to Bismarck for help whose appointment meant no compromise. Von Roon sent Bismarck the famous telegram "Delay is dangerous. Hurray." This was the opportunity Bismarck had been waiting for and he acted quickly making William tear up his abdication document. He drove liberals from office, gagged the press and encouraged William to create the new units by collecting existing taxation. This is an example of Bismarcks Realpolitiks, the pursuing of realistic goals by any available method instead of the pursuit of an ideology. Bismarck never wanted to have enemies for long and hoped to pacify the Liberals with foreign policy achievement notably the unification of Germany. With an expanded army Bismarck resolved to achieve unification with "iron and blood" rather than with Liberal methods. The Liberals rejection of the army reforms forced William to play his final card, the appointment of Bismarck as Minister-President of Prussia. The Schleswig Holstein war was manipulated by Bismarck to the advantage of Prussia. Schleswig and Holstein were populated by Germans and had for centuries been ruled by the Danish King. In 1863 the Danes formed a new constitution intended to incorporate Schleswig and Holstein into Denmark. Nationalist sentiment erupted all over 149 Germany and Bismarck saw his first great opportunity. The Confederation Diet voted to send troops to Holstein in support of the German prince Augustenburg. Bismarck did not want to be seen as the aggressor so sent Saxon and Hanoverian. Troops. From the outset it was clear Bismarck wanted to annex both duchies, to do this meant war with Denmark. He set about ensuring that no one could help Denmark. Russia was sympathetic due to Prussia's help during the Polish rebellion of 1863, France was bribed by hints of compensation in the Rhineland and Austria was persuaded to form an alliance with Prussia. Britain stood firmly behind Denmark and Palmerston stated "if Denmark had to fight she would not fight alone." Bismarck demanded Denmark submit the matter to a European congress, Denmark encouraged by Britain refused. He correctly called Palmerston's bluff and together with Austria invaded Denmark in February 1864. Isolated the Danes had no chance and were soundly beaten. Bismarcks secondary reason for attacking Denmark was to gain support from nationalists and Liberals at home. This he achieved and his heavy handedness over the army reforms was forgiven and forgotten. Prussia and Austria initially tried a joint rule of the duchies but this fell apart by deliberate design of Bismarck who had ordered the annexation of Kiel. The Treaty of Gastein in 1865 let Austria administer Holstein and Prussia Schleswig. Bismarck now new he could pick a fight with Austria when the need arose. Using diplomatic skill Bismarck ensured Denmark's defeat and laid the foundations of war with Austria.

To achieve Kleindeutsch under Prussian control Bismarck had to defeat Austria. Bismarck once decided on a war with Austria set about trying to isolate her. Russia was already hostile with Austria, Britain was overjoyed at the thought of war between Austria and Prussia as was France who was also bribed with more hints of compensation at the secret Biarritz Conference. Unwilling to fight the war alone he forged an alliance with the Kingdom of Italy. A promise of the Austrian territory of Venetia to Italy ensured the alliance. The Prussian invasion of Holstein failed to start a war and forced Bismarck to use other methods. To obtain the support of the Liberals both in Prussia and the other German states Bismarck proposed universal suffrage in a new German Diet that would replace the old Confederation Diet. Austria was to be excluded from the new parliament. This move was a masterstroke by Bismarck as it won him support and forced Austria to declare war on Prussia. Austria encouraged nine states including the all the large states to take its side and Prussia six states. The north and centre states were defeated by Prussia with little resistance. Austria and Saxony were defeated in an overwhelming victory at Konniggratz. The Austrians were entirely successful against the Italians but this failed to change the course of the war. With the road to Vienna open Bismarck arranged an armistice. Bismarcks true diplomatic genius is evident here as he robbed France any chance of claiming advantage out of the war. The Treaty of Prague expelled Austria from the German Confederation and Venetia was seceded to Italy. The extraordinary lenient treaty was designed so that Austria did not remain an enemy of Prussia. Prussia annexed Hanover, North Hesse, Schleswig and Holstein and formed the North German Confederation out of these states, Prussia and Saxony. Only Napoleon III attitude and local feeling prevented the confederation including the southern states. Bismarck through military might and diplomatic brilliance defeated Austria allowing Prussia to become dominant in Germany.

To complete German unification Bismarck had to deal with France. Napoleon III failed to receive compensation for his neutrality during the two previous that made him disparate to acquire some territory to increase his flagging support at home. France tried unsuccessfully to buy Belgium and Luxembourg. The British stopped the former and German public feeling the second. Realising France was hostile enough to start a war Bismarck implemented his tactic of isolating the country diplomatically. Russia was hostile to France and Austria reconciled with Prussia over the lenient Treaty of Prague. Britain was offended over French intentions over Belgium which Bismarck had disclosed at a crucial time. Italian friendship had been bought with Venetia. The south German states were drawn into a military alliance with Prussia by Bismarcks publication of Napoleons intentions towards the states. Bismarck encouraged a Hohenzollern relative of William I to stand as a candidature for the vacant Spanish throne hoping to encircle France. France was incensed and demanded the candidature be removed. William agreed against Bismarcks wishes. The French not satisfied sent the French Ambassador Benedetti to the spa of Ems to obtain an assurance the matter would not be revived. Benedetti accosted William in the street. William furious sent a telegram to Bismarck who edited it to make it sound like a Prussia snob of France. The telegram was released publicly and caused war fever to sweep France. Bismarck ordered a Prussian mobilisation that caused France to declare war. Prussian mobilisation utilising railways was much quicker than the French and the Prussian army soon encircled the main French army in the fortress town of Metz. Before long Paris was encircled and Napoleon overthrown. The republic of 1848 was re-established and fought on. Metz and Paris were eventually starved into surrendering and the defeat of France complete. The Treaty of Frankfurt made France pay 5000 million francs in reparations and secede Alsace Lorraine to Germany. The harsh treaty was not Bismarcks idea but rather Williams and the army's. Prussian military and industrial strength guided by Bismarcks isolation of France ensured Prussia victory in the Franco-Prussian War. 150 Bismarck achieved his main goal of German unification under Prussian leadership. Ten days before the armistice was signed Bismarck proclaimed the German Empire at the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles on 18 January 1871. Prussian victory had conjured up feelings of patriotism right across Germany and with a bribe of Ludwig II King of Bavaria unification was sealed. Bismarcks uncompromising personality helped to squash liberal opposition and save the Prussian monarchy. A united Germany was achieved by the defeat of the two powers that stood in its way, Austria and France. Prussian industrialization had ensured victory but Bismarck brought forward the triumph. Bismarck outmaneuvered Austria and France diplomatically allowing the isolation of the two powers essential for Prussian military victory. With astute political moves namely the war against Denmark Bismarck increased support for unification at home. The German Empire was proclaimed by Bismarck who did much to aid its creation.

Bismarcks iron man image and unique personality was a major factor in German Unification. Born and brought up as a Prussian Junker he pursued his nationalist ambitions and united Germany. His diplomatic skill was a major pre- requisite of Prussia's military victories. By manipulating events to his advantage Bismarck was able to proclaim a united Kleindeutsche under Prussian control. 151

Unit IX European Society to WWI The Birth of Modern Thought Chapters 23 and 24

To predict the behavior of ordinary people in advance, you only have to assume that they will always try to escape a disagreeable situation with the smallest possible expenditure of intelligence. -Friedrich Nietzsche

 The impact of the Second Industrial Revolution.  Urban development programs, including sanitation systems and housing reform.  The condition of women, the cult of domesticity, and the rise of political feminism.  The extent of Jewish emancipation.  The development of political socialism and the entry of workers into politics.

 The dominance of scientific thought in this era.  The conflict between church and state, particularly over education.  The impact of modernism, psychoanalysis, and the new physics on intellectual life.  The rise of nationalistically inspired racism and the resurgence of anti-Semitism.  The laying of the foundations for twentieth-century feminism. 152

Analyze the key developments that characterized the European economy in the second half of the 19th century.

Describe the physical transformation of European cities in the second half of the nineteenth century and analyze the social consequences of this transformation.

Discuss the ways European Jews were affected by, and responded to, liberalism, nationalism, and anti-Semitism in the 19th century.

Compare and contrast the roles of British working women in the pre-industrial economy (before 1750) with their roles in the era 1850 to 1920.

(Two pictures: an upper MC family and a very poor family) Contrast how a Marxist and a Social Darwinist would account for the differences in the two pictures.

To what extent did Marx and Freud each challenge the nineteenth-century liberal belief in rationality and progress?

To what extent and in what ways did intellectual developments in Europe in the period 1880-1920 undermine confidence in human rationality and in a well-ordered, dependable universe?

Major Unit Assignments Ideologies on Stage - In Reader Rationalism, Racism, Nationalism Discussion TIAA Assignment with Art Analysis- Realism and Impressionism Chapter 23-24 Worksheet

153 Ideologies on Stage: A 19th Century Talk Show

If we think about it in the modern context, those who have new, controversial ideas are often the guests of our TV talk shows. WE are going to juxtapose our forum with the ideologies of the 19th century. Use the following rubric to prepare for the talk show.

Requirements For the A Possible Earned Get into one of the 5 groups: Conservativism, Nationalism, Group has a scribe write out 20 Liberalism, Utopian Socialism, or Marxian Socialism. In the answers to each of these group discuss how you would respond to questions on the questions following topics: What should the government look like? What should the government’s responsibility be to the people? Who should have suffrage or the right to vote? What are the main problems of society? What would the ideal society look like? Discuss the answers to the questions together. I will be Any group discussing anything 5 randomly calling on people in the group to come and be the off topic will be docked 1 points representative for your group in the talk show each time. When individuals from your group come step in front of the Use emotion and energy to sell 20 camera, they are knowledgeable about their ideology, their ideas (arguing with other representing the ideas well. guests as necessary) Audience participates actively—asking clarifying questions—at Questions show an 15 least one per group understanding of the problems in society at that time Total 60 Extra Credit: Your group performs exceptionally well, making good points and asking additional clarifying questions 154

Chapter 23 Worksheet - European Supremacy Terms to be identified anti-Semitism Mensheviks Bessemer, Henry metro Bloody Sunday Mir Bolsheviks opportunism Cult of Domesticity Pankhurst, Emmeline Daimler, Gottlieb petite bourgeoisie Duma Port Arthur Erfurt Program putting out system Fabians Rasputin, Grigory Efimovich Fawcett, Millicent Revisionism Ford, Henry Second Industrial Revolution Gapon, George Soviets Hardie, Keir SPD Haussmann, Georges Stolypin, P.A. Krupp Suffragettes kulaks Union of German Women's Organizations (BDFK) Married Women's Property Act Witte, Sergei

Chapter Questions

How would you describe the living conditions in European cities during the late 19th century?

In what ways, were European cities redesigned during this period?

What was the status of European women in the second half of the 19th century?

Why did women grow discontented with their lot? (What factors led to change?)

What caused the growth in trade unions and organized mass political parties?

Textbook DQ’s

Paris Department Stores Expand Their Business Why should French governments have favored the growth of department stores?

Where did these store in the process of economic production and sales?

Why was the volume of sales so important?

What kinds of people might have benefited from the jobs available in these stores?

Why might these stores have hurt small retailers?

Bicycles: Transportation, Freedom and Sport (Secondary) Why did bicycles become so popular in Europe in the late nineteenth century?

What advantages did bicycles bring to women? 155 A French Physician describes a slum in Lille What does Villerme find most disturbing about the scene he describes?

How is his description possibly designed to call forth sympathy and concern from a middle-class reader?

How might the conditions described have led the poor of France toward socialism or radical politics?

How would addressing the problems described have increased the role of government?

An English Feminist Defends The Female Franchise What motives does Cobbe assign to the pursuit of the right to vote?

Why does she emphasize “womanliness” as an issue that must not be allowed to undermine the cause of women?

What does Cobbe think about violence?

Why would later British advocates of votes for women turn to violent tactics?

Eduard Bernstein Criticizes Orthodox Marxism According to Bernstein, what specific predictions in the Communist Manifesto failed to materialize?

Why is the advance of democracy important to his argument?

Why does he see the extension of political rights to German workers as so important?

Lenin Argues For the Necessity of A Secret and Elite Party of Professional Revolutionaries What does Lenin mean by “professional revolutionaries”?

Why does Russia need such revolutionaries?

How does Lenin reconcile his antidemocratic views to the goal of aiding the working class?

"What is a suffragette? A being who has ceased to be a lady and is no gentleman." - Charles Hands 156

Chapter 24 Worksheet- The Birth of Modern Thought

Terms to Identify

Comte, Auguste Picasso, Pablo Contagious Diseases Acts pointillism cubism positivism Einstein, Albert post-impressionism impressionism Protestant Ethic Jung, Carl relativity Keynesian economics Shaw, George Bernard Kulturkampf Social Darwinism Lyell, Charles Spencer, Herbert Mann, Thomas Stopes,Marie May laws Wallace, Alfred Russel Mendel, Gregor Weber, Max natural selection Zionism papal infallibility

Chapter Questions

What effect did Darwin's theory of natural selection have on theories of European views of human nature?

How and why did Christianity come under attack in the late 19C?

What are the differences between realism and modernism?

How did Nietzsche and Freud challenge traditional middle-class and religious morality?

Textbook DQ’s

The Birth of Science Fiction (Secondary) Why is Jules Verne considered the father of modern science fiction?

What enduring plot devices did H.G. Wells introduce?

Why did science fiction become so popular?

T.H. Huxley Criticizes Evolutionary Ethics What does Huxley mean by the “cosmic process”?

Why does he equate “social progress” with the “ethical process”?

In this passage, does Huxley present human society as part of nature or as something that may be separate from nature?

Leo XII Considers the Social Question In European Politics How does Leo XIII reject the concept of class conflict?

What responsibilities does he assign to the rich and to the poor?

Are the responsibilities of the two classes equal? 157 What kinds of social reform might emerge from these ideas?

Alexis de Tocqueville Forcasts The Danger of Gobineau’s Racial Thought Why does Tocqueville see Gobineau’s idea as a kind of materialistic determinism?

Why does he think Gobineau’s views are wrong?

Why does he see political danger in racial thinking?

H.S. Chamberlain Exalts the Role of Race What does Chamberlain mean by “Race” in this passage?

How, in his view, does race, as opposed to character or environment, determine human nature?

How might a nationalist use these ideas?

Herzl Calls For A Jewish State Why doe Herzl define what he calls the Jewish Question as a national question?

What objections does he anticipate to the founding of a Jewish state?

What does he believe the founding of a Jewish state will be an effective move against anti-Semitism?

Virginia Woolf Urges Women to Write How does Woolf’s fiction of Shakespeare’s sister establish a benchmark for women writers?

What does Woolf mean by the common life through which women will need to work to become independent writers?

Why does she emphasize the need for women to have both income and space if they are to become independent writers?

"God is dead." - Nietzsche "Nietzsche is dead." - God 158

APPARTS Essay Reading Alexander II The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia, Manifesto of February 19, 1861

This is the ceremonial preamble to the hundreds of pages of statutes spelling out the terms of the abolition of serfdom. It was ghost-written by the Metropolitan of Moscow, who opposed the reform.

By the Grace of God WE, Alexander II, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Finland, etc., make known to all OUR faithful subjects:

Called by Divine Providence and by the sacred right of inheritance to the Russian throne of OUR ancestors, WE vowed in OUR heart to respond to the mission which is entrusted to Us and to surround with OUR affection and OUR Imperial solicitude all OUR faithful subjects of every rank and condition, from the soldier who nobly defends the country to the humble artisan who works in industry; from the career official of the state to the plowman who tills the soil.

Examining the condition of classes and professions comprising the state, WE became convinced that the present state legislation favors the upper and middle classes, defines their obligations, rights, and privileges, but does not equally favor the serfs, so designated because in part from old laws and in part from custom they have been hereditarily subjected to the authority of landowners, who in turn were obligated to provide for their well being. Rights of nobles have been hitherto very broad and legally ill defined, because they stem from tradition, custom, and the good will of the noblemen. In most cases this has led to the establishment of good patriarchal relations based on the sincere, just concern and benevolence on the part of the nobles, and on affectionate submission on the part of the peasants. Because of the decline of the simplicity of morals, because of an increase in the diversity of relations, because of the weakening of the direct paternal relationship of nobles toward the peasants, and because noble rights fell sometimes into the hands of people exclusively concerned with their personal interests, good relations weakened. The way was opened for an arbitrariness burdensome for the peasants and detrimental to their welfare, causing them to be indifferent to the improvement of their own existence.

These facts had already attracted the attention of OUR predecessors of glorious memory, and they had adopted measures aimed at improving the conditions of the peasants; but these measures were ineffective, partly because they depended on the free, generous action of nobles, and partly because they affected only some localities, by virtue of special circumstances or as an experiment. Thus Alexander I issued a decree on free agriculturists, and the late Emperor Nicholas, OUR beloved father, promulgated one dealing with serfs: in the Western provinces, inventory regulations now determine the peasant land allotments and their obligations. But decrees on free agriculturists and [western] serfs have been carried out on a limited scale only.

WE thus became convinced that the problem of improving the condition of serfs was a sacred inheritance bequeathed to Us by OUR predecessors, a mission which, in the course of events, Divine Providence has called upon Us to fulfill.

WE have begun this task by expressing OUR confidence toward the Russian nobility, which has proven on so many occasions its devotion to the Throne, and its readiness to make sacrifices for the welfare of the country.

WE have left to the nobles themselves, in accordance with their own wishes, the task of preparing proposals for the new organization of peasant life—proposals that would limit their rights over the peasants, and the realization of which would inflict on them [the nobles] some material losses. OUR confidence was justified. Through members of the provincial committees, who were entrusted [with the task] by the corporate organizations of the nobility in each province, after collecting the necessary data, have formulated proposals on a new arrangement for serfs and their relationship with the nobles.

These proposals were diverse, because of the nature of the problem. They have been compared, collated, systematized, rectified and finalized in the Main Committee instituted for that purpose; and these new arrangements dealing with the peasants and household serfs1[1] of the nobility have been examined in the Council of State.

1 159 Having invoked Divine assistance, WE have resolved to execute this task.

On the basis of the above-mentioned new arrangements, the serfs will receive in time the full rights of free rural inhabitants.

The nobles, while retaining their property rights to all the lands belonging to them, grant the peasants perpetual use of their household plots in return for a specified obligation; and, to assure their livelihood as well as to guarantee fulfillment of their obligations toward time government, [the nobles] grant them a portion of arable land fixed by the said arrangements as well as other property.

While enjoying these land allotments, the peasants are obliged, in return, to fulfill obligations to the noblemen fixed by the same arrangements. In this status, which is temporary, the peasants are temporarily bound.

At the same time, they are granted the right to purchase their household plots, and, with the consent of the nobles, they may acquire in full ownership the arable lands and other properties which are allotted them for permanent use. Following such acquisition of full ownership of land, the peasants will be freed from their obligations to the nobles for the land thus purchased and will become free peasant landowners.

A special decree dealing with household serfs will establish a temporary status for them, adapted to their occupations and their needs. At the end of two years from the day of the promulgation of this decree, they shall receive full freedom and some temporary benefits.

In accordance with the fundamental principles of these arrangements, the future organization of peasants and household serfs will be determined, the order of general peasant administration will be established, and the rights given to the peasants and to the household serfs will be spelled out in detail, as will the obligations imposed on them toward the government and the nobles.

Although these arrangements, general as well as local, and the special supplementary rules affecting some particular localities, estates of petty nobles, and peasants working in factories and enterprises of the nobles, have been as far as possible adapted to economic necessities and local customs; nevertheless, to preserve the existing order where it presents reciprocal advantages, WE leave it to the nobles to reach a voluntary understanding with the peasants and to reach agreements on the extent of the land allotment and the obligations stemming from it, observing, at the same time, the established rules to guarantee the inviolability of such agreements.

This new arrangement, because of its complexity, cannot be put into effect immediately, an interval of not less than two years is necessary. During this period, to avoid all misunderstanding and to protect public and private interests, the order actually existing on the estates of nobles should be maintained until the new order shall become effective.

Towards that end, WE have deemed it advisable:

1. To establish in each province a special Office of Peasant Affairs, which will be entrusted with the affairs of the peasant communes established on the estates of the nobility.

2. To appoint in every district arbiters of the peace to solve all misunderstandings and disputes which may arise from time new arrangements and to organize from these justices district assemblies.

3. To organize Peace Offices on the estates of the nobles, leaving the village communes as they are, and to open cantonal offices in the large villages and unite small village communes under one cantonal office.

4. To formulate, verify, and confirm in each village commune or estate a charter which will specify, on the basis of local conditions, the amount of land allotted to the peasants for permanent use, and the scope of their obligations to the nobleman for the land as well as for other advantages which are granted. 160 5. To put these charters into practice as they are gradually approved on each estate, and to put them into effect everywhere within two years from the date of publication of this manifesto.

6. Until that time, peasants and household serfs must be obedient towards their nobles, and scrupulously fulfill their former obligations.

7. The nobles will continue to keep order on their estates, with the right of jurisdiction and of police, until the organization of cantons and of cantonal courts.

Aware of the unavoidable difficulties of this reform, WE place OUR confidence above all in the graciousness of Divine Providence, which watches over Russia.

WE also rely upon the zealous devotion of OUR nobility, to whom WE express OUR gratitude and that of the entire country as well, for the unselfish support it has given to the realization of OUR designs. Russia will not forget that the nobility, motivated by its respect for the dignity of man and its Christian love of its neighbor, has voluntarily renounced serfdom, and has laid the foundation of a new economic future for the peasants. WE also expect that it will continue to express further concern for the realization of the new arrangement in a spirit of peace and benevolence, and that each nobleman will bring to fruition on his estate the great civic act of time entire group by organizing the lives of his peasants and his household serfs on mutually advantageous terms, thereby setting for the rural population a good example of a punctual and conscientious execution of the state’s requirements.

The examples of the generous concern of the nobles for the welfare of peasants, amid the gratitude of the latter for that concern, give Us the hope that a mutual understanding will solve most of the difficulties, which in some cases will be inevitable during the application of general rules to the diverse conditions on some estates, and that thereby the transition from the old order to time new will be facilitated, and that in the future mutual confidence will be strengthened, and a good understanding and a unanimous tendency towards the general good will evolve.

To facilitate the realization of these agreements between the nobles arid the peasants, by which the latter may acquire full ownership of their household plots and their houses, the government will lend assistance, under special regulations, by means of loans or transfer of debts encumbering an estate.

WE rely upon the common sense of OUR people. When the government advanced the idea of abolishing serfdom, there developed a partial misunderstanding among the unprepared peasants. Some were concerned about freedom and not concerned about obligations. But, generally, the common sense of the nation has not wavered, because it has realized that every individual who enjoys freely the benefits of society owes it in return certain positive obligations; according to Christian law every individual is subject to higher authority (Romans, chap. xiii., 1); everyone must fulfill his obligations, and, above all, render tribute, dues, respect, and honor (Ibid., chap. xiii., 7). What legally belongs to nobles cannot be taken away from them without adequate compensation, or through their voluntary concession; it would be contrary to all justice to use the land of the nobles without assuming corresponding obligations.

And now WE confidently expect that the freed serfs, on the eve of a new future, which is opening to them, will appreciate and recognize the considerable sacrifices which the nobility has made on their behalf.

They should understand that by acquiring property and greater freedom to dispose of their possessions, they have an obligation to society and to themselves to live up to the letter of the new law by a loyal and judicious use of the rights which are now granted to them. However beneficial a law may be, it cannot make people happy if they do not themselves organize their happiness under protection of the law. Abundance is acquired only through hard work, wise use of strength and resources, strict economy, and above all, through an honest God-fearing life.

The authorities who prepared the new way of life for the peasants and who will be responsible for its inauguration will have to see that this task is accomplished with calmness and regularity, taking advantage of the time allotted, in order not to divert the attention of cultivators away from their agricultural work. Let them zealously work the soil and harvest its fruits so that they will have a full granary of seeds to return to the soil which will be theirs. 161 And now, Orthodox people, make the sign of the cross, and join with Us to invoke God’s blessing upon your free labor, the sure pledge of your personal well being and the public prosperity.

Given at St. Petersburg, March 3, the year of Grace 1861, and the seventh of OUR reign.

Alexander

dvorovye -- serfs who did not hold allotments of land; most of them worked as domestic servants or craftspeople. 162

APPARTS Essay Reading John Stuart Mill: from The Subjection of Women

In this classic analysis of the inequality of the sexes, John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) drew on forty years of collaboration with Harriet Taylor, the last eight of which (1851-1859) they were married. Son of philosopher James Mill, John Mill became a friend of feminist William Thompson in 1825. He met and fell in love with Harriet Taylor in 1830, who was married with young children. They married in 1851 after the death of her husband. From 1834 to 1840 Mill edited The London and Westminster Review, a radical quarterly that published Charles Dickens and other leading Victorian writers. From 1840 to 1857 Mill supported himself as an administrator in the East India Company. This gave him time to write major works in the history of British philosophical utilitarianism and liberalism, including System of Logic (1843), Principles of Political Economy (1848), On Liberty (1859), Considerations on Representative Government (1860), Utilitarianism (1863). After his wife's death in 1859, Mill served as a radical member of Parliament, where he supported woman suffrage, the interests of working people, and land reform in Ireland.

The general opinion of men is supposed to be, that the natural vocation of a woman is that of a wife and mother. I say, is supposed to be, because, judging from acts--from the whole of the present constitution of society--one might infer that their opinion was the direct contrary. They might be supposed to think that the alleged natural vocation of women was of all things the most repugnant to their nature; insomuch that if they are free to do anything else--if any other means of living, or occupation of their time and faculties, is open, which has any chance of appearing desirable to them--there will not be enough of them who will be willing to accept the condition said to be natural to them. If this is the real opinion of men in general, it would be well that it should be spoken out. I should like to hear somebody openly enunciating the doctrine (it is already implied in much that is written on the subject)--"It is necessary to society that women should marry and produce children. They will not do so unless they are compelled. Therefore it is necessary to compel them." The merits of the case would then be clearly defined. It would be exactly that of the slaveholders of South Carolina and Louisiana. "It is necessary that cotton and sugar should be grown. White men cannot produce them. Negroes will not, for any wages which we choose to give. Ergo they must be compelled." An illustration still closer to the point is that of impressment. Sailors must absolutely be had to defend the country. It often happens that they will not voluntarily enlist. Therefore there must be the power of forcing them. How often has this logic been used! and, but for for one flaw in it, without doubt it would have been successful up to this day. But it is open to the retort--First pay the sailors the honest value of their labour. When you have made it as well worth their while to serve you, as to work for other employers, you will have no more difficulty than others have in obtaining their services. To this there is no logical answer except "I will not:" and as people are now not only ashamed, but are not desirous, to rob the labourer of his hire, impressment is no longer advocated. Those who attempt to force women into marriage by closing all other doors against them, lay themselves open to a similar retort. If they mean what they say, their opinion must evidently be, that men do not render the married condition so desirable to women, as to induce them to accept it for its own recommendations. It is not a sign of one's thinking the boon one offers very attractive, when one allows only Hobson's choice, "that or none." And here, I believe, is the clue to the feelings of those men, who have a real antipathy to the equal freedom of women. I believe they are afraid, not lest women should be unwilling to marry, for I do not think that any one in reality has that apprehension; but lest they should insist that marriage should be on equal conditions; lest all women of spirit and capacity should prefer doing almost anything else, not in their own eyes degrading, rather than marry, when marrying is giving themselves a master, and a master too of all their earthly possessions. And truly, if this consequence were necessarily incident to marriage, I think that the apprehension would be very well founded. I agree in thinking it probable that few women, capable of anything else, would, unless under an irresistible entrainement, rendering them for the time insensible to anything but itself, choose such a lot, when any other means were open to them of filling a conventionally honourable place in life: and if men are determined that the law of marriage shall be a law of despotism, they are quite right, in point of mere policy, in leaving to women only Hobson's choice. But, in that case, all that has been done in the modern world to relax the chain on the minds of women, has been a mistake. They never should have been allowed to receive a literary education. Women who read, much more women who write, are, in the existing constitution of things, a contradiction and a disturbing element: and it was wrong to bring a women up with any acquirements but those of an odalisque, or of a domestic servant.

* * * 163 The equality of married persons before the law is not only the sole mode in which that particular relation can be made consistent with justice to both sides, and conductive to the happiness of both, but it is the only means of rendering the daily life of mankind, in any high sense, a school of moral cultivation. Though the truth may not be felt or generally acknowledged for generations to come, the only school or genuine moral sentiment is society between equals. The moral education of mankind has hitherto emanated chiefly from the law of force, and is adapted almost solely to the relations which force creates. In the less advanced states of society, people hardly recognise any relation with their equals. To be an equal is to be an enemy. Society, from its highest place to its lowest, is one long chain, or rather ladder, where every individual is either above or below his nearest neighbour, and wherever he does not command he must obey. Existing moralities, accordingly, are mainly fitted to a relation of command and obedience. Yet command and obedience are but unfortunate necessities of human life: society in equality is its normal state. Already in modern life, and more and more as it progressively improves, command and obedience become exceptional facts in life, equal association its general rule. The morality of the first ages rested on the obligation to submit to power; that of the ages next following, on the right of the weak to the forbearance and protection of the strong. How much longer is one form of society and life to content itself with the morality made for another? We have had the morality of submission, and the morality of chivalry and generosity; the time is now come for the morality of justice. Whenever, in former ages, any approach has been made to society in equality, Justice has asserted its claims as the foundation of virtue. It was thus in the free republics of antiquity. But even in the best of these, the equals were limited to the free male citizens; slaves, women, and the unenfranchised residents were under the law of force. The joint influence of Roman civilization and of Christianity obliterated these distinctions, and in theory (if only partially in practice) declared the claims of the human being, as such, to be paramount to those of sex, class, or social position. The barriers which had begun to be levelled were raised again by the northern conquests; and the whole of modern history consists of the slow process by which they have since been wearing away. We are entering into an order of things in which justice will again be the primary virtue; grounded as before on equal, but now also on sympathetic association; having its root no longer in the instinct of equals for self-protection, but in a cultivated sympathy between them; and no one being now left out, but an equal measure being extended to all. It is no novelty that mankind do not distinctly foresee their own changes, and that their sentiments are adapted to past, not to coming ages. To see the futurity of the species has always been the privilege of the intellectual élite, or of those who have learnt from them; to have the feelings of that futurity has been the distinction, and usually the martyrdom, of a still rarer élite. Institutions, books, education, society, all go on training human beings for the old, long after the new has come; much more when it is only coming. But the true virtue of human beings is fitness to live together as equals; claiming nothing for themselves but what they as freely concede to every one else; regarding command of any kind as an exceptional necessity, and in all cases a temporary one; and preferring, whenever possible, the society of those with whom leading and following can be alternate and reciprocal. To these virtues, nothing in life as at present constituted gives cultivation by exercise. The family is a school of despotism, in which the virtues of despotism, but also its vices, are largely nourished. Citizenship, in free countries, is partly a school of society in equality; but citizenship fills only a small place in modern life, and does not come near the daily habits or inmost sentiments. The family, justly constituted, would be the real school of the virtues of freedom. It is sure to be a sufficient one of everything else. It will always be a school of obedience for the children, of command for the parents. What is needed is, that it should be a school of sympathy in equality, of living together in love, without power on one side or obedience on the other. This it ought to be between the parents. It would then be an exercise of those virtues which each requires to fit them for all other association, and a model to the children of the feelings and conduct which their temporary training by means of obedience is designed to render habitual, and therefore natural, to them. The moral training of mankind will never be adapted to the conditions of the life for which all other human progress is a preparation, until they practise in the family the same moral rule which is adapted to the normal constitution of human society.

What marriage may be in the case of two persons of cultivated faculties, identical in opinions and purposes, between whom there exists that best kind of equality, similarity of powers and capacities with reciprocal superiority in them--so that each can enjoy the luxury of looking up to the other, and can have alternately the pleasure of leading and of being led in the path of development--I will not attempt to describe. To those who can conceive it, there is no need; to those who cannot, it would appear the dream of an enthusiast. But I maintain, with the profoundest conviction, that this, and this only, is the ideal marriage; and that all opinions, customs, and institutions which favour any other notion of it, or turn the conceptions and aspirations connected with it into any other direction, by whatever pretences they may be coloured, are relics of primitive barbarism. The moral regeneration of mankind will only really commence, when the 164 most fundamental of the social relations is placed under the rule of equal justice, and when human beings learn to cultivate their strongest sympathy with an equal in rights and in cultivation.

Unit X - Imperialism, WWI, Russian Revolution Chapters 25

Well, you've come to the right place, Bob. A war hasn't been fought this badly since Olaf the Hairy, high chief of all the Vikings, accidentally ordered 80,000 battle helmets with the horns on the inside..." --Captain Blackadder, in Blackadder Goes Forth (1989)

 The economic, strategic, and cultural forces driving the New Imperialism .  The search for strategic advantage among European nations and the creation of opposing alliance systems .  The immediate origins and course of the Great War (World War I) .  The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia that permanently swept away the monarchy and created the world’s first viable Communist state.  The Versailles Treaty and associated treaties that ended the war, but left a very difficult legacy that threatened the post-war order in Europe. 165

"Every successful revolution puts on in time the robes of the tyrant that it deposed." Evaluate this statement with regard to the English Revolution (1640-1660), the French Revolution (1789-1815), and the Russian Revolution (1917-1930).

In what ways and why did Lenin alter Marxism?

Compare and contrast the roles of the peasantry and urban workers in the French Revolution with the peasantry and urban workers of the Russian Revolution.

To what extent and in what ways did Nationalist tension in the Balkans between 1870 and 1914 contribute to the outbreak of the First World War?

Compare and contrast the degree of success of treaties negotiated in Vienna (1814-1815) and Versailles (1919) in achieving European stability.

"The tsarist regime fell in 1917 because it had permitted tremendous change and progress in some areas while trying to maintain a political order that had outlived its time." Assess the validity of this statement as an explanation of the abdication of Nicholas II in 1917.

Discuss and analyze the long-term social and economic trends in the period 1860 to 1917 that prepared the ground for revolution in Russia.

"1914-1918 marks a turning point in the intellectual and cultural history of Europe." Defend, refute, or modify this statement with reference to the generation before and the generation after the First World War.

Analyze and assess the extent to which the First World War accelerated European social change in such areas as work, sex roles, and government involvement in everyday life.

World War I Limericks World War I DBQ TIAA Assignment 166 World War I Limericks

The standard form for a limerick is a five line format with the rhyming scheme aabba (the first, second, and last lines rhyme with one another, and the fourth and fifth lines usually use a different rhyme, and rhyme only with each other).

My name is John Wellington Wells. I'm a dealer in magic and spells. In blessings and curses And ever-filled purses In prophecies, witches and knells.

You and with a group of 3 will choose one of the key events or people from World War I to write a limerick about (see below). Use the above format.

Requirements For the A Possible Earned Follows general limerick format (5) Creative use of language (5) 10 Includes information about your event, alliance, or person Limerick has specific information 10 from the list below. (5) and is designed to be memorable (5) Write your finished Limerick on a poster or large paper for 5 my to post in the room to help your classmates remember World War I. (5) Total Points 25 Bonus: Illustrate limerick (10) (Bonus available only if 10 group uses class time effectively.)

Assassination of the Archduke Triple alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) Triple Entente (France, Great Britain, Russia) Italy switches sides Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottomans) Allied Powers (France, Great Britain, Portugal, Russia, Serbia, Romania, Albania, Greece—you can leave some of the minor one out if you must) Rationing Trench warfare Women in the Workplace Treaty of Versailles Treaty of Trianon 167 Chapter 25 Worksheet- Imperialism, World War I

Terms to Identify

Berlin Conference Leopold II Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald Ludendorff, Erich blank check mandates Boer War Moltke, Helmut von Bosnian Crisis Monroe Doctrine Clemenceau, Georges Open Door Policy Congress of Berlin reparations Conrad, Joseph Schlieffen Plan Dual Alliance Second Moroccan Crisis Entente Cordiale Spanish American War Ferdinand, Francis Stanley, Henry Morton First Moroccan Crisis Three Emperor's League Fourteen Points Tirpitz, Alfred von Franco-Russian Alliance Treaty of Brest-Litovsk George, David Lloyd Triple Alliance Hobson, J.A. Triple Entente jingoism war guilt clause Kemal, Mustafa White Russians Kerensky, Alexander William II Khedives Wilson, Woodrow League of Nations Chapter Questions How and why did European attitudes toward imperialism change after 1871?

What features differentiate the New Imperialism from earlier imperialistic movements?

What factors led to the Anglo-German rivalry?

How did developments in the Balkans lead to the outbreak of WWI?

Who (or what) is most responsible for causing WWI?

What were the benefits of the Versailles Treaty to Europe, and what were its drawbacks ?

How did Lenin's version of socialism differ from that of other socialists in Europe?

What role did Trotsky play in the Russian Revolution?

Textbook DQ’s

Social Darwinism and Imperialism How does the author connect Darwin’s ideas to the concept of human progress?

Is it reasonable to equate biological species with human societies, races, or nations?

How do the author’s ideas justify imperial expansion?

What arguments can you make against the author’s assertions? 168 Bismarck Explains His Foreign Policy What alliances made up Bismarck’s system?

How were they meant to preserve the peace?

What is Bismarck’s stated purpose for avoiding a war in Europe?

Were there other reasons too?

The Kaiser’s Comments on the Outbreak of the World War What was the significance of mobilization on which the Kaiser places so much emphasis ?

Why does the Kaiser focus so much anger on England?

In 1914, why was Great Britain aligned with its traditional rivals, France and Russia against Germany?

The Outbreak of the Russian Revolution What elements contributing to the success of the March Revolution emerge from this selection?

Why might the army have been unreliable?

Why did the two ambassadors think a new ministry should be appointed?

What were the grievances of the revolutionaries?

Why is there no Discussion of the leaders of the revolution?

What role did the emperor (tsar) play in these events?

An Eyewitness Account of the Bolshevik’s Seizure of Power What was the Provisional government?

How did it come into being?

Why was it under pressure in November 1917?

Which groups were vying for power?

What program gave victory to the Bolsheviks?

War Propaganda and the Movies: Charlie Chaplin (Secondary) What were the purposes of propaganda in the war?

What were the advantages of using movies in the war effort?

Imperialism (Secondary) What were the major ancient attitudes toward imperialism and what are the major modern attitudes?

How do you account for the differences?

What justifications and explanations have modern people used in connection with imperialism?

Which do you think are the most important?

Do you think ancient and modern reasons for imperialism are fundamentally different? 169 APPARTS Essay Reading: Karl Pearson: National Life From the Standpoint of Science, 1900

History shows me one way, and one way only, in which a high state of civilization has been produced, namely, the struggle of race with race, and the survival of the physically and mentally fitter race. If you want to know whether the lower races of man can evolve a higher type, I fear the only course is to leave them to fight it out among themselves, and even then the struggle for existence between individual and individual, between tribe and tribe, may not be supported by that physical selection due to a particular climate on which probably so much of the Aryan's success depended. . .

The struggle means suffering, intense suffering, while it is in progress; but that struggle and that suffering have been the stages by which the white man has reached his present stage of development, and they account for the fact that he no longer lives in caves and feeds on roots and nuts. This dependence of progress on the survival of the fitter race, terribly black as it may seem to some of you, gives the struggle for existence its redeeming features; it is the fiery crucible out of which comes the finer metal. You may hope for a time when the sword shall be turned into the plowshare, when American and German and English traders shall no longer compete in the markets of the world for their raw material and for their food supply, when the white man and the dark shall share the soil between them, and each till it as he lists. But, believe me, when that day comes mankind will no longer progress; there will be nothing to check the fertility of inferior stock; the relentless law of heredity will not be controlled and guided by natural selection. Man will stagnate; and unless he ceases to multiply, the catastrophe will come again; famine and pestilence, as we see them in the East, physical selection instead of the struggle of race against race, will do the work more relentlessly, and, to judge from India and China, far less efficiently than of old. . .

There is a struggle of race against race and of nation against nation. In the early days of that struggle it was a blind, unconscious struggle of barbaric tribes. At the present day, in the case of the civilized white man, it has become more and more the conscious, carefully directed attempt of the nation to fit itself to a continuously changing environment. The nations has to foresee how and where the struggle will be carried on; the maintenance of national position is becoming more and more a conscious preparation for changing conditions, an insight into the needs of coming environments.

We have to remember that man is subject to the universal law of inheritance, and that a dearth of capacity may arise if we recruit our society from the inferior and not the better stock. If any social opinions or class prejudices tamper with the fertility of the better stocks, then the national character will take but a few generations to be seriously modified. The pressure of population should always tend to push brains and physique into occupations where they are not a primary necessity, for in this way a reserve is formed for the times of national crisis. Such a reserve can always be formed by filling up with men of our own kith and kin the waste lands of the earth, even at the expense of an inferior race of inhabitants. . . .

You will see that my view---and I think it may be called the scientific view of a nation---is that of an organized whole, kept up to a high pitch of internal efficiency by insuring that its numbers are substantially recruited from the better stocks, and kept up to a high pitch of internal efficiency by insuring that its numbers are substantially recruited from the better stocks, and kept up to a high pitch of external efficiency by contest, chiefly by way of war with inferior races, and with equal races by the struggle for trade-routes and for the sources of raw material and of food supply. This is the natural history view of mankind, and I do not think you can in its main features subvert it. Some of you may realize it, and then despair of life; you may decline to admit any glory in a world where the superior race must either eject the inferior, or, mixing with it, or even living alongside it, degenerate itself. What beauty can there be when the battle is to the stronger, and the weaker must suffer in the struggle of nations and in the struggle of individual men? You may say: Let us cease to struggle; let us leave the lands of the world to the races that cannot profit by them to the full; let us cease to compete in the markets of the world. Well, we could do it, if we were a small nation living on the produce of our own soil, and a soil so worthless that no other race envied it and sought to appropriate it. We should cease to advance; but then we should naturally give up progress as a good which comes through suffering. . .

The man who tells us that he feels to all men alike, that he has no sense of kinship, that he has no patriotic sentiment, that he loves the Kaffir as he loves his brother, is probably deceiving himself. If he is not, then all we can say is that a nation of such men, or even a nation with a large minority of such men, will not stand for many generations; it cannot 170 survive in the struggle of the nations, it cannot be a factor in the contest upon which human progress ultimately depends. The national spirit is not a thing to be ashamed of, as the educated man seems occasionally to hold. If that spirit be the mere excrescence of the music hall, or an ignorant assertion of superiority to the foreigner, it may be ridiculous, it may even be nationally dangerous; but if the national spirit takes the form of a strong feeling of the importance of organizing the nation as a whole, of making its social and economic conditions such that it is able to do its work in the world and meet its fellows without hesitation in the field and in the market, then it seems to me a wholly good spirit---indeed, one of the highest forms of social, that is, moral instinct.

So far from our having too much of this spirit of patriotism, I doubt if we have anything like enough of it. We wait to improve the condition of some class of workers until they themselves cry out or even rebel against their economic condition. We do not better their state because we perceive its relation to the strength and stability of the nation as a whole. Too often it is done as the outcome of a blind class war. The coal owners, the miners, the manufacturers, the mill-hands, the landlords, the farmers, the agricultural laborers, struggle against each other, and, in doing so, against the nation at large, and our statesmen as a rule look on. That was the correct attitude from the standpoint of the old political economy. It is not the correct attitude from the standpoint of science; for science realizes that the nation is an organized whole, in continual struggle with its competitors. You cannot get a strong and effective nation if many of its stomachs are half fed and many of its brains untrained. We, as a nation, cannot survive in the struggle for existence if we allow class distinctions to permanently endow the brainless and to push them into posts of national responsibility. The true statesman has to limit the internal struggle of the community in order to make it stronger for the external struggle. We must reward ability, we must pay for brains, we must give larger advantage to physique; but we must not do this at a rate which renders the lot of the mediocre a wholly unhappy one. We must foster exceptional brains and physique for nation purposes; but, however useful prize cattle may be, they are not bred for their own sake, but as a step toward the improvement of the whole herd. . .

Science is not a dogma; it has no infallible popes to pronounce authoritatively what its teaching is. I can only say how it seems to one individual scientific worker that the doctrine of evolution applies to the history of nations. My interpretation may be wrong, but of the true method I am sure: a community of men is as subject as a community of ants or as a herd of buffaloes to the laws which rule all organic nature. We cannot escape from them; it serves no purpose to protest at what some term their cruelty and their bloodthirstiness. . .

Mankind as a whole, like the individual man, advances through pain and suffering only. The path of progress is strewn with the wreck of nations; traces are everywhere to be seen of the hecatombs of inferior races, and of victims who found not the narrow way to the greater perfection. Yet these dead peoples are, in very truth, the steppingstones on which mankind has arisen to the higher intellectual and deeper emotional life of today. 171 APPARTS Essay Reading: January 8, 1918: President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points

It will be our wish and purpose that the processes of peace, when they are begun, shall be absolutely open and that they shall involve and permit henceforth no secret understandings of any kind. The day of conquest and aggrandizement is gone by; so is also the day of secret covenants entered into in the interest of particular governments and likely at some unlooked-for moment to upset the peace of the world. It is this happy fact, now clear to the view of every public man whose thoughts do not still linger in an age that is dead and gone, which makes it possible for every nation whose purposes are consistent with justice and the peace of the world to avow nor or at any other time the objects it has in view.

We entered this war because violations of right had occurred which touched us to the quick and made the life of our own people impossible unless they were corrected and the world secure once for all against their recurrence. What we demand in this war, therefore, is nothing peculiar to ourselves. It is that the world be made fit and safe to live in; and particularly that it be made safe for every peace-loving nation which, like our own, wishes to live its own life, determine its own institutions, be assured of justice and fair dealing by the other peoples of the world as against force and selfish aggression. All the peoples of the world are in effect partners in this interest, and for our own part we see very clearly that unless justice be done to others it will not be done to us. The programme of the world's peace, therefore, is our programme; and that programme, the only possible programme, as we see it, is this:

I. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view.

II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants.

III. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.

IV. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety.

V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined.

VI. The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent determination of her own political development and national policy and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy.

VII. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and determined for the government of their relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole structure and validity of international law is forever impaired.

VIII. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest of all. 172 IX. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.

X. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development.

XI. Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality; and international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan states should be entered into.

XII. The turkish portion of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international guarantees.

XIII. An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international covenant.

XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.

In regard to these essential rectifications of wrong and assertions of right we feel ourselves to be intimate partners of all the governments and peoples associated together against the Imperialists. We cannot be separated in interest or divided in purpose. We stand together until the end.

For such arrangements and covenants we are willing to fight and to continue to fight until they are achieved; but only because we wish the right to prevail and desire a just and stable peace such as can be secured only by removing the chief provocations to war, which this programme does remove. We have no jealousy of German greatness, and there is nothing in this programme that impairs it. We grudge her no achievement or distinction of learning or of pacific enterprise such as have made her record very bright and very enviable. We do not wish to injure her or to block in any way her legitimate influence or power. We do not wish to fight her either with arms or with hostile arrangements of trade if she is willing to associate herself with us and the other peace- loving nations of the world in covenants of justice and law and fair dealing. We wish her only to accept a place of equality among the peoples of the world, -- the new world in which we now live, -- instead of a place of mastery. 173

Unit XI- Political Experiments of the 1920s and the Great Depression of the 1930s Chapters 26 and 27

“If Hitler invaded hell I would make at least a favorable reference to the devil in the House of Commons.”- Winston Churchill

 Economic and political disorder in the post-Great War years.  The establishment of the Soviet Union’s far-reaching political and economic experiment.  Mussolini’s Fascism in Italy.  French efforts to enforce the Versailles Treaty, leading to the Ruhr crisis of 1923.  Britain’s first Labour Party government and the General Strike of 1926.  The struggles of the successor states in eastern Europe.  The Weimar Republic’s efforts to create a stable, democratic Germany.

 Factors contributing to the Great Depression in Europe.  Coalition governments of the Right and the Left in the National Government of Britain and the Popular Front of France.  The Nazi seizure of power in Germany and its effects.  Central economic planning in the Soviet Five Year Plan and Italian Fascist "syndicalism".  The human costs of Soviet Communism, including collectivization, shortages of housing and consumer goods, and the purges. 174

Compare and contrast the extent to which Catherine the Great and Joseph Stalin were "Westernizers".

Account for the responses of the European democracies to the military aggression by Italy and Germany during the 1930s.

Compare and contrast the relationship between the great powers and Poland in the periods 1772-1815 and 1918-1939.

Why did Germany's experiment with parliamentary democracy between 1919 and 1933 fail?

Compare the rise to power of the fascists in Italy with the Nazis in Germany.

Compare and contrast the ways in which the following paintings reflect the artistic styles and political conditions of the eras in which they were produced. See Art Index - (Goya's Third of May and Picasso's Guernica).

Contrast European diplomacy in the time periods 1890-1914 and 1918-1939. Include in your analysis goals, practices, and results.

How and in what ways did European painting or literature reflect the disillusionment in society between 1919 and 1939? Support your answer with specific artistic or literary examples.

Compare and contrast the French Jacobins' use of state power to achieve revolutionary goals during the Terror (1793- 1794) with Stalin's use of state power to achieve revolutionary goals in the Soviet Union during the period 1928-1939.

Lenin/Mussolini Comparison Chart The Great Depression in Germany- The Nazi's Discussion You Are There Assignment TIAA Assignment with Art Analysis – Propaganda Chapter 26- 27 Worksheet 175 You Are There”: The Great Depression

The purpose of this assignment is to create a 7-10 minute NPR-like audio news story about the long and short term causes for a major event. Your story should be centered around what the conflict was, and it should include “interviews” that provide a variety of perspectives—political, religious, economic, etc.—that capture the many ways different groups of people defined what these long-term conflicts, in their views, were really about.

This assignment is an experiment, and your feedback is vital to helping develop this project for the next time around. In the future, we will be building audio news stories that include a wide range of sound effects, and you will engage in digital audio editing. We will also put your creations online so that you or anyone in the world can access your masterpieces. Please share with the class any suggestions you have on how to make this project better.

For the “You Are There”: Great Depression project, you will be in three groups of 4-5 people building a story on the following topics. Suggestions on who you might “interview” for the economic crisis are below:

 Upon the American Stock market crash of 1929

o “Big Players’” Point of View: President Herbert Hoover, Prime Minister Ramsay McDonald, Leon Blum, President von Hindenburg,

o “Man in the Street” Point of View: A member of the English House of commons, a member of the SS, a German Jew, a Russian worker

 On the Scene Reporting- The Reichstag Fire, The Assassination of Sergei Kirov and the beginning of the Soviet Purges

Your creative process should begin with a) a brainstorm where you discuss the issues and people you need to include in your story, b) research and preparation on these issues, and c) a “script” outline which your team can use to perform/present the entire 7-10 presentation non-stop.

You do not need to script out exactly what you are going to say when we record your news story, but you should create a very specific outline, identify who is going to play what role, and then practice your presentation beforehand to ensure it is of the appropriate length.

In addition to using your textbook and your class notes, you need to use at least three other sources for your information. 176 Chapter 26 Worksheet Political Experiments of the 1920s

Terms to Identify Beer Hall putsch MacDonald, Ramsay Black Shirt March Mein Kampf Cheka Nazis Comintern normalcy Dail Eireann Pilsudski, Josef Dawes Plan Poincare, Raymond Fasci di Combattimento Red Army IRA SA Kapp Putsch SinnFein Kellogg-Briand Pact Stresemann, Gustav Kollontai, Alexandra Twenty-one Conditions Lateran Accord Victor Emmanuel III lebensraum war communism Lorcarno Agreements Weimar Republic

Chapter Questions

Define fascism.

Why were Britain and France "joyless victors"?

How did WWI change British politics?

Why did all but one of the successor states in eastern and central Europe fail to establish viable democracies?

What factors enabled the Red Army to win Russia's Civil War (1917-1921)?

Why did Lenin institute the NEP?

How did Stalin manage to overcome the opposition of Trotsky and establish himself as head of the Soviet state?

What were the positive and negative effects of Stalinism?

Textbook DQ’s

Trotsky Urges the Use of Terror How does Trotsky’s justification of terror compare with that associated with the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution?

Hoe might the circumstances of the Russian civil war have led Trotsky to these views?

Did the communist terror Trotsky advocated differ from the repressive policies of the tsars?

Alexandra Kollontai Demands a New Family Life in the Soviet Union Why did Kollontai see the restructuring of the family as essential to establishing a new kind of communist society?

Would these changes make people loyal to that society?

What changes in society does the kind of economic independence she seeks with women presuppose? 177

What might childhood be like if the state, rather than parents, assumed responsibility for children? Mussolini Heaps Contempt on Political Liberalism Which nineteenth century liberal political leaders might Mussolini have been attacking?

Why might Mussolini’s audience have been receptive to these views?

What events or developments within liberal states allowed Mussolini to portray liberalism as corrupt and powerless?

The Coming of Radio: The BBC (Secondary) In what ways was the BBC different from American commercial radio stations?

How did the BBC affect the popularity of the British monarchy?

Hitler Denounces the Versailles Treaty How might the French invasion of the Ruhr and the resulting inflation have made this speech particularly effective?

To what extent was Hitler’s condemnation of the control of the Versailles treaty imposed on Germany correct?

How does Hitler contrast his young Nazi movement with the young Weimar Republic?

Why does the one appear a strong and the other a weak support of German national goals?

If you tell a big enough lie and tell it frequently enough, it will be believed.- Adolf Hitler 178 Chapter 27 Worksheet- Europe and the Great Depression

Terms to Identify

Blum, Leon Hindenburg, Paul von corporatism Kreditanstalt Enabling Act of 1933 Nuremberg Laws Final Solution Popular Front Fuhrer Reichstag Fire Gosplan SS Great Purges Chapter Worksheet

How did the Great Depression begin?

How did Hitler rise to power?

What were Hitler's economic policies, and why were they successful?

Why were some nations more successful than others in addressing the Great Depression?

Textbook DQ’s

John Maynard Keynes Calls for Government Investment to Create Employment Why does Keynes believe the private economy will not always provide sufficient employment?

Why does he call government spending the “socialization of investment”?

How much of his argument is analytical?

How much political?

Cinema of the Political Left and Right Why were the Soviet and Nazi regimes so interested in cinema?

How did Leni Riefenstahl’s films of Hitler and Nazi rallies affect her later career?

An American Diplomat Witnesses Kristallnacht in Leipzig Why did the Nazis claim that the destruction of life and property in Leipzig and other German cities arose from spontaneous actions?

How did the Nazi perpetrators of Kristallnacht intimidate Jewish citizens?

What aid that was available to other German citizens was denied to Jews during these destructive events?

Why did other German citizens not oppose the Nazi actions against the Jews?

Hitler Rejects the Emancipation of Women What social tasks does Hitler assign to women?

Why does he associate the emancipation of women with Jews and intellectuals?

How does he attempt to subordinate the lives of women to the supremacy of the state? 179

Stalin calls for the Liquidation of the Kulaks as a Class What were the goals of the collectivization of farms in the Soviet Union?

How did the kulaks stand in the way of collectivization?

How does Stalin dehumanize the kulaks by discussing them entirely as a class and as part of the capitalistic system?

“The Great Depression was caused by the invention of credit cards.” 180 APPARTS Essay Reading: Adolf Hitler Attempts a Coup, 1923

On November 8, 1923 Adolph Hitler led his Nazi followers in an abortive attempt to seize power in Munich in what became known as the "Beer Hall Putsch". Although the plan failed, and Hitler was imprisoned, the notoriety the Nazi leader gained laid the groundwork for the rise of the Nazi party. While in prison, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, the book that described his political philosophy and planned conquest of Europe.

At the time of Hitler's attempted coup, Germany's Weimar Republic - which had been established at the end of World War I - was in chaos. Gangs of opposing political groups fought each other in the streets - Communists, Socialists, Nazis, and others resorted to violence in order to promote their political agenda and silence their opponents. Assassinations of unpopular political leaders were a common occurrence. Germany's economy was a shambles. Uncontrollable inflation reduced the value of the money in a worker's wallet to next to nothing. Before the start of World War I, just over four German Reichmarks were equivalent to one U.S. dollar. At the beginning of 1923, the exchange rate had risen to 18,000 marks per dollar by July it had reached 350,000 marks and by September, a staggering one hundred million marks per dollar.

In the midst of this turmoil, Hitler saw an opportunity to grab political power in Munich, rally popular support behind him and topple the German national government through a march on Berlin. The Nazi leader was inspired by the success the previous year of Mussolini's March on Rome, which installed a Fascist government in Italy.

On the evening of November 8, 1923 leaders of the Bavarian government were holding a rally at a Munich beer hall before 3000 spectators. Suddenly, Hitler burst into the hall, fired a pistol in the air and announced that the building was surrounded by 600 of his storm troopers. The Nazi leader whisked the stunned Bavarian officials off the stage and into a back room where he vowed to hold them hostage until they expressed support for his revolution. The hostages soon acquiesced. Unfortunately, the spontaneous enthusiasm Hitler expected from the local population was not immediately forthcoming. By dawn the following day, the coup attempt was running out of steam, riddled with confusion and lack of direction.

However, Hitler had promised a march on Berlin and despite the dwindling chance of success, he led a column of approximately 2,000 armed followers through the streets of Munich. Entering a city square, the marching rebels were confronted by a police unit. Shots rang out and fourteen Nazis were killed in the ensuing bedlam. Hitler escaped only to be arrested two days later. Tried and convicted of treason, the Nazi leader was sentenced to five years of confinement under reasonably comfortable conditions, but actually served only eight months.

The experience taught Hitler that power was to be achieved not through armed conflict but through manipulation of the existing political system.

"The national revolution has started."

Egon Larsend was a young man living in Munich. We join his account as Adolph Hitler sits nervously nursing a beer at a bar just outside the entrance to the hall where the rally is taking place. He is awaiting word that his stormtroopers have been deployed around the building:

"A look-out man rushed to Hitler, reporting that the storm trooper lorries were just arriving. With a ham-actor's gesture, Hitler swept his beer glass aside, took out his Browning, and signaled the group of men around him to follow him into the hall.

These men were a motley crowd. Among them were Hitler's bodyguard, a primitive and brutal butcher's apprentice; his former sergeant in the army; Rudolf Hess, who was to become his second-in-command in the party; 'Putzi' Hanfstaengl, the son of Munich's most famous art publisher, who had studied at Harvard together with F.D. Roosevelt, and who would have felt more comfortable at home playing the piano than handling the pistol that had been pushed into his hand. 181 The planned dramatic effect of the group's march into the hall was somewhat marred by the difficulty of pushing through the perplexed crowd to the platform. Kahr [one of the Bavarian leaders] had stopped speaking, and saw with dismay that a heavy machine-gun was being wheeled into the entrance by uniformed stormtroopers. Some people panicked and tried to leave, but every exit was now guarded, no one was allowed out, and a few who tried were kicked and beaten back.

At last Hitler arrived below the platform, grabbed a chair, mounted it, and fired a pistol shot at the ceiling. There was a sudden silence in the hall. He jumped from the chair and leapt up the steps to the platform. A police major, hand in pocket, tried to bar the way. Hitler put his pistol at the officer's head and shouted, 'Take your hand out of your pocket!' The man obeyed.

Hitler was now in front of the triumvirate Kahr, Lossow, and Seisser [the three Bavarian leaders]. He turned to the audience and declared in a hoarse, excited voice: 'The national revolution has started. The building is guarded by six hundred heavily armed men. The barracks of the Reichswehr [army forces] and police have been occupied. Reichswehr and police are now on the march under the swastika banner!'"

"If I am not victorious by tomorrow, I shall be a dead man."

Hitler was bluffing. The Nazis did not have control of the local army nor the police. Hitler forced the three political leaders into a small room behind the stage where he attempted to extort their allegiance to his plot:

"The three listened in silence, anxiously watching the excited man with his pistol and the armed guards barring the way out. Hitler ended with the threat: 'Anyone who refuses to collaborate with me has no right to live. I have four bullets in my gun three for my collaborators if they abandon me and the last for myself.' He put the barrel to his temple: 'If I am not victorious by tomorrow, I shall be a dead man.'

Kahr was the first to answer. 'You can have me shot or shoot me yourself,' he said calmly, 'or just lock me up. A life more or less makes no difference.' Seisser: 'But Herr Hitler, you promised me a few days ago that you wouldn't stage a putsch!' Hitler: 'Yes, I promised. But I had to do it, for the good of the fatherland.' He called his bodyguard to get him another glass of beer.

Suddenly he seemed to get rattled as his prisoners did not declare their enthusiastic allegiance. He jumped up and ran out on to the platform. Here, during the quarter of an hour of his absence, the scene had changed. Hermann Goering, at that time commander of the SA, had arrived, and occupied the deserted speaker's rostrum. He was in full gala uniform, with medals pinned to his chest - awarded to him during the war as a pilot, squadron leader, and eventually commander of Richthofen's famous 'air circus'. He had joined Hitler's party only a year earlier.

Goering appeared just in time to tame the three thousand people in the hall who were getting restless, despite the threatening machine-guns and pistols around them. What, they wanted to know, was happening in that back room? 'Don't worry,' Goering told them. 'No harm will come to Herr von Kahr, to Lossow and Seisser. They are holding preliminary Discussion s for the formation of a national government which all of you want.'

'You don't need machine-guns and hundreds of armed men for that,' cried someone, and there was a roar of applause.

'Shut up!' Goering snarled arrogantly. 'You've got your beer, haven't you?'

Now Hitler came dashing back. The excitement in the hall, far from abating, heightened. He seemed to have lost. Again he drew his pistol and fired a shot at the ceiling. 'If you don't keep quiet,' he shouted, 'I'll have another machine-gun put in the gallery!' At last there was silence, and he started anew, calmly and without his usual melodramatic gimmicks. What was happening, he said, was in no way directed against Kahr, who would remain in control of Bavaria. But a new Reichs government had to be formed, with Ludendorff, Lossow, Seisser and himself. 'There are these three men in the back room, wrestling with their conscience,' he said, putting on a touch of emotion. 'Can' I tell them that all of you will be behind them?' 182 'Ja, ja,' came the thunderous answer. He had succeeded in swinging the mood of the crowd on his side in a matter of minutes - it was a demagogue's masterstroke. 'In a free Germany,' he went on, now with passion, 'there will be a place for an independent Bavaria!' And he ended on his favourite heroic note; here was the man of destiny pleading for the hearts and souls of the people: 'This I can tell you, either the German revolution begins tonight, or we shall all be dead by tomorrow morning.'"

At this point Generall Ludendorff, commander of the German forces on the Western Front at the end of World War I and a German national hero, arrived at the beer hall. Ludendorff had lent his support to Hitler's coup attempt and had been brought to the hall to persuade the three Bavarian leaders to give in to Hitler's demands. The effort was successful as the Bavarian politicians voiced their support and were released. Once free, however, they recanted and the local army garrisons were ordered to halt the coup attempt.

References: Egon Larsen's account appears in: Larsen, Egon, Weimar Eyewitness (1976); Bullock, Alan, Hitler, a Study in Tyranny (1960); Gordon, Harold, Hitler and the Beer Hall Putsch (1972).

How To Cite This Article: "Adolf Hitler Attempts a Coup, 1923," EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2005). 183 APPARTS Essay Reading: 1925- NAZI program Program of the National Socialist German Workers' Party

The program of the German Workers' Party is an epochal program.

The leaders reject the idea of setting up new goals after those included in the program have been achieved merely in order to make possible the further existence of the Party by artificially inducing discontent among the masses.

1. We demand the union of all Germans in a Great Germany on the basis of the principle of self-determination of all peoples.

2. We demand that the German people have rights equal to those of other nations; and that the Peace Treaties of Versailles and St. Germain shall be abrogated.

3. We demand land and territory (colonies) for the maintenance of our people and the settlement of our surplus population.

4. Only those who are our fellow countrymen can become citizens. Only those who have German blood, regardless of creed, can be our countrymen Hence no Jew can be a countryman.

5. Those who are not citizens must live in Germany as foreigners and must be subject to the law of aliens.

6. The right to choose the government and determine the laws of the State shall belong only to citizens. We therefore demand that no public office, of whatever nature, whether in the central government, the province. or the municipality, shall be held by anyone who is not a citizen.

We wage war against the corrupt parliamentary administration whereby men are appointed to posts by favor of the party without regard to character and fitness.

7. We demand that the State shall above all undertake to ensure that every citizen shall have the possibility of living decently and earning a livelihood. If it should not be possible to feed the whole population, then aliens (non-citizens) must be expelled from the Reich.

8. Any further immigration of non-Germans must be prevented. We demand that all non-Germans who have entered Germany since August 2, 1914, shall be compelled to leave the Reich immediately.

9. All citizens must possess equal rights and duties.

10. The first duty of every citizen must be to work mentally or physically. No individual shall do any work that offends against the interest of the community to the benefit of all.

Therefore we demand:

11. That all unearned income, and all income that does not arise from work, be abolished.

Breaking the Bondage of Interest

12. Since every war imposes on the people fearful sacrifices in blood and treasure, all personal profit arising from the war must be regarded as treason to the people We therefore demand the total confiscation of all war profits.

13. We demand the nationalization of all trusts.

14. We demand profit-sharing in large industries. 184 15. We demand a generous increase in old-age pensions.

16. We demand the creation and maintenance of a sound middle-class, the immediate communalization of large stores which will be rented cheaply to small tradespeople, and the strongest consideration must be given to ensure that small traders shall deliver the supplies needed by the State, the provinces and municipalities.

17. We demand an agrarian reform in accordance with our national requirements, and the enactment of a law to expropriate the owners without compensation of any land needed for the common purpose. The abolition of ground rents, and the prohibition of all speculation in land.

18. We demand that ruthless war be waged against those who work to the injury of the common welfare. Traitors, usurers, profiteers, etc., are to be punished with death, regardless of creed or race.

19. We demand that Roman law, which serves a materialist ordering of the world, be replaced by German common law.

20. In order to make it possible for every capable and industrious German to obtain higher education, and thus the opportunity to reach into positions of leadership, the State must assume the responsibility of organizing thoroughly the entire cultural system of the people The curricula of all educational establishments shall be adapted to practical life. The conception of the State Idea (science of citizenship) must be taught in the schools from the very beginning. We demand that specially talented children of poor parents, whatever their station or occupation, be educated at the expense of the State.

21. The State has the duty to help raise the standard of national health by providing maternity welfare centers, by prohibiting juvenile labor, by increasing physical fitness through the introduction of compulsory games and gymnastics, and by the greatest possible encouragement of associations concerned with the physical education of the young.

22. We demand the abolition of the regular army and the creation of a national (folk) army.

23. We demand that there be a legal campaign against those who propagate deliberate political lies and disseminate them through the press. In order to make possible the creation of a German press, we demand:

(a) All editors and their assistants on newspapers published in the German language shall be German citizens.

(b) Non-German newspapers shall only be published with the express permission of the State. They must not be published in the German language.

(c) All financial interests in or in any way affecting German newspapers shall be forbidden to non-Germans by law, and we demand that the punishment for transgressing this law be the immediate suppression of the newspaper and the expulsion of the nonGermans from the Reich.

Newspapers transgressing against the common welfare shall be suppressed. We demand legal action against those tendencies in art and literature that have a disruptive influence upon the life of our folk, and that any organizations that offend against the foregoing demands shall be dissolved.

24. We demand freedom for all religious faiths in the state, insofar as they do not endanger its existence or offend the moral and ethical sense of the Germanic race.

The party as such represents the point of view of a positive Christianity without binding itself to any one particular confession. It fights against the Jewish materialist spirit within and without, and is convinced that a lasting recovery of our folk can only come about from within on the principle:

COMMON GOOD BEFORE INDIVIDUAL GOOD 185 25. In order to carry out this program we demand: the creation of a strong central authority in the State, the unconditional authority by the political central parliament of the whole State and all its organizations.

The formation of professional committees and of committees representing the several estates of the realm, to ensure that the laws promulgated by the central authority shall be carried out by the federal states.

The leaders of the party undertake to promote the execution of the foregoing points at all costs, if necessary at the sacrifice of their own lives.

Unit XII- WWII Chapters 28

"Ladies and gentlemen, boys and girls, contrary to what you've just seen, war is neither glamorous nor fun. There are no winners, only losers. There are no good wars, with the following exceptions: The American Revolution, World War II, and the Star Wars Trilogy. If you'd like to learn more about war, there are lots of books in your local library, many of them with cool, gory pictures.”- Bart Simpson

 The long-term and immediate causes of World War II.  The course of battles and economic management during the war.  Nazi racism and the Holocaust.  The impact of the war on the people of Europe.  Wartime diplomatic relations and plans for the postwar world. 187 Potential FRQ Questions Compare and Contrast the two World Wars, how did the reasons for the two wars vary and how were they the same?

How did the results of the Versailles treaty lead to World War II?

What historical connections did the Nazis use in their anti-Semitism?

Major Unit Assignments POV – Kristallnacht Racism and the Holocaust Discussion Domestic Fronts Chart TIAA Assignment with Art Analysis – Expressionism Chapter 28 Worksheet 188 Chapter 28 Worksheet- World War II

Terms to Identify Anschluss Lytton Report Atlantic Charter Maginot Line Axis Munich Conference Badoglio, Pietro Nagasaki Battle of Britain Nazi-Soviet Pact Battle of Stalingrad Operation Barbarossa Battle of the Bulge Phony War Big Three Rommel, Erwin blitzkrieg Spanish Civil War Bombing of Pearl Harbor Sudetenland D-day Tehran Conference Eisenhower, Dwight D Third Reich Eisenstein, Serge Third World Free French Tojo, Hideki Goebbels, Josef untermenschen Hirohito Vichy France Hiroshima Yalta Conference island hopping ZEGOTA Luftwaffe

Chapter Questions

How was Hitler able to defeat France so easily in 1940?

Why was the air war against Britain a failure?

Why did Hitler invade Russia?

What impact did WWII have on the civilian population of Europe?

What was Hitler’s “final solution” to the Jewish problem?

Textbook DQ’s

Hitler Describes His Goals In Foreign Policy One what basic principle is Hitler’s policy founded?

How does he justify his plans for expansion?

Why is he hostile to France and Russia?

Why does Hitler claim every man has a right to own farmland?

Was that a practical goal for Germany in the 1930’s?

Could Hitler have achieved his goals without a major war?

Churchill’s Response to Munich What was decided at Munich?

Why were the representatives of Czechoslovakia not at the meeting? 189

Why did Chamberlain think the meeting was successful?

Munich was the high point of the policy call appeasement How would its advocates defend this policy?

Churchill was a leading opponent of appeasement. What are his objections to it?

Rosie the Riveter and American Women in the War Effort (Secondary) How did the war change women’s place in American society?

What attitudes did it need to overcome?

Mass Murder at Belsen What were the reasons for Hitler’s policy of exterminating millions of men, women and children?

Why did many Germans take part in the process?

Why did so conscientious a man as Colonel Gerstein not resist?

We have women in the military, but they don't put us in the front lines. They don't know if we can fight or if we can kill. I think we can. All the general has to do is walk over to the women and say, "You see the enemy over there? They say you look fat in those uniforms." - -- Elayne Boosler 190 APPARTS Essay Reading Treaty of Nonaggression Between Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

The Government of the German Reich and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics desirous of strengthening the cause of peace between Germany and the U.S.S.R and proceeding from the fundamental provisions of the Neutrality Agreement concluded in April 1926 between Germany and the U.S.S.R., have reached the following agreement:

ARTICLE I Both High Contracting Parties obligate, themselves to desist from any act of violence, any aggressive action, and any attack on each other, either individually or jointly with other powers.

ARTICLE II Should one of the High Contracting Parties become the object of belligerent action by a third power, the other High Contracting Party shall in no manner lend its support to this third power.

ARTICLE III The Governments of the two High Contracting Parties shall in the future maintain continual contact with one another for the purpose of consultation in order to exchange information on problems affecting their common interests.

ARTICLE IV Neither of the two High Contracting Parties shall participate in any grouping of powers whatsoever that is directly or indirectly aimed at the other party.

ARTICLE V Should disputes or conflicts arise between the High Contracting Parties over problems of one kind or another, both parties shall settle these disputes or conflicts exclusively through friendly exchange of opinion or, if necessary, through the establishment of arbitration commissions.

ARTICLE VI The present treaty is concluded for a period of ten years, with the provision that, in so far as one of the High Contracting Parties does not denounce it one year prior to the expiration of this period, the validity of this treaty shall automatically be extended for another five years.

ARTICLE VI The present treaty shall be ratified within the shortest possible time. The ratifications shall be exchanged in Berlin. The agreement shall enter into force as soon as it is signed.

Done in duplicate, in the German and Russian languages.

MOSCOW, August 23, 1939.

For the Government of the German Reich:

V. RIBBENTROP

With full power of the Government of the U.S.S.R.:

V. MOLOTOV 191 APPARTS Essay Reading THE ATLANTIC CHARTER - AUGUST 14.1941

The President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister, Mr. Churchill, representing His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom, being met together, deem it right to make known certain common principles in the national policies of their respective countries on which they base their hopes for a better future for the world. First, their countries seek no aggrandizement, territorial or other; Second, they desire to see no territorial changes that do not accord with the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned; Third, they respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them; Fourth, they will endeavor, with due respect for their existing obligations, to further the enjoyment by all States, great or small, victor or vanquished, of access, on equal terms, to the trade and to the raw materials of the world which are needed for their economic prosperity; Fifth, they desire to bring about the fullest collaboration between all nations in the economic field with the object of securing, for all, improved labor standards, economic advancement and social security; Sixth, after the final destruction of the Nazi tyranny, they hope to see established a peace which will afford to all nations the means of dwelling in safety within their own boundaries, and which will afford assurance that all the men in all lands may live out their lives in freedom from fear and want; Seventh, such a peace should enable all men to traverse the high seas and oceans without hindrance; Eighth, they believe that all of the nations of the world, for realistic as well as spiritual reasons must come to the abandonment of the use of force. Since no future peace can be maintained if land, sea or air armaments continue to be employed by nations which threaten, or may threaten, aggression outside of their frontiers, they believe, pending the establishment of a wider and permanent system of general security, that the disarmament of such nations is essential. They will likewise aid and encourage all other practicable measure which will lighten for peace-loving peoples the crushing burden of armaments.

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Winston S. Churchill 192

Unit XIII: The Cold War Era and the Emergence of the New Europe Chapter 29 and 30

Do you think when two representatives holding diametrically opposing views get together and shake hands, the contradictions between our systems will simply melt away? What kind of a daydream is that? - Nikita Khrushchev

 The origins of the Cold War and the division of Europe into rival eastern and western blocs.  The process of decolonization, including the Korean and Vietnam conflicts.  Political and economic developments in western Europe, particularly the European Union.  The revolutions of 1989 and the collapse of the Soviet Union.  The changing relations in global politics between the United States and radical political Islamism.

 Population trends and migrations throughout Europe, and the continuing problem of ethnic tensions.  The expansion and contraction of the European welfare state.  The changing roles and aspirations of women.  The rapid growth of western Europe's consumer economy.  Postwar intellectual movements.  The ongoing role of religion in Western political and intellectual life.  The emergence of computers as everyday tools for some individuals and societies. 193 Potential FRQ Questions

Compare and contrast the political, religious and social motivations of Islamic-fascist groups like the Taliban to the nationalistic groups that existed in Europe prior to World War I?

What were the political, economic and social impact of the collapse of the Soviet Union?

Compare the actions of Ho Chi Minh and Mohandas Gandhi in their attempts to gain independence for their nations, which approach was more successful?

Major Unit Assignments Post WWII FRQ The collapse of European communism Discussion The rise of radical political Islam Virtual Discussion TIAA Assignment with Art Analysis – Dadaism and Surrealism 194

Chapter 29 Worksheet- The Cold War Era

Terms to Identify Al Qaeda Islamic fundamentalism August 1991 coup jihad Balfour Declaration Khomeini, Ruhollah Ben-Gurion, David Korean War Berlin Blockade madrasas Brezhnev Doctrine Marshall Plan Brezhnev, Leonid Masaryk, Thomas COMECON Minh, Ho Chi Cominform Muslim League Commonwealth of Independent States Nagy, Imre containment NATO Cuban Missile Crisis perestroika De Gaulle, Charles Prague Spring decolonization SDI Diem Ngo Dinh SEATO Dubcek, Alexander Solidarity FLN Taliban glasnost Tito, Josip Gorbachev, Mikhail Velvet Revolution Gulf of Tonkin Vietnamization Havel, Vaclav Wahhabism Helsinki Accords Walsea, Lech Hungarian Uprising Wojtyla, Karol Indian National Congress Yeltsin, Boris Iron Curtain speech Yishuv

Chapter Questions

How did the US and the USSR come to dominate Europe after 1945?

What caused the superpower rivalry between the US and the USSR after WWII?

Discuss the nature and results of Khrushchev's efforts at reform. What led to his downfall?

Discuss the restlessness in the Soviet satellites in the 1950s and 1960s. How did the Soviets react in (a) Poland, (b) Hungary, (c) Czechoslovakia?

Textbook DQ’s

The Truman Doctrine Declared How does Truman relate the goals of the Second World War to the emerging Cold War with the Soviet Union?

What qualities does Truman associate with free governments, and how were these qualities absent in the Soviet Union and its satellites in Eastern Europe?

How does this speech establish guidelines that the United States might apply in parts of the world beyond Greece? 195 The Church and the Communist Party Clash Over Education in Hungary How does Mussolini relate the position of church supported schools to the nature and rights of parenthood?

How does he compare the actions of the Communist Party to those of Hitler?

How does the Minister of Public Worship set party members against the church?

How does he attempt to place loyalty to the party above private beliefs?

What does the Communist Party fear from religious education and participation in religious activities by its members or their children?

Khrushchev Denounces the Crimes of Stalin: The Secret Speech What specific actions by Stalin did Khrushchev denounce?

Why does Khrushchev pay so much attention to Stalin’s creation of the concept of an “enemy of the people”?

Why does Khrushchev distinguish between the actions of Stalin and those of Lenin?

Gandhi Explains His Doctrine of Nonviolence Why does Gandhi see nonviolence as evidence of strength?

How does he refrain from extending nonviolence to external relations?

How was Gandhi’s doctrine transferable to other political movements, such as the American civil rights struggle?

Rock Music and Political Protest (Secondary) How did rock music evolve into an antiestablishment form of entertainment?

Why was rock considered subversive in the Eastern bloc nations?

Gorbachev Proposes The Soviet Communist Party Abandon Its Monopoly of Power Why did Gorbachev argue that the Soviet Communist Party must reform itself?

To what extent did his speech call for the abandonment of traditional Communist Party goals?

How did he think the Soviet Communist Party could function in a pluralistic political system? 196

Chapter 30 Worksheet – The West at the Dawn of the 21st Century Terms to Identify Americanization ENIAC European Union Euro Green movement European Economic Community Kierkegaard, Soren

Chapter Questions

How did Western Europe move toward political unity? What were the chief steps in this process?

Textbook DQ’s

Margaret Thatcher Asserts the Need for Individual Responsibility How and why does Mrs. Thatcher contend that there is no such thing as society?

Does she criticize all government aid to citizens ?

How does she emphasize the reciprocal character of social relationships?

How does she argue in favor of personal and private charity to aid persons in need?

Simone De Beauvoir Urges Economic Freedom For Women Why does Beauvoir argue that economic freedom for women must accompany their achievement of civil rights?

Why does the example of the small number of professional women illustrate issues foe European women in general?

How does she indicate that even professional women must overcome a culture in which the experience of women is fundamentally different from that of men?

Do de Beauvoir’s comments seem relevant for women at the opening of the twenty-first century?

What similarities do you see to the views of Pricilla Wakefield (Chapter 15) and Mary Wollstonecraft (Chapter 17)

Sartre Discusses His Existentialism How might the experience of fascism in Europe and the fall of France to the Nazis have led Sartre to emphasize the need of human beings to choose?

Why does Sartre believe existentialism must be related to atheism?

Why did Sartre regard existentialism as optimistic? 197 Toys From Europe Conquer The United States (Secondary) How has LEGO been an example of the European penetration of popular culture around the world?

Why has the influence of LEGO on children’s toys been less controversial than the appearance of American fast- food chains in Europe?

Pope John Paul II Discusses International Social Justice How does the pope relate the fate of the poorest nations to the international system of trade and finance?

What evidence is there that the pope did not favor radical social actions by Roman Catholic clergy?

How does this encyclical illustrate the pope’s concern for non-European parts of the world?

Energy and the Modern World (Secondary) Trace the transformation of energy used in the West from wind and water to petroleum. How did coal transform both the industry and the military power of the West?

How did inventions, such as the internal combustion engine, change the demands on sources of energy?

Why did the rise of electrical power increase the need for petroleum?

What opportunities and dangers has nuclear energy posed? 198

APPARTS Essay Reading: Letter from Feigin Dear Sergo [Ordzhonikidze],

I'm writing you from Novosibirsk. I have driven around several collective farms [kolkhozes] and consider it necessary to inform you about a few items. I was in various kolkhozes--not productive and relatively unproductive ones, but everywhere there was only one sight--that of a huge shortage of seed, famine, and extreme emaciation of livestock.

In the kolkhozes which I observed I attempted to learn how much the livestock had diminished in comparison with the years 1927-28. It turns out that kolkhoz Ziuzia has 507 milch cows at present while there were 2000 in '28; kolkhoz Ust'-Tandovskii collectively and individually has 203 head, earlier they had more than 600; kolkhoz Kruglo-Ozernyi at present has 418 head of beef cattle and 50 held by kolkhozniks, in 1928 there were 1800 head; kolkhoz Goldoba collectively and individually has 275 head, in 1929 there were 1000 plus head, this kolkhoz now has 350 sheep, in 1929 there were 1500. Approximately the same correlations were found also in the kolkhozes Ol'gino and Novo-Spasski.

The region which I visited (Barabinskii) is known for its butter export, but even in the other regions of Western Siberia the decline of livestock farming during this period is not much smaller.

These are facts that I myself checked, and on this basis I think that the data in the general census recently carried out by Gosplan significantly embellish the real picture.

The situation of the kolkhoz livestock farms is a bad one, primarily because of lack of feed. Milk production has reached extremely low levels of 1, 2 or 3 liters per day instead of the 5-7 liters normal for this region in a high-yield year [crossed out: "as noted by kolkhozniks and individual farmers"]. The poor condition of the livestock cannot be blamed on poor care or poor labor organization since in most of the kolkhozes I visited, the situation in terms of care and labor organization, relatively speaking, is not bad (although it could be much better), but in any case it is im- measurably better than in the butter-producing state farms [sovkhozes] of the region, which I also visited.

And so, undoubtedly, if the collectivized livestock is sufficiently fed every year, we can increase greatly the yield of commodity production, but this still does not remedy the situation, in that the sovkhozes and kolkhozes will not be able to meet the needs of the country for meat and butter in the next 2-3 years, and I think it is now necessary, when the socialistic sector of the villages has been strengthened, to speed up the growth of livestock farming in the private households of the kolkhozniks and individual farmers. The resolution of the Central Committee forbidding collectivization of the last cow is somewhat of a plus in this regard, but this is not the main issue. The main issue is the fact that almost all of the kolkhoznik's livestock is contracted and removed. This livestock consists of the last cows and last sheep. In addition, when this livestock is contracted, the kolkhoznik and individual farmer slaughter off the rest. As a result, in the villages where I have observed this situation, not more than 20-30% of the kolkhozniks have one cow each and a few sheep, but as a rule, the kolkhoznik and individual farmer not only do not raise livestock, but they try to get rid of or slaughter those they do own.

If this situation continues, then in my opinion, next year the shortage of meat, leather, and fats will be greater than this year.

The regional [Party] workers firmly believe that the sovkhozes and the commodity farms of the kolkhozes will be able to supply the nation already this year with the necessary production and express the idea that private ownership of livestock by the kolkhozniks should cease.

I think we should undertake all measures to increase private ownership of livestock by the kolkhoznik or else there is no way out of the present periodic shortage of products.

The second item concerns the sowing campaign. The situation is such that there is not enough seed in the kolkhozes. There is no way that we will be able to fulfill the plan for grain production, and the shortfall in the krai will probably be 15-20 percent. Besides this, horses are quite emaciated, a significant number of them have already died, and in addition, the people do not have provisions. And so the spring planting will occur in exceptionally tight circumstances, but I 199 figure that with the right organization of seed distribution within the krai and among the kolkhozes we can achieve such a level that the gross yield in 1932 will rise above not only the gross yield of last year, but even that of the high- yield year of 1930.

How can we accomplish this? Here is the situation: all kolkhozes have been given a plan for sowing. [crossed out: Some areas were given state subsidies in order to carry out this plan. As a result] some kolkhozes have enough or nearly enough seed (including the state subsidy), but other kolkhozes have barely any seed. Since the planting will be carried out according to plan, one group of kolkhozes will sow all fields, but another group with less seed will be faced with a large underfulfillment of the sowing plan. How does this relate to crop capacity? The point is that in these circumstances fields which may yield an extremely insignificant harvest will be sown in the first group of kolkhozes; that is, not only the fallow and autumn fields will be sown, but if the plan is followed blindly even the salt-marshes, on which absolutely nothing grows, will be sown (as was done last year); whereas fallow and autumn fields in the second group of kolkhozes which that readied last year and have proven to be productive will remain unsown.

In order to prevent this situation it is necessary to change the existing plan, but no one wants to do this, even though they understand perfectly well that it is imperative to review the plan. The situation I discovered in the kolkhozes that I observed last year was that at least 30% of all the sown fields were sown by the kolkhozes at too late a date, merely to carry out the sowing plan (this is one of the reasons for the crop failure); on the other hand, fields known to produce a less than decent harvest were sown, also merely to carry out the plan. This year the same episode will be repeated if instructions on behalf of the Central Committee are not be issued accordingly--in a time of acute seed deficiency a significant amount of seed will be wasted on worthless land, the sowing will occur at a time when the land is already drying out, that is, when it is too late to sow, but the fallow and autumn fields of the second group of kolkhozes will remain underutilized. These conditions guarantee a meager harvest, and in some places complete crop failure, only because a plan was given based on a forecast of spring planting, consisting of as many favorable qualifying indicators as possible, not considering that the fall harvest will result in extremely unfavorable qualitative results.

And so I come to my second conclusion--that the Central Committee give the order to all regional organizations (as soon as possible, there is little time left before the spring planting) depending on the conditions of each raion and kolkhoz, that the plan be changed in such a way as to produce the best qualitative results. For this it is imperative to conduct a review from the standpoint of 1) sowing all prepared fields (fallow and autumn fields) without exception; 2) redistribution of seed among the kolkhozes in the time remaining before the planting date so that the planting be completed within 15 days, and under no circumstances more than 17 days; 3) and finally, that the improvement of fallow land be stipulated for 1933.

In fulfilling these conditions, given average or especially favorable climatic conditions, the gross yield, and consequently, even the commodity output of bread may yield not less but even more than in 1930, even if the sown area declines. But in addition, I believe that in reality the sown area will not decline because last year and the year before all agricultural agencies and Party organizations pushed madly for quantitative indicators, the planting season was extremely lengthy, they sowed worthless land and, as a rule, only lands that were suitable and were sown at the correct time were productive. If in following this course (to conceal the actual nature of things with quantitative indicators) we immediately start and propose to review the plan from the standpoint of achieving the best qualitative indicators [crossed out: results] (taking into account the seed shortage), then we can reach the necessary results.

Third issue--the peasant's attitude. Their attitude is utterly bad in light of the famine and the fact that they are losing their last cows through contracting--as a result the kolkhoznik has neither bread nor milk. I saw all this with my own eyes and am not exaggerating. People are starving, living on food substitutes, they grow weaker, and naturally, under such circumstances, their mood is hostile. I have not seen such an attitude as is now found in the villages, due to famine and the loss of the last cows and sheep through contrac-ting, in a long time. I will inform you of the facts that substantiate this when we meet. Upon arriving in Moscow, I will try to see Stalin and inform him, or if he cannot spare the time, I will write him a letter.

It seems that you told me in 1926-27 (in Morozovka), when the opposition was making quite furious attacks on the Central Committee that Stalin sees farther than the rest of you. This is undoubtedly so and was substantiated during the period from 1923 on and especially since the establishment of the five-year plan. But in order for him to see beyond everyone, one must, with absolute objectivity, relate to him those facts which are based on reality. I will attempt to do 200 this upon my arrival in Moscow, and I will tell him what I have seen with my own eyes. Maybe I am drawing incorrect conclusions, but I acquainted myself thoroughly with the factual situation and it seems to me that it is utterly imperative that Stalin take up this matter. This sounds like those arguments the German Social Democrats made in Marx's lifetime, saying, "I know the factual situation, but let "papa" Marx draw the conclusion." I have nothing new to say besides what I have already related, and I will just repeat what the German Social Democrats used to say: "Let 'papa' Stalin draw the conclusions, and I will describe the factual situation as it is."

Take care. Feigin

19/9 April 32

At the same time I am sending you the doctor's statement on the famine in peasant families and in turn I corroborate that I observed a similar situation. 201 APPARTS Essay Reading: Letter From Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy, October 24, 1962

Source: U.S. Department of State, FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1961-1963, Volume XI, Cuban Missile Crisis and Aftermath

Moscow, October 24, 1962.

//Source: Kennedy Library, President's Office Files, Cuba. A copy of this letter, transmitted in telegram 1070 from Moscow, October 24, arrived in the Department of State at 9:24 p.m. (Department of State, Presidential Correspondence: Lot 66 D 304)

Dear Mr. President: I have received your letter of October 23,/1/ have studied it, and am answering you.

/1/See Document 52.

Just imagine, Mr. President, that we had presented you with the conditions of an ultimatum which you have presented us by your action. How would you have reacted to this? I think that you would have been indignant at such a step on our part. And this would have been understandable to us.

In presenting us with these conditions, you, Mr. President, have flung a challenge at us. Who asked you to do this? By what right did you do this? Our ties with the Republic of Cuba, like our relations with other states, regardless of what kind of states they may be, concern only the two countries between which these relations exist. And if we now speak of the quarantine to which your letter refers, a quarantine may be established, according to accepted international practice, only by agreement of states between themselves, and not by some third party. Quarantines exist, for example, on agricultural goods and products. But in this case the question is in no way one of quarantine, but rather of far more serious things, and you yourself understand this.

You, Mr. President, are not declaring a quarantine, but rather are setting forth an ultimatum and threatening that if we do not give in to your demands you will use force. Consider what you are saying! And you want to persuade me to agree to this! What would it mean to agree to these demands? It would mean guiding oneself in one's relations with other countries not by reason, but by submitting to arbitrariness. You are no longer appealing to reason, but wish to intimidate us.

No, Mr. President, I cannot agree to this, and I think that in your own heart you recognize that I am correct. I am convinced that in my place you would act the same way.

Reference to the decision of the Organization of American States cannot in any way substantiate the demands now advanced by the United States. This Organization has absolutely no authority or basis for adopting decisions such as the one you speak of in your letter. Therefore, we do not recognize these decisions. International law exists and universally recognized norms of conduct exist. We firmly adhere to the principles of international law and observe strictly the norms which regulate navigation on the high seas, in international waters. We observe these norms and enjoy the rights recognized by all states.

You wish to compel us to renounce the rights that every sovereign state enjoys, you are trying to legislate in questions of international law, and you are violating the universally accepted norms of that law. And you are doing all this not only out of hatred for the Cuban people and its government, but also because of considerations of the election campaign in the United States. What morality, what law can justify such an approach by the American Government to international affairs? No such morality or law can be found, because the actions of the United States with regard to Cuba constitute outright banditry or, if you like, the folly of degenerate imperialism. Unfortunately, such folly can bring grave suffering to the peoples of all countries, and to no lesser degree to the American people themselves, since the United States has completely lost its former isolation with the advent of modern types of armament. 202 Therefore, Mr. President, if you coolly weigh the situation which has developed, not giving way to passions, you will understand that the Soviet Union cannot fail to reject the arbitrary demands of the United States. When you confront us with such conditions, try to put yourself in our place and consider how the United States would react to these conditions. I do not doubt that if someone attempted to dictate similar conditions to you--the United States--you would reject such an attempt. And we also say--no.

The Soviet Government considers that the violation of the freedom to use international waters and international air space is an act of aggression which pushes mankind toward the abyss of a world nuclear-missile war. Therefore, the Soviet Government cannot instruct the captains of Soviet vessels bound for Cuba to observe the orders of American naval forces blockading that Island. Our instructions to Soviet mariners are to observe strictly the universally accepted norms of navigation in international waters and not to retreat one step from them. And if the American side violates these rules, it must realize what responsibility will rest upon it in that case. Naturally we will not simply be bystanders with regard to piratical acts by American ships on the high seas. We will then be forced on our part to take the measures we consider necessary and adequate in order to protect our rights. We have everything necessary to do so.

Respectfully,

N. Khrushchev

Printed from a copy that indicates Khrushchev signed the original.

203 Unit XV AP Course Review

Technically, this isn’t a unit, but it’s been plugged in accordingly because we will be spending a large amount of time reviewing for the AP exam. 204

The Golden Years: Your 50 years To review for the AP Exam, you will work with a partner and present in a PowerPoint 50 years worth of history to the class in 30 minutes. Use the following rubric to guide your work. Requirements For the A Possible Earned You talk about at least 5-7 key figures (either make a At least every other slide has a graphic 20 separate slide for each or talk about them as you talk that helps add to your presentation. You about their influence on social, political, religious, must include images of these significant history, etc. figures Include 1-3 slides in each of the following categories: You address these issues in all of the 15 (use the questions as a guide to help you create your main regions of Europe, power point, you don’t have to answer each one) You may choose to go through the Social history whole chronology region by region, or What were the main social movements? How did go through the whole chronology families operate? How were women treated? mentioning regions as appropriate. It is Was there class distinction? Where were people living? up to you. Political history You address these issues in all of the 15 Who was in control? How did they get control? main regions of Europe. How did they maintain control? What was the prevailing political climate? Who were the key players? How did politics change over time? Were there any women in politics? Revolutions? Were they successful? Religious history You address these issues in all of the 15 How was religion shaping peoples lives (or was it)? main regions of Europe. What were the main religions in the different regions of Europe? How did the different religious groups interact with one another? How much power did the churches have over politics? Intellectual history You address these issues in all of the 15 What were the main ideas that dominated the era? main regions of Europe. Major books? Art movements? Important changes in philosophy? How did these ideas impact other things in society? Technological history You address these issues in all of the 15 What new inventions were changing society? main regions of Europe. Or, what technology were people still using that wasn’t serving them well? How did new inventions impact everyday life? Economic history You address these issues in all of the 15 What were the prevailing economic systems? main regions of Europe. How did they impact commerce and foreign relations between countries? How did politics impact economics and vice versa? Who came up with the key ideas about economics being used? How did the economic situation impact people’s lives? Include a bibliography of any sources used out side of 10 Kagan Email the project to Mr. Guemmer two school days No inaccurate information in your before your presentation so he can take a look at slideshow (-5 for each inaccuracy) your work. Total 120